SUBMITTED BY

NAME : MARYAM ZEB

CLASS NO : 175
REG NO 22PWCIV5840
SECTION : P
SEMESTER: 4TH

SUBMITTED TO : ENG NAYAB KHAN

SUBJECT : MECHANICS OF SOLIDS 2 LAB

DEPARTMENT : CIVIL ENGINEERING

 TABLE OF CONTENTS :

EXPERIMENT :

TO VERIFY PLASTIC BENDIND THEORY AND LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF BEAM.

EXPERIMENT :

TO DETERMINE STRESSES UNDER COMBINE BENDING AND TORSION IN THICK

AND THIN WALLED CYLINDER.
EXPERIMENT :
TO VERIFY PLASTIC BENDING THEORY AND LIMIT STATE
DESIGH IN BEAMS:

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the principles of plastic bending theory and the behavior of beams at their
limit states.

THEORY :

PLASTIC BENDING :
Occurs when the stress in the material exceeds the yield strength, leading to
permanent deformation. The material does not return to its original shape after unloading.

PLASTIC BENDING THEORY :

Plastic bending theory is crucial in understanding the
behavior of beams under large loads leading to plastic deformation. Unlike elastic bending, which is
reversible, plastic bending involves permanent deformation. The theory is essential for determining the
plastic moment capacity and for predicting the load-carrying capacity of beams beyond their elastic limits.

PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY :

Occurs when the stress in the material exceeds the yield strength, leading to permanent deformation. The
material flows plastic-ally and does not return to its original shape after unloading.
MP=6YZ

PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF BEAM :

For simply supported beams, plastic analysis involves
finding the maximum load that causes the plastic moment capacity at the midspan.For continuous
beams,plastic hinges form at points of maximum moment. The collapse mechanism is determined by the
formation of enough plastic hinges to convert the structure into a mechanism.

BENDING IN A BEAM
LIMIT STATE DESIGN :
Focuses on ensuring that structures can support all design loads with an adequate factor
of safety.
ULTIMATELIMIT STATE The condition beyond which the structure no longer fulfills its intended
function, leading to collapse or failure.
SERVESIBILITY LIMIT STATE : Ensures that the structure remains functional under regular service loads
without experiencing unacceptable deflections or vibrations.

APPARATUS :
 Beam
 Universal testing machine
 Dial gauge and strain gauge
 Measuring scale

PLASTIC BENDING APPARATUS

PROCEDURE :

1. Choose beam specimens made from a ductile material such as steel with known dimensions.
2. Use a loading frame or universal testing machine capable of applying controlled loads to the beam.
3. Place the beam on simple supports (simply supported beam) or a fixed support (cantilever beam)
4. Install strain gauges at critical locations to measure strains.
5. Use dial gauges to measure deflections at various points along the beam.
6. Zero all measuring devices before applying any load.
7. Apply the load incrementally, starting from a small load and gradually increasing.
8. Use a hydraulic jack or a similar device to apply the load.7
9. At each load increment, record the applied load, corresponding deflections, and strain readings.
10. Continue loading until the beam reaches the plastic moment capacity and plastic hinges form.
11. Carefully observe the beam for signs of yielding, plastic hinge formation, and any local buckling
12. Note the locations and number of plastic hinges formed.
13. Analyze the failure modes observed during the experiment.
14. Verify the locations and behavior of plastic hinges.
15. Compare all experimental results with theoretical predictions.

OBSERVATIONS:

MATERIAL :STEEL
YIELD STRENGTH :250MPA
CROSSECTION :RECTANGULAR
WIDTH (b): 100mm
HEIGHT (h): 200mm
LENGTH OF BEAM: 2000mm

CALCULATIONS :
Elastic section modulus :

Plastic section modulus :

Plastic moment capasity :

TABLE :

GRAPH :

PRECAUTIONS :
 Apply loads gradually to prevent sudden failures and allow for controlled observation of beam
behavior.
 Calibrate all measurement instruments (load cells, strain gauges, ,dial gauges) before starting
the experiment.
 Ensure strain gauges are correctly aligned and securely attached to the beam to avoid inaccurate strain
measurements.
 Align the beam accurately in the testing machine or loading frame to avoid eccentric loading and
ensure
 the load is applied as per the theoretical setup
CONCLUSION :
The data collection and calculation process with minor experimental errors
demonstrates the practical challenges and variations in real-world experiments. The minor errors are
accounted for, and their impact on the validation of plastic bending theory is analyzed. This approach
ensures a comprehensive understanding of both theoretical and experimental aspects of plastic bending
and limit states of beams.
EXPERIMENT:
TO EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINE THE STRESSES UNDER COMBINE
BENDINGAND TORSION IN THICK AND THIN WALLED CYLINDER

OBJECTIVE :
The objective of the experiment is to experimentally determine the stresses experienced by
both thick-walled and thin-walled cylinders when subjected to combined bending and torsion.

THEORY :
THIN WALLED CYLINDER :
For thin-walled cylinders, it is assumed that the wall thickness t is much smaller
than the radius r of the cylinder. This allows for simplifications in the stress calculations.

BENDING STRESS :
When a thin-walled cylinder is subjected to bending, the bending stress σb can be calculated using:
6b=M/I
where:
M is the bending moment,
y is the distance from the neutral axis (half the diameter for maximum stress),
I is the moment of inertia, given by I=πr3t.

TORSIONAL STRESS :
When subjected to torsion, the torsional shear stress τt in a thin-walled cylinder is:
Τ=Tr/J

where:
T is the applied torque,
r is the mean radius,
J is the polar moment of inertia, given by 2πr3t

THICK WALLED CYLINDER :

For thick-walled cylinders, the wall thickness cannot be neglected, and
more complex equations are required.

BENDING STRESS:
For thick-walled cylinders under bending, the bending stress distribution is:
6b=MC/I
where c is the distance from the neutral axis to the outer surface.

TORSIONAL STRESS:
The torsional shear stress in thick-walled cylinders is calculated using:
τt=Tr/J
Where J is calculated for a thick-walled cylinder: J=π/2(ro4−ri4 ) with ro and ri being the outer and inner
radii, respectively
COMBINE LOADING:
When a cylinder is subjected to both bending and torsion, the resulting state of
stress at any point is a
combination of normal stresses due to bending and shear stresses due to torsion.

PRINCIPAL STRESSES:
The combined state of stress can be analyzed using Mohr's Circle or by
calculating the principal stresses directly. The principal stresses σ1 and σ2 can be determined from the
combined bending and torsional stresses as follows:
61,σ2 = σb/2 ± (σb/2 + τt 2 ) 1/2
where:
σb is the normal stress due to bending,
τt is the shear stress due to torsion

STRESSES UNDER COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION

APPARATUS:
1. Cylinder specimens
2. Combine bending and torsion apparatus
3. Bending fixture
4. Torsion rig
5. Strain gauge and dial gauge
6. Load cells
7. Measuring tape
8. Digital image correaltion system(DIC)
 COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION APPARATUS

PROCEDURE:
1. Choose materials with known mechanical properties for both thick-walled and thin-walled cylinders.
2. Ensure that the dimensions (length, inner and outer diameters) are accurately measured and
documented.
3. Attach strain gauges at critical locations along the length and circumference of the cylinders.
4. For bending, place gauges at the top, bottom, and sides.
5. For torsion, place gauges at 45° angles to the axis to measure shear strain.
6. Connect the strain gauges to the data acquisition system.
7. Secure the cylinders in the testing apparatus. Use appropriate fixtures to hold the specimen in place
without introducing additional stresses.
8. Gradually apply a bending moment using the bending fixture.
9. Monitor and record the applied load using load cells.
10. Measure the resulting deflection using dial indicators or laser displacement sensors.
11. Apply both bending and torsional loads simultaneously or sequentially as per the experimental design.
12. Continuously record strain data from all strain gauges using the data acquisition system.
13. Observe the specimen for any signs of yielding or failure during the loading process.
14. Note the load and strain values at which any significant changes occur.
15. Use the recorded strain data to calculate the stresses using appropriate equation.
16. Compare the experimental stress values with theoretical predictions for both thick-walled and thin
walled cylinders.
CALCULATION AND OBSERVATION :

PRECAUTIONS:
⚫ Ensure all measuring instruments, such as strain gauges, load cells, and torque sensors, are calibrated
correctly before starting the experiment.
⚫ Strain gauges must be attached securely to the cylinder surface to ensure accurate strain readings.
⚫ Do not exceed the material's yield strength to avoid permanent deformation.
⚫ Apply loads gradually and monitor stress levels to prevent overloading.
CONCLUSION:
 The theoretical models used to predict stresses in thick and thin-walled cylinders under combined
bending
 and torsion show good agreement with experimental data. Minor discrepancies are expected due to
inherent
 experimental uncertainties and simplifications in the theoretical approach. Further refinement of the
models
 or more precise experimental techniques could reduce these differences, leading to even more
accurate
 predictions.