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10 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
10.1 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations
Suggested Time and Emphasis
1 class Essential material
Points to Stress
1. The definition of parametric equations and techniques of sketching parametric curves.
2. The conversion from parametric equations to functions y = f (x) or x = g (y), and vice versa.
3. The parametrization of a given curve in different ways.
4. The investigation of families of parametric curves.
Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION What is the difference between a function and a parametric curve?
ANSWER Many answers are possible. The graph of a function can be made into a parametric curve, but not
necessarily the other way around. A function has to pass the vertical line test and a parametric curve does
not.
• DRILL QUESTION Sketch the parametric curve x(t) = sin t y(t) = t 2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ π . Is the point (1, π4 ) on this
curve?
ANSWER y 1, π4 is not on the curve.
10
8
6
4
2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 x
579
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
Materials for Lecture
• Discuss the process of going from a parametric curve to y y
a relation between x and y. The figure at right is meant

to help students see the way that parametrized curves are x t
sketched out over time. First sketch (x (t) , y (t)),
starting at the initial point (the origin), and moving up
and to the right. (Try to keep your speed constant.) Stop x
when the cycle is about to repeat. Then, to the right of

the figure, graph the motion in the y-direction only.
Then, below the figure, graph the motion in the
x-direction. That graph is sideways because the x-axis is
horizontal.
This process can be viewed for trigonometric functions t
and cubic polynomials using TEC.
• Describe the difference between a function curve and a parametric curve, perhaps using Example 5.
Caution students to take appropriate care in sketching parametric curves, especially concerning questions
of range and direction.
• Show how reversing the functions x (t) and y (t) yields the inverse of a given relation. For example,
x (t) = t x (t) = sin t
is the sine function, so is the general arcsine function. Display an inverse
y (t) = sin t y (t) = t
for f (x) = x 3 + x + 2 graphically using parametric equations. Note that this would be difficult to do
algebraically.
√
• Give an example of a curve such as x (t) = cos (et), y (t) = sin 3 t . This curve essentially fills the
square −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 in that the curve gets arbitrarily close to any point in the square. It can
√
be simulated using TEC or a calculator with the approximations e ≈ 2.7183, 3 ≈ 1.7321. The range
0 ≤ t ≤ 200 should be sufficient to convey this property to the students. Next, describe the family of
√
functions x (t) = a cos (et), y (t) = b sin 3t . If the students are following well, perhaps consider the
√
family x (t) = cos (at), y (t) = sin 3t . The students might be tempted to conclude that every member
√
of this family has the property, but in some cases (such as a = 2 3) they do not.
• Foreshadow polar coordinates. Show how x (t) = r cos t, y (t) = r sin t is a circle of radius r. Draw
x (t) = f (t) cos t, y (t) = f (t) sin t for f (t) = t and f (t) = 1 − sin 2t.
Workshop/Discussion
• Revisit Examples 2 and 3 using different parametric representations and speeds, such as x (t) = sin et ,
y (t) = cos et , ln π ≤ t ≤ ln 3π .
580
SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
• Have the students get into groups, and have each group try to come up with the most interesting looking
parametric curve. After displaying their best ones, perhaps show them the following examples:
x2 y2
• Describe two different parametrizations for the ellipse + = 1.
9 4
• Have the students sketch the following curves using the parametric equations, and then eliminate the
parameters to find Cartesian equations. Visualization using TEC could be helpful.
(a) x (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, y (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
(b) x (t) = 12 t 3 , y (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
• Have the students try to guess the shape of x (t) = t, y (t) = sin t. Then have them consider the family
x (t) = at, y (t) = sin (bt). If they are following well, additional parameters can be added: x (t) = at + c,
y (t) = d sin (bt).
Group Work 1: Name that Parametrization

This exercise gives the students some practice playing with parametric curves. Before starting the activity,
make sure that the students know how to graph a simple set of parametric curves using their technology.
ANSWERS
1. (a) Every time sin t completes one cycle, cos 2t completes two cycles.
(b) y = 1 − x 2 − x 2 = 1 − 2x 2
3. They are the same if considered as curves in the 5. (a) Use the technique of Exercise 4.
plane. The second one “moves” twice as fast as (b) y
the first. f
4. (a) The curves are inverses of each other (or, they 2
are symmetric about the line y = x). f Ð!
(b) The curves are inverses of each other (or, they 2 x
are symmetric about the line y = x).
581
Group Work 2: How Many Ways Can You Trace That Curve?
This exercise gives students practice in finding different parametrizations for the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4, using
the forms x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t.
ANSWERS
1. Each of a1 and a3 must be ±2.
2. Once around counterclockwise, starting at (1, 0).
3. a2 = a4 = 2, a2 = a4 = 3
4. Once around clockwise, starting at (1, 0).
5. a2 = 3, a4 = −3; a2 = 5, a4 = −5
TEC Group Work 3: Lissajous Figures

This activity is an extension of Exercise 51. Students can use a calculator or TEC Module 10.1A to generate
the figures.
ANSWERS
1. y All the graphs look the same. The speed at which they are traced out
1
varies. If a1 and a3 are fixed, then the graph is determined by the ratio of
a2 to a4 .
0 1 x
a2 = 2, a4 = 3
2. y y y y
1 1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
a2 = 1, a4 = 1 a2 = 1, a4 = 2 a2 = 1, a4 = 3 a2 = 1, a4 = 4
As a4 increases, the figure doubles back on itself more in the vertical direction.
3. y y y y
1 1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
a2 = 1, a4 = 1 a2 = 2, a4 = 1 a2 = 3, a4 = 1 a2 = 4, a4 = 1
The behavior is different, but analogous. This time, the doubling back doesn’t always yield a new loop.
582
SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
4. It is a parabola. This is because x = cos 2t = cos2 t − sin2 t = 1 − 2 sin2 t = 1 − 2y 2 .
5. y 6. y
1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x
a2 = 3, a4 = 2 a2 = 7, a4 = 5
b = 2π . x goes through three cycles, and y b = 2π . x goes through seven cycles, and y
goes through two. This can be seen by goes through five. This can be seen by
tracing the graph with a finger, paying tracing the graph with a finger, paying
attention first to the cycles in the x-direction, attention first to the cycles in the x-direction,
then to the cycles in the y-direction. then to the cycles in the y-direction.
7. y y There are several reasons the graphs

1 1
look different. One reason is that
cos (2π − x) = cos x while
sin (π − x) = sin x, so the
0 1 x 0 1 x
functions have different symmetries
on the interval 0 < t < 2π .
a2 = 2, a4 = 3 a2 = 5, a4 = 7
TEC Group Work 4: Aperiodic Curves

This exercise introduces students to the idea of a curve that gets arbitrarily close to every point in a region.
Students can use a calculator or TEC Module 1.7A to generate the figures.
ANSWERS
1. y 2. y 3. y
1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
583
4. y y y
1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
√ √
x (t) = 2 cos 5t y (t) = 1.5 sin 7t
y y y
1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
√ √
x (t) = 2 cos 2t y (t) = 1.5 sin 18 t
If p and q are relatively prime, then the curve is aperiodic.
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 7, 13, 21, 25, 31
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 21, 25, 31
EXERCISE D A N G
3 × ×
7 × ×
9 × ×
11 × ×
13 × ×
15 ×
21 × ×
25 ×
31 ×
584
GROUP WORK 1, SECTION 10.1
Name that Parametrization
1. Consider the graph of the following set of parametric equations:
x (t) = sin t y (t) = cos 2t 0<t <∞
(a) Graph this curve with your calculator. Why does it look the way it does?
(b) Write this equation in the form y = f (x). (Hint: Use the formula cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ.)
2. Try to guess what the graph of the following set of parametric equations looks like, and then see if you are
right.
x (t) = sin 2t y (t) = cos 6t 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π
These curves are called Lissajous figures, and are used in electrical engineering to see if two signals are
“in sync”.
3. Consider these two sets of parametric equations:

x (t) = t y (t) = sin t 0<t <∞
x (t) = 2t y (t) = sin 2t 0<t <∞
What is the relationship between their associated curves?
585
Name that Parametrization
4. (a) Consider these two sets of parametric equations:

x (t) = t y (t) = sin t 0<t <∞
x (t) = sin t y (t) = t 0<t <∞
What is the difference between their associated curves?
(b) Given any set of equations of the form

x (t) = t y (t) = f (t) 0<t <∞
What does the graph of the set of equations
y (t) = t x (t) = f (t) 0<t <∞
look like?
5. (a) Use a calculator to check that f (x) = x 5 − 3x 3 + 5x + 2 is one-to-one.

(b) Graph its inverse function f −1 .
586
How Many Ways Can You Trace That Curve?
Consider the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4. We want to construct parametric curves x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t,
with a1 , a2 > 0, which will trace this circle in different ways.
1. What must be the values of a1 and a3 so that (x (t) , y (t)) lies on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4?
2. Describe the motion of the particle if you set a2 = a4 = 1 and let 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π . What is the starting point?
3. What choice of a2 and a4 will trace the circle twice in a counterclockwise direction starting at (1, 0)?
What choice will trace the circle three times in a counterclockwise direction?
4. Describe the motion if you set a2 = 1, a4 = −1 and let 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .
5. What choice of a2 and a4 will trace the circle three times in a clockwise direction starting at (1, 0)? What
choice will trace the circle five times in a clockwise direction?
587
Lissajous Figures
The curves with parametric equations x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t are called Lissajous Figures. In
this exercise, we fix a1 = a3 = 1 and try to determine the effects of varying a2 and a4 on the shape of the
figure.
1. Compare the graph of x (t) = cos 2t, y (t) = sin 3t to the graph of x (t) = cos t, y (t) = sin 1.5t. Is there
any difference in the shapes of the two figures? Is there any difference in how they are traced out? Now
look at the graph of x (t) = cos 4t, y (t) = sin 6t. Can you make a generalization about figures where the
ratio of a2 to a4 is some fixed value?
2. Fix a2 = 1 and look at the graphs with a4 = 1, 2, 3, and 4. What happens as a4 increases? Can you predict
how the figure will look if a2 = 1 and a4 = 5?
3. Now fix a4 = 1 and look at the graphs with a2 = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Do you see the same behavior as in
Problem 2?
4. The figure with a4 = 1 and a2 = 2 should have a familiar geometric shape. What is this shape? Can you
use a trigonometric identity for x = cos 2t to explain why the figure looks the way it does?
588
Lissajous Figures
5. Now set a2 = 3 and a4 = 2. Starting at t = 0, what is the upper value b of t so that the figure is traced out
exactly once between t = 0 and t = b? How many cycles does x (t) = cos 3t go through between t = 0
and t = b? How many cycles does y (t) = sin 2t go through? Can you see how these cycles are reflected
in the shape of the Lissajous figure?
6. Set a2 = 7 and a4 = 4 and do the same analysis as in Problem 5.
7. Repeat Problems 5 and 6 with the values of a2 and a4 reversed. Can you explain the difference in the
shapes of the curves in this case?
589
Aperiodic Curves
Consider the parametric curve
√
x (t) = 2 cos 2 t ≈ 2 cos (1.4142 t)
√
y (t) = 1.5 sin 3 t ≈ 1.5 sin (1.7321 t)
Use technology to help you to answer the following questions.

1. Graph this parametric curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 13. What set of points in the plane will be “hit” by this curve?
2. Next graph this curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 100. What is your guess now?
3. Finally, graph this curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 200. What is your guess this time? How is your guess related to the
rectangle −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, −1.5 ≤ y ≤ 1.5?
4. If we extend this curve’s domain far enough, it can be made to come as close as we like to any desired
√ √ √ √ √
point in the rectangle. Try this activity again, replacing 2 with 5 and 3 with 7. Now try it with 2
√ √ √
and 18. Given p and q, how can you tell whether or not the curve has this property?
590
LABORATORY PROJECT Running Circles Around Circles
There is an interesting history behind epicycloids that can be used in introducing this project. After Coperni-
cus showed that the sun didn’t move around the Earth, astronomers believed that the planets moved in circular
paths around the Sun. Gradually, mathematical analysis showed that this wasn’t quite the path of the plan-
ets. So they posited that the “circular paths” were actually epicycles: small circles rolling around larger ones.
(See Problems 5–6 in the project.) More accurate numerical data showed that this theory was also wrong. It
was then believed that the paths were double-epicycles: circles rolling around circles rolling around circles.
Finally, Kepler (using Brahe’s data) showed that the paths were elliptical, and then Newton, using his newly
developed calculus, derived laws to discover reasons why Kepler’s discovery was true.
Problems 1–3 are relatively straightforward, with 4–6 being more of a challenge for the students. Any of the
first three questions could easily be included in a regular assignment. I recommend assigning at least the first
four problems if this is to be an extended project, with the remaining problems being used as extra credit if
they are not mandatory. It would be helpful to have several large drawings of the various curves on paper
ready for students who come to office hours with questions. (TEC can be helpful in answering Problems 2–4
and 6.)
The final results will have some excellent figures, and particularly nice examples should be distributed to the
class.
591
10.2 Calculus with Parametric Curves

1–2 classes Essential material (parametric equations, tangents) and recommended material
Points to Stress
1. Computation of the line tangent to a parametrically defined curve (using the Chain Rule).
2. Integration used as a tool to determine the area enclosed within a parametric curve, or several such curves.
3. Computation of the arc length of a parametrically defined curve.
Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION Why does the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g (t) have a horizontal tangent line when
dy/dt = 0 and dx/dt = 0, and not the other way around?
ANSWER dy/dt gives the rate of change in the vertical direction.
• DRILL QUESTION Let x (t) = t 3 + t, y (t) = t. Compute d 2 y/dx 2 at the point (2, 1).
3
ANSWER − 32

• Develop the formula for the area enclosed by a parametric curve.
• The graph of x (t) = t 2 − 5, y (t) = sin (t), −20 ≤ t ≤ 20 is a chain-like series of loops. Demonstrate
the method of computing areas of parametric curves by finding the area enclosed by the leftmost loop
(between t = −π and t = π ).
• Compare the relative difficulty of computing the arc length of a semicircle given in rectangular coordinates
√
[y = 1 − x 2 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1] and the arc length of a semicircle given in polar coordinates [x (t) = cos t,
y (t) = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π].
• Observe that the parabola y = x 2 is concave up, and the parabola y = −x 2 is concave down. Poll the
students to see if they think the parabola x (t) = t 2 , y (t) = t is concave up or concave down. Use second
derivatives to resolve the issue. (d 2 y/dx 2 = −1/t, showing that the bottom part is concave up, and the
top part is concave down.)
Workshop/Discussion
• Analyze the parametric curve x (t) = 2 sin 2t, y (t) = 2 sin t. Find the equation of the tangent line when
t = π3 . Find the points where the tangent line is vertical and the points where it is horizontal.
• Foreshadow polar coordinates by finding the area of the ellipse 14 x 2 + y 2 = 1 using the parametrization
x = 2 cos θ, y = sin θ.
• Find the surface areas of the ellipsoids obtained by rotating the ellipse x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ (a > b),
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π about both the x-axis and the y-axis.
• Compute the length of the curve x = 2 cos2 θ, y = 2 cos θ sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π . Check the result by graphing
the curve and showing that it is a circle of radius 2.
• Present a straightforward parametric arc length problem such as x = t 2 + 1, y = t 2 − 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
√
(The computations work out nicely for this one, giving L = 4 2.)
592
SECTION 10.2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES
Group Work 1: Clarifying Areas

WARNING This is quite challenging.
This exercise is for classes that have covered parametric curves, and the areas enclosed by parametric regions.
It develops the equations of an involute of a circle. String, tape, and paper towel rolls should be made available
to the students for Problem 2.
Note that although θ is the parameter, the curve is not given in polar form because the cow is tethered to a
point on the circle of radius r rather than to the origin.
The picture in the answer to Problem 2 below may be given as a hint for Problem 4. A1 + A2 can be computed
by integrating y dx from θ = π to θ = π2 and subtracting off the integral from θ = 0 to θ = π2 .
ANSWERS
1. πr
2.
3. The coordinates of T are (r cos θ , r sin θ ). Since T P was unwound from arc T A, T P has length
r θ, the length of the sector. Also, ] P T Q = ] PT R − ] QT R = π
2 − θ, so P has coordinates
x = r cos θ + |T P| cos ] P T Q = r cos θ + r θ cos π
2 − θ = r (cos θ + θ sin θ) and
y = r sin θ + |T P| sin ] P T Q = r sin θ + r θ sin π
2 − θ = r (sin θ − θ cos θ).
π 3r 2 πr/2 πr/2 r
4. A3 = 14 π (πr )2 = . A 1 + A2 = y dx − r y dx = y dx. Using the results from
4 −r −r
1
0 π π3
Problem 3 gives A1 + A2 = r 2 −θ cos2 θ − 2 θ2 − 1 sin θ cos θ − 16 θ3 + 12 θ = r2 + .
π 2 6
5 3 2
Therefore, the total area is 6π r .
593
Group Work 2: You Gotta Have Heart

ANSWERS
1. y
1
0 1 2 x
_1
2
(−2 sin t cos t − sin t)2 + cos t + cos2 t − sin2 t
π
2. 0 2π (sin t) (1 + cos t) dt
π √
= 0 2π (sin t) (1 + cos t) (2 cos t + 2) dt
3. First consider the expression under the square root sign:
(−2 sin t cos t − sin t)2 = 4 sin2 t cos2 t + 4 sin2 t cos t + sin2 t
2
cos t + cos2 t − sin2 t = cos2 t + 2 cos3 t − 2 sin2 t cos t + cos4 t − 2 sin2 t cos2 t + sin4 t
Now use the relations

sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
2
sin4 t + 2 sin2 t cos2 t + cos4 t = sin2 t + cos2 t =1
2 sin2 t cos t + 2 cos3 t = 2 cos t sin2 t + cos2 t = 2 cos t
to obtain the result.

4. When rotated about the x-axis, the three-dimensional shape looks like a rounded Valentine heart.
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 7, 11, 17, 25, 31, 41, 65
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 25, 29, 31, 39, 41, 65
EXERCISE D A N G EXERCISE D A N G
3 × 25 × ×
5 × 29 ×
7 × 31 ×
9 × × 39 ×
11 × 41 ×
13 × 65 ×
17 × ×
594
Clarifying Areas
Clara the Calculus Cow has been tied to a silo with radius r by a rope just long enough to reach a point
diametrically opposite to the point where she is tied, as depicted in the diagram below:
If she goes to the left side of the silo, she can stand far away from the silo, while at the right side, she can only
graze right next to the silo. We wish to compute the total area of the region upon which she can graze.
1. How far from the silo can sweet Clara stand when she is to its left?
2. Draw a picture of the shape of the region that she can reach. It may help to actually tie a string to a
cardboard tube, and model the situation.
595
Clarifying Areas
3. Assume that a very long rope is wound around the circular silo, and then unwound while being held taut.
The curve traced by the end of the rope is called the involute of the circle. If the silo has radius r and
center O, as shown in the figure below, and if the parameter θ is chosen as in the figure, show that the
parametric equations of the involute are
x = r (cos θ + θ sin θ) y = r (sin θ − θ cos θ)
r
¬ P
O x
4. What is the area of the grazing region available to Clara the Calculus Cow?
596
You Gotta Have Heart
Consider the parametric curve x = (cos t) (1 + cos t), y = (sin t) (1 + cos t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
1. Draw a graph of this curve.
2. Set up an integral to find the surface area formed by rotating the portion of the curve in the first quadrant
about the x-axis.
π /2 √
3. Show that your first integral can be simplified to 0 2 2π (1 + cos t)3/2 sin t dt. Compute this integral
to find the surface area.
4. Explain the title of this exercise.
597
LABORATORY PROJECT Bézier Curves
This project can be used as an out-of-class assignment, or as an extended in-class exercise. Most commercial
drawing programs have the facility to create Bézier curves, although they often aren’t identified as such. A
group project on Bézier curves should certainly include some figures illustrating the varied forms these curves
can take.
598
10.3 Polar Coordinates

1
2 –1 class Essential material
Points to Stress
1. The geometric and algebraic definitions of the polar coordinates r and θ .
2. The conversions from rectangular to polar coordinates and from polar to rectangular coordinates.
3. Methods of graphing a polar function (both by hand and using technology) and finding tangent lines to
polar curves.
Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION Where do the conversion equations x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ come from?
ANSWER Several correct answers are possible. Anything addressing the definitions of sine and cosine, for
example, should be given credit.
• DRILL QUESTION What is the polar equation of a circle with radius 3 centered at the origin?
ANSWER r = 3

• Begin with an intuitive definition of polar coordinates and then derive the algebraic formulas, noting that
the graph of a polar function need not pass the Vertical Line Test. Sketch a polar curve such as r = sin θ
or r = 1 − 2 sin θ manually, by computing several points and connecting the dots.
• Derive the formula for the slope of a polar curve r = f (θ) by viewing this equation as a parametric
function x (θ) = f (θ) cos θ, y (θ) = f (θ) sin θ. Discuss where horizontal tangents occur (where
dy/d θ = 0 and dx/d θ = 0) and where vertical tangents occur (where dx/d θ = 0 and dy/d θ = 0).
• Do a problem where r = f (θ) is graphed both as a function in rectangular coordinates and as a polar
function. For example, demonstrate that if r = (1.5)θ we get the two graphs shown below.
r 2
4 r=1.5¬, _3²¬²3
3 1
2 r=1.5¬
1 _3 _2 _1 O 1
_3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 ¬
599
After your demonstration, have the students try to sketch a graph of the polar curve r = f (θ) where f (θ)
is the function whose representation in rectangular coordinates is given below.
r
1
¹ 3¹
_
2
¹ -
2
2¹ ¬
_1
ANSWER (1, ¹/2)
(1, ¹)
O
• Draw the polar spiral r = θ, and show graphically that when θ = π

2, the slope of the curve is about − 23 .
dr
dy dθ sin θ + r cos θ
Verify this fact using the formula = dr
.
dx dθ cos θ − r sin θ
ANSWER
Workshop/Discussion
• Do several examples of converting Cartesian equations into polar equations, such as y 2 = 4x to

r = 4 csc θ cot θ, and of converting polar equations into Cartesian equations (the result of which
are sometimes implicit equations) such as r = 2 sec θ to x = 2 and r = 2 (1 + cos θ) to
2
x 2 + y 2 − 2x = 4 x 2 + y2 .
• Let f (θ) = cos 2θ. Sketch a polar graph of f (θ) and approximate the location of the two points (one is
on the y-axis) in the first quadrant where the tangent line is horizontal. Then use calculus to find the exact
location of these points: r = 23 , θ = tan−1 √1 and r = −1, θ = 32π . Finally, use symmetry to find the
5
other four points on the curve where the tangent line is horizontal.
600
SECTION 10.3 POLAR COORDINATES
• Work through an example of a family of polar curves whose members may differ greatly depending on the
value of the parameter, such as r = a + cos a θ + θa .
O
O
a=1 a=0 a = − 12
Group Work 1: Picture Pages
This group work is designed to assist students in visualizing a polar function r = f (θ) graphed in rectangular
coordinates.
ANSWERS
1. r E. 2 2. r A. 3
3 3
2
1
2 1
2 _2 _1 O 1 2 _1.5 _1 _0.5 O 0.5

1
_1
_1
1 _2
_2 _1 0 1 2 ¬
_2 _3
_1
_6 _4 _2 0 2 4 6 ¬
r =2 r = θ2 − 1, θ ∈ [−2, 2]
3. r B. 8 4. r D. 10
10 15
6
10 8
8 4
2 5 6
6
_8 _6 _4 _2 O 2 4 6 _2 _1 0 1 2 ¬ 4
4 _5
_2
2
2 _4 _10
_15
_15 _10 _5 O 5 10 15
0 2 4 6 8 10 ¬
r = θ, θ ∈ [−10, 10] r = θ3 , θ ∈ [2.5, 2.5]
5. r C.
1 1
_6 _4 _2 0 2 4 6 ¬
O 1
_1
π
r = cos θ − 4 , θ ∈ [−6, 6]
601
Group Work 2: Cardioids

ANSWERS
3 π 3 5
1.
O
2. 2, − 6 , 2, −6π
3. 2, − π2 , 12 , π6 , 12 , 56π . Note that the derivative is
not defined at 0, π2 .
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 1, 3, 5, 11, 17, 25, 35
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25, 27, 35, 37, 41
1 × 19 ×
3 × × 23 ×
5 × 25 ×
9 × 27 ×
11 × 35 × ×
13 × 37 × ×
17 × 41 × ×
602
Picture Pages
The graphs in the first column show how r varies with θ in rectangular form. The second column shows the
polar graphs of these functions. Match up the graphs so that each pair corresponds to one equation for r as a
function of θ.
1. r A. 3
3 2
2
_1.5 _1 _0.5 O 0.5
_1
1 _2
_3
_6 _4 _2 0 2 4 6 ¬
2. r B. 8
3 6
4
2
2
1 _8 _6 _4 _2 O 2 4 6
_2
_4
_2 _1 0 1 2 ¬
_1
3. r C.
10 1
2
O 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 ¬
4. r D. 10
15
8
10
5 6
_2 _1 0 1 2 ¬ 4
_5
2
_10
_15
_15 _10 _5 O 5 10 15
5. r E. 2
1
1
_2 _1 O 1 2
_6 _4 _2 0 2 4 6 ¬
_1
_2
_1
603
Cardioids
Consider the polar curve r = 1 − sin θ
1. Carefully sketch a graph of this curve on the polar graph paper provided, by computing at least 10 points
on the curve and connecting the dots.
2. Find polar coordinates for the points on the curve where the tangent line is vertical. Find exact values if
you can, but if this is impossible, a good estimate will do.
3. Find polar coordinates for the points where the tangent line is horizontal. Again, find exact values where
possible.
¹
_
2
2¹ ¹
_ _
3 3
3¹ 2 ¹
_ _
4 4
5¹ ¹
_ _
6 6
¹ 0
_2 _1 1 2
_1
7¹ 11¹
_ _
6 6
5¹ 7¹
_ _
4 4
_2
4¹ 5¹
_ _
3 3
3¹
_
2
604
LABORATORY PROJECT Families of Polar Curves
This project provides students with a wonderful opportunity to play and explore. A class that has not forgotten
how to play won’t need any of the prompts in the project, beyond the word “investigate”. Others should be
encouraged to answer the questions, but also to come up with questions of their own. There is an unwritten
“Part 5” to the question: As long as you are sitting at your calculator or computer, see what happens if you
vary some of the other constants in the given functions.
If higher resolution is desired, there are websites such as wolframalpha.com that can plot polar functions.
605
10.4 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

1 class Optional material
Points to Stress
1. The computation of the area of a region bounded by one or more polar curves.
2. The computation of the arc length of a polar curve.
Quiz Questions
2
• TEXT QUESTION 1 f (x) dx gives the area of a region whose boundaries are the x axis, x = 1, x = 2 and
2
f (x) on the top. Describe the region whose area is given by 1 f (θ)2 d θ. You can answer with a picture
if you like.
ANSWER
r=f(¬)
¬=2
¬=1
O
• DRILL QUESTION Compute the shaded area.
(2¹, 2¹)
O
r =θ
ANSWER A = 43 π 3

1 β
• Derive the general formula for area in polar coordinates, A = 2 α f (θ)2 d θ, and extend to the case
1 β
A= 2 α f 2 (θ)2 − f 1 (θ)2 d θ.
f(¬ ) fª(¬ )
fÁ(¬ )
º º
Œ Œ
O O
606
SECTION 10.4 AREAS AND LENGTHS IN POLAR COORDINATES
• Pose the problem of finding the area inside r = 2 cos θ but outside r = 1. Graph these two circles and find
the points of intersection. Then compute the area of the region.
√
π /3 1 3
ANSWER 2 0 2 4 cos2 θ − 12 d θ = 2 + π
3
(1, 0) (2, 0)
O
• Set up the integral for the length of the three-leaved rose r = cos 3θ, using the strategy of first computing
the length from θ = 0 to θ = π6 . Point out why it is difficult to compute this length precisely.
Workshop/Discussion
• Point out that r = θ is a spiral, and compute the area enclosed for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π .
√
• Draw the region under the polar curve r = sin θ cos θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π4 , and compute its area.
• Calculate the length of the polar curve r = sin2 (θ/2) for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
Group Work 1: Calculus by the Light of the Moon

The point of Problem 3 is for students to realize that with the answer from Problem 2, they can directly
compute this area without further integration.
ANSWERS
1.
π /4 1
2. 2 0 2 4 cos2 θ − 2 d θ = 1
√ 2
3. 2 π/4 12 2 − 4 cos2 θ + 12 π
π
2 dθ = 1 + π
Group Work 2: On and On. . .

√
The students will discover that the length of the spiral 3e−θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ α is 3 2 1 − e−α . Thus, as θ goes
to infinity, the arc length approaches a finite limit.
ANSWERS
2π
√ √ √
1. 0 18e−2θ d θ = −3 2e−2π + 3 2 ≈ 4.23
O 1 2 3
607
4π
√ √ √
2. 0 18e−2θ d θ = −3 2e−4π + 3 2 ≈ 4.24
t
√ √ √ √
3. lim 0 18e−2θ d θ = lim −3 2e−t + 3 2 = 3 2 ≈ 4.24
t→∞ t→∞
4. This should be intuitively clear. The curve starts from the (rectangular) point (0, 3) and spirals in toward
the origin (taking derivatives shows that it spirals in relatively quickly). So a limit should exist, and should
be close to our answer to Problem 3.
Group Work 3: Polar Propellers

If there is time, have the students examine the family of curves r = 2 + cos 4 (θ + K ). As K increases, our
polar propeller will “spin”.
ANSWERS
1. The farthest points occur where 2. The nearest points occur where
√ √
θ = 0 with rectangular π
at 2 2
θ= 4 2 , 2 , where
coordinates (3, 0), where θ = π2 √ √
3π
O at (0, 3), where θ = π at (−3, 0), θ= 4 at − 22 , 22 , where
3π √ √
and where θ = 2 at (0, −3). θ= 5π
at − 22 , − 22 , and
4
√ √
7π 2 2
where θ = 4 at 2 , − 2 .
2π
3. 92 π 4. 0 (2 + cos 4θ)2 + (−4 sin 4θ)2 dt
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 1, 5, 9, 21, 27, 29, 41, 45
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 1, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 21, 25, 27, 29, 37, 41, 45, 47
1 × 25 × ×
5 × × 27 × ×
7 × × 29 × ×
9 × × 37 × ×
11 × × 41 × ×
13 × × 45 ×
17 × × 47 ×
21 × ×
608
Calculus by the Light of the Moon
Ah, the crescent moon. It shines bright in the night sky, causing people all over the world to experience it in
their own personal way. Long-time married couples remember all the evenings spent in love, and kiss gently.
Thieves and murderers curse its revealing light as they go about their horrid business. Astronomers, kind and
scholarly, foray into observations of its dark shadow, subconsciously hoping to learn more about their own.
And mathematicians think of ways to model it and find its area.
√
1. Describe and graph the polar curves r = 2 cos θ and r = 2.
√
2. Compute the area of the region inside r = 2 cos θ and outside r = 2.
√
3. Compute the area of the region inside r = 2 and outside r = 2 cos θ.
609
On and On. . .
1. Graph the polar curve r = 3e−θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π , and compute its exact length.
2. Now compute the exact length of the polar curve r = 3e−θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 4π .
3. Finally, consider the “infinite” polar curve r = 3e−θ for θ ≥ 0. Based on your results in Problems 1 and
2, what do you think its “length” should be?
4. Does your answer to Problem 3 make sense to you? Why or why not?
610
Polar Propellers
Consider the polar curve r = 2 + cos 4θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
1. Graph this curve and determine the points farthest from the origin. What values of θ give these points?
2. Determine the points closest to the origin. What values of θ give these points?
3. Find the area bounded by this polar curve.
4. Set up the integral for the length of this polar curve.
611
10.5 Conic Sections

Points to Stress
1. The identification of a conic section given its equation.
2. The general shape of each conic section.
Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION Identify the conic sections sketched below.
ANSWER Ellipse, parabola, hyperbola.
• DRILL QUESTION Identify the following conic sections:
(a) 2x 2 + 4y 2 = 6 (b) 2x 2 − 4y 2 = 6 (c) 2x 2 + 4y = 6

ANSWER (a) Ellipse (b) Hyperbola (c) Parabola

• Show how an ellipse can be sketched by tying string to two thumbtacks, and moving a pen around the
string, keeping it taut. Discuss why this technique works.
• Hold up a circular plate. Have each student close one eye and then slowly tilt the plate. The students
should notice that, in perspective, circles look like ellipses. Most “circles” that one sees in paintings or
photographs are actually ellipses. Perhaps show this alternate form of an ellipse: x 2 + my 2 = n 2 , where
m − 1 is a measure of how much the ellipse deviates from a circle of radius n.
• Have the students discuss the terms focus, vertex, and directrix, paying particular attention to which curves
have which attributes (which curves have a focus, and so forth).
612
SECTION 10.5 CONIC SECTIONS
Workshop/Discussion
• Ask the students if y = 1/x looks like any of the conic sections. Point out that it is a rotated hyperbola.
x2 y2
• Anticipate Section 10.6 by parametrizing the ellipse, first using the form 2 + 2 = 1 and setting
a b
x = a cos t, y = b sin t, and then by transforming the equation x 2 + my 2 = n 2 , m > 0, m = 1 to a polar
equation r = f (θ).
• Show the students how to obtain a shifted conic section by completing the square. Practice with equations
such as the following:
6x 2 − 4y 2 + 8y − 24x + 16 = 0
x 2 − 4x + 4y 2 + 24y + 24 = 0
4x 2 + 24x − y + 36 = 0
x 2 + y 2 − 2x − 4y − 4 = 0
Group Work: Hooked on Conics

ANSWERS
1. We see that the point on the ellipse closest to a focus is the closer vertex (which is a distance a − c from it)
while the farthest point is the other vertex (at a distance of a+c). So for this lunar orbit, (a − c)+(a + c) =
2a = (1728 + 110) + (1728 + 314), or a = 1940; and (a + c) − (a − c) = 2c = 314 − 110, or c = 102.
x2 y2
Thus, b2 = a 2 − c2 = 3,753,196, and the equation is + = 1.
3,763,600 3,753,196
2. (a) Set up the coordinate system so that A is (−200, 0) and B is (200, 0).
2450 1225
|P A| − |P B| = (1200) (980) = 1,176,000 ft = mi = 2a ⇒ a = , and c = 200 so
11 11
3,339,375 121x 2 121y 2
b2 = c2 − a 2 = ⇒ − = 1.
121 1,500,625 3,339,375
(121) (200)2 121y 2 133,575
(b) Due north of B ⇒ x = 200 ⇒ − =1 ⇒ y= ≈ 248 mi
1,500,625 3,339,375 539
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 7, 15, 19, 33, 41, 43
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 5, 7, 13, 15, 19, 23, 33, 35, 39, 41, 43, 47
5 × × 33 ×
7 × × 35 ×
13 × × 39 ×
15 × × 41 ×
19 × × 43 ×
23 × × 47 ×
613
GROUP WORK, SECTION 10.5
Hooked on Conics
1. The point in a lunar orbit nearest the surface of the moon is called perilune and the point farthest from the
surface is called apolune. The Apollo 11 spacecraft was placed in an elliptical lunar orbit with perilune
altitude 110 km and apolune altitude 314 km (above the moon). Find an equation of this ellipse if the
radius of the moon is 1728 km and the center of the moon is at one focus.
2. In the LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation) radio navigation system, two radio stations located at A and B
transmit simultaneous signals to a ship or an aircraft located at P. The onboard computer converts the
time difference in receiving these signals into a distance difference |P A| − |P B|, and this, according to
the definition of a hyperbola, locates the ship or aircraft on one branch of a hyperbola (see figure below).
A coastline B
400 mi
sending stations
Suppose that station B is located 400 miles due east of station A on a coastline. A ship received the signal
from B 1200 microseconds (μs) before it received the signal from A.
(a) Assuming that radio signals travel at a speed of 980 ft/μs, find an equation of the hyperbola on which
the ship lies.
(b) If the ship is due north of B, how far is the ship from the coast?
614
10.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates

1
Points to Stress
1. The unified approach to defining a conic section in terms of focus, directrix, and eccentricity.
2. The equation of a conic section in polar coordinates.
Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION Why might we want to convert the equation of a conic section into polar coordinates?
ANSWER The three different conic sections (ellipse, parabola, hyperbola) all have equations of the same
form, with the focus and directrix having the same meaning for each.
4
• DRILL QUESTION Which type of conic section has polar equation r = ?
1 + 3 sin θ
ANSWER Hyperbola

• Outline a proof of the unified form for a conic in terms of eccentricity (Theorem 1).
ed ed
• Derive the polar equations of a generalized conic r = ,r = depending on whether
1 ± e cos θ 1 ± e sin θ
the line x = ±d or y = ±d is chosen as the directrix (see Exercises 21–23).
• Review Figure 6 and its interpretation.
Workshop/Discussion
4
• Sketch the ellipse given by the polar equation r = .
2 − cos θ
ANSWER
2
_
4
3
O 4
_2
5
• Sketch the hyperbola given by the polar equation r = .
3 + 4 cos θ
ANSWER
O 5
7
5
615
Group Work: Observations of Eccentricity

In this activity, students will vary the eccentricity of a given conic to get an intuitive feel for the meaning of
this parameter.
ANSWERS
1. (a) 8 (b) 8 (c) 8
4
4 4
_4 O 4 8 12 16
_4 O 4 8 _4 O 4 8
_4
_4 _8 _4
_8 _8
(d) 8 (e) 8 (f) 8
4 4 4
_4 O 4 8 _4 O 4 8 _4 O 4 8
_4 _4 _4
_8 _8 _8
(g) The graph is empty.

2. Answers will vary. The idea here is to try to get the students to describe the effect of the eccentricity
qualitatively.
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 1, 3, 5, 9, 13, 19, 21
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 15, 19, 21, 25, 29
EXERCISE D A N G
1 ×
3 ×
5 ×
9 × × ×
11 × × ×
13 × × ×
15 × × ×
19 × ×
21 ×
25 ×
29 ×
616
GROUP WORK, SECTION 10.6
Observations of Eccentricity
1. Sketch the following conics:
−3 − 52
(a) r = (b) r =
1 − 32 cos θ 1 − 54 cos θ
−2 − 32
(c) r = (d) r =
1 − cos θ 1 − 34 cos θ
−1 − 12
(e) r = (f) r =
1 − 12 cos θ 1 − 14 cos θ
(g) r = 0
2. Use your investigation in Problem 1, supplementing those results with more experiments if necessary,
to come up with a verbal description of the effect of varying the eccentricity e of the general conic
−2e
r= .
1 − e cos θ
617
10 SAMPLE EXAM
Problems marked with an asterisk (*) are particularly challenging and should be given careful consideration.
1. Consider the parametric curve x (t) = et , y (t) = 2et , t ≥ 0
(a) Compute the length of the curve from t = 0 to t = 1.
(b) Compute the length of the curve from t = 1 to t = 2.
(c) Convert this parametric equation into an equation of the form y = f (x), and compute the length of
the graph of f (x) from x = 1 to x = 2.
(d) Is the answer in part (c) the same as the answer in part (b)? How do you explain this result?
2. Consider the parametric curve x (t) = a cos t, y (t) = b sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π for a = 0, b = 0.
(a) Sketch and identify this curve.
(b) Set up an integral to compute the length of this curve.
3. The curve below can be parametrized by x (t) = t sin t, y (t) = t + cos t.

y
20
10
_15 _10 _5 0 5 10 15 x
(a) Give a parametrization for the curve (b) Give a parametrization for the curve
below. below.
y y
20 20
10 10
_15 _10 _5 0 5 10 15 x _15 _10 _5 0 5 10 15 x
618
CHAPTER 10 SAMPLE EXAM
4. Match each rectangular graph of r = f (θ ) in the left column below with the corresponding polar graph
in the right column. Explain your reasoning.
(a) r (i)
3 1
2
_2 _1 O 1 2
1
_1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ¬
_1 _2
_2 _3
_3
(b) r (ii) 3
3
2
1
2
_1 O 1
_1
1
_2
_3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ¬
(c) r (iii) 3
3
2
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ¬ 1
_1
_2
_3 _1 O 1
(d) r (iv)
3 1
2
1
O 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ¬
_1 _1
_2
_3
619
1 π
5. Consider the polar curve r = ,0≤θ< 4.
cos θ − sin θ
(a) What happens to r as θ approaches π4 ?
(b) Convert the above equation to an equation y = f (x) in rectangular coordinates.
(c) What value of θ will give the point (1, 0)?
(c) What is the domain of this polar curve when viewed as a function f (x)?
6. Consider the polar curve r = f (θ ) shown below. Note that 2 ≤ f (θ ) ≤ 5 for all θ and that
f (0) = f (2π ).
r=f(¬)
2
_4 _2 O 2 4
_2
_4
(a) Show that the area enclosed by the graph of f (θ) must be greater than 10.
(b) Must the area enclosed by this curve from 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π be finite? Why or why not?
(c) Find a function g (θ) satisfying the same conditions as f (θ) above, such that the area enclosed by
g (θ) is 14π.
7. Consider the curve x = et−5 cos t, y = et−5 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .
(a) Find the values of t where the line tangent to the curve is vertical.
(b) Find the values of t where the slope of the line tangent to the curve is −1.
8. Find the area under the parametric curve x = sin t, y = cos t sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ π .
2e
9. Consider the polar equation r = .
1 + e cos θ
(a) What is the directrix for this polar curve?
(b) Classify the polar curve if
(i) e = 1.1 (ii) e = 1 (iii) e = 0.9 (iv) e = 0.01
2
(c) Classify the polar curve r = , and compute the eccentricity.
4 + cos θ
10. Consider the parametric curve x = 3t 5 + 1, y = 10t 3 − 1, t ∈ R.
(a) Find the values of t where the slope of the line tangent to the curve is 1.
(b) What value of t gives the point (1, −1) on this curve?
(c) Is dy/dx defined at (1, −1)? Describe the shape of the curve at this point.
620
x2 y2
11. Consider the family of conics 2 + 2 = 1, k > 0, k = 1.
k k −1
(a) Describe the conic if k > 1, and compute the foci.
(b) Describe the conic if 0 < k < 1, and compute the foci.
√
5
(c) Find the value of k and an equation for the conic in this family if the y-intercepts are ± 2 .
12. Consider the parametric curve x = t cos t, y = t sin t, t > 0.
(a) Write an integral which describes the length of this curve from t = 0 to t = π .
(b) What substitutions could be used to evaluate the integral in part (a)? Do not evaluate the integral.
(c) Set up, but do not evaluate, an integral which describes the surface area obtained by rotating this curve
about the x-axis.
10 SAMPLE EXAM SOLUTIONS
1 1 √ 2t √ 1 t √
1. (a) L = 0 x (t)2 + y (t)2 dt = 0 e + 4e2t dt = 5 0 e dt = 5 (e − 1)
2 √ 2t √
(b) L = 1 e + 4e2t dt = 5 e2 − e
√
(c) y = 2x, a straight line with slope 2. L = (2 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = 5
(d) They are different, since in part (b), we are computing the distance from (e, 2e) to e2 , 2e2 and in
part (c) from (1, 2) to (2, 4).
x2 y2
2. (a) This is the upper half of the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1.
a b
x (t)2 + y (t)2 dt = a 2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t dt

π π
(b) L = 0 0
3. (a) x1 (t) = 12 x (t) = 12 (t sin t), y1 (t) = y (t) = t + cos t
(b) x2 (t) = −x (t) = −t sin t, y2 (t) = 12 y (t) = 1

2 (t + cos t)
4. The matches are (a)–(iii), (b)–(ii), (c)–(iv), and (d)–(i).
1
5. (a) lim r= lim =∞
θ→(π/4)− θ→(π /4)− cos θ − sin θ
(b) We have r cos θ − r sin θ = 1. This gives x − y = 1 or y = x − 1.
(c) θ = 0 gives the point (1, 0).
(d) The domain is x ≥ 1.
6. (a) The area enclosed by f (θ ) is greater than the area of a circle of radius 2. This area is 4π ≈ 12.6 > 10.
(b) The area enclosed by f (θ) is less than the area of a circle of radius 5. This area is 25π ≈ 78.5 < 80.
So the area is always finite.
1 2π
(c) We want f (θ)2 d θ = 14π . If f (θ) is a constant C, we need 12 · 2πC 2 = 14π
2 0 ⇒ C 2 = 14
√ √
⇒ C = 14. So choose f (θ) = 14 for all θ.
621
dx
7. (a) The tangent is vertical if = et−5 cos t − et−5 sin t = 0. Thus, cos t − sin t = 0 ⇒ tan t = 1
dt
⇒ t= π
4 or 54 π .
dy dy/dt et−5 (sin t + cos t)
(b) = = t−5 = −1 ⇒ sin t + cos t = sin t − cos t ⇒ cos t = 0 ⇒
dx dx/dt e (cos t − sin t)
t = π2 or 32 π.
π
8. A = 0 y (t) x (t) dt = 0 cos t sin t cos t dt = 0 cos2 t sin t dt = − 13 cos3 t = − − 13 + 13 = 23
π π π
0
9. (a) x = 2 is the directrix for this conic.
(b) (i) Hyperbola, e > 1

(ii) Parabola, e = 1
(iii) Ellipse, 0 < e < 1
(iv) Ellipse, 0 < e < 1, but nearly circular.
1
2 2
(c) r = = . This is an ellipse with eccentricity e = 14 .
4 + cos θ 1 + 14 cos θ
dy dy/dt 30t 2 2 √
10. (a) Set = = 4
= 2 = 1. Hence, at t = ± 2, the slope is 1.
dx dx/dt 15t t
(b) x (t) = 1, y (t) = −1 gives 3t 5 = 0 = 10t 3 , or t = 0.
dy 2
(c) At t = 0, = 2 is not defined. In this case, the line tangent to the curve is vertical.
dx t
11. (a) If k > 1, k 2 − 1 > 0 and the conic is an ellipse with a 2 = k 2 , b2 = k 2 − 1. Hence a > b, and
√ √
c= a 2 − b2 = 1 = 1. So the foci are at (1, 0) and (−1, 0).
x2 y2 √
(b) If 0 < k < 1, k 2 − 1 is negative, 1 − k 2 > 0 and 2 − = 1 is a hyperbola. c = a 2 + b2 =
k 1 − k2
√ √
k 2 + 1 − k 2 = 1 = 1. So the foci are at (1, 0) and (−1, 0).
5
√
5 y2 4 5
(c) The points 0, ± 2 are on this ellipse. So = = 1, 4 = k 2 − 1, k 2 = 94 , k = 32 . The
k2 − 1 k2 − 1
x2 y2
equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
9/4 5/4
√
x (t)2 + y (t)2 dt = (cos t − t sin t)2 + (sin t + t cos t)2 dt =
π π π
12. (a) L = 0 0 0 1 + t 2 dt, after
simplifying.
tan−1 π
(b) Substitute t = tan u, dt = sec2 u du to obtain L = 0 sec3 u du
√
x (t)2 + y (t)2 dt = 2π
π π
(c) S = 2π 0 y (t) 0 t sin t 1 + t 2 dt
622
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But Susie shook her head. "No, you don't," she said.
"God wants us to know and love him—you and me, Elfie."
"I know them police that stands at the door, and that's
enough for me," said the girl. "You can go if you like.
Church, and tables, and chairs, and eating off plates, and
sleeping in beds, is all one, I guess; and them that gets
used to it can't do without it. But I can, and I shan't run to
the police for that."
But although Elfie would not go with Susie, she willingly

consented to show her the way; for she had not been to a
church in this neighbourhood, and only knew the road to
take the work backwards and forwards. So, after carefully
washing her face and brushing her hair, and making herself
as tidy as possible, Susie went out, carrying her prayer-
book in her pocket-handkerchief, and trying to fancy that
her mother was with her still.
Elfie would not come near the church; but after pointing
it out, and watching Susie go in, she ran back to play with
her companions, wondering all the time what could be going
on inside the church to make Susie so anxious to go there.
This was her first question when she met her as she came
home.
"What do you look at—what do you do," she asked,

"when you go to church?"
"We pray and sing, and hear what the minister says,"
answered Susie.
"What does he say?" asked Elfie.
Susie thought for a minute, and then answered, "Well,

he reads out of the Bible, and says, 'Our Father.' You know
that, don't you?"
But Elfie shook her head. "Who is 'Our Father'?" she
asked.
"God, who lives up in heaven, where mother's gone,"

answered Susie.
"He's your Father, then, I suppose," said Elfie.
"Yes, and yours too," said Susie quickly.
"No, he ain't; I don't know him," said Elfie, shaking her

head with a little sigh.
"But he knows you, Elfie—knows you, and loves you,

and wants you to love him."
But Elfie shook her head persistently. "I don't know

nothing about him, and nobody ever loved me," she' said.
And to end the conversation, she ran away to finish her

game of buttons, while Susie walked quietly home.
She ate a slice of dry bread for her dinner, and saved
one for Elfie; and then took her mother's Bible out of the
little box, and sat down to read a chapter just as she used
to do before her mother died. But the sight of the familiar
old book upset all her firmness, and she sat down with it in
her lap, and burst into tears. She was still crying when Elfie
came rushing in to ask if she would not come out and join
their play.
"What's the matter?" she exclaimed when she saw

Susie in tears. "Are you so hungry?" she asked—for hunger
seemed the only thing worth crying for to Elfie; and then,
seeing the slice of bread on the table, and guessing it had
been left for her, she put it on the Bible, saying, "You eat it,
Susie; I've had some cold potatoes, and I ain't very hungry
now."
But Susie put it back into her hands. "No, no, Elfie; you
must eat that," she said. "I'm not crying because I'm
hungry."
"What is it then?" said Elfie.
Susie looked down at the book lying in her lap. "I was
thinking about mother," she said.
"Are you getting tired of living with me?" asked Elfie

quickly.
"Oh no; you're very kind. I don't know what I should do

without you, Elfie; but I do want my mother," said Susie
through her tears.
Elfie looked puzzled. She was beginning to understand

that all the mothers in the world were not like hers—that
Susie's was not; and she could not understand why Mrs.
Sanders had gone away and left her.
"What made her go away?" she asked.
Susie left off crying to look at her companion in

surprise. "Don't you know God took her to heaven?" she
said.
"Yes, I know, you said that before," answered Elfie

impatiently; "but what made him take her?"
"Because he loved her," said Susie.
"But you said just now he loved you; why didn't he take
you up there as well?"
"I asked mother about that one day, when she was
telling me she should have to go away; but she said she
thought God had some work for me to do in the world first
before he took me home." And Susie dried her tears, and
tried to be brave and choke back her sobs as she spoke.
"What work will you have to do?" asked Elfie, sitting

down on the floor close to Susie's stool. Elfie always
preferred rolling on the floor to sitting on any kind of seat;
and she greatly enjoyed questioning Susie.
"Mother said God would teach me that if I asked him,"

answered Susie. "I don't know yet what it will be."
"Then why don't you ask him?" said Elfie in her

straightforward fashion.
"I do," whispered Susie. "I ask him every night;

because I want to do it, and then go home to mother."
"Is that what you do when you kneel down before you
get into bed?" asked Elfie.
Susie nodded. "God hears what I say, too," she

answered.
"Well, then, why didn't your mother ask him to let her
stay and help you to do the work, if she didn't want to go
away?" said Elfie sharply.
Susie knew not what to answer. The question puzzled

her not a little; and to escape from Elfie's saying any more,
she proposed reading a chapter from the Bible.
Elfie had grown tired of playing, and was quite willing to

listen. She could not read herself, and was full of wonder
that Susie could; and for some time she chattered and
questioned so much about this that Susie could not begin;
but at last she grew quiet, and Susie turned to her favourite
verses in St. Matthew—the story of young children being
brought to Jesus.
"That was kind of him to say, 'Let the children come to

me,'" said Elfie when Susie paused.
"Yes; the Lord Jesus is always kind," said Susie.
"I wish he was here in London; I'd go to him," said Elfie.

"It's nice to have anybody speak kind to you."
"You can go to him, Elfie," said Susie. "The Lord Jesus

has gone up to heaven again now; but he'll hear you just as
plain as though he was in the room here."
Elfie stared. "You don't think I'm going to believe that,

do you?" she said sharply.
"Why not? It's the truth," said Susie.
"Maybe it is for fine folks that wants a lot of things to

live, but not for a poor little street girl like me," answered
Elfie.
"Why don't you think it's for you, Elfie?" asked her
companion.
"Because I know what I am, and I guess he'd soon find

out I was street rubbish, as the fine folks call me in the
market." And Elfie clenched her fist angrily as she spoke.
"O Elfie, Jesus don't think you're street rubbish!" said

Susie. "I think he cares for people all the more when he
knows they're poor, because he was a poor man himself
once."
"A poor man!" exclaimed Elfie. "Why, you said he was
God's Son, and all the world was his."
"So it is; but when he came down here, the people

wouldn't believe he was God's Son, and so he lived like a
poor man—as poor as you and I, I think, Elfie."
But Elfie shook her head. "I'm street rubbish, but you
ain't," she said.
"I found a verse about it," said Susie, "where Jesus says
how poor he was—'The foxes have holes, and the birds of
the air have nests, but the Son of man hath not where to
lay his head.' There; that means Jesus had no home or
comfortable bed, he was so poor," said Susie.
Elfie sat looking at her in dumb surprise.
"He was just as poor as me," she said. "Why didn't he

go away, and leave the people, if he was God's Son?"
"Because he loved them, and he wanted them to know

it; and to know that God loved them too, and wanted them
to love him and be happy."
Elfie had never had any one to love her in all her life,
and she could but dimly understand what Susie meant; but
she did understand it a little, and all the vain longings she
had felt when looking at a mother kissing her child sprung
up in her heart now, as she said, in a subdued, gentle voice,
"I wish he'd love me just a little."
"He does love you," said Susie, "not a little, but a great
deal."
"Did he tell you to tell me so?" asked Elfie eagerly.

Susie knew not what to reply to this; but the thought
stole into her heart—Was this the work her mother had
spoken of—was she to tell Elfie of the love of God, try to
make her understand it, and lead her to love him?
But her silence made Elfie think she had no message for
her, and she said, "You need not be afraid to tell me, Susie;
nobody ever did love me, and nobody ever will; and I don't
want any love either." But in spite of these words, so
sharply and angrily spoken, Elfie burst into tears.
Susie had never seen her cry before, and for very
sympathy she burst into tears herself, as she threw her
arms round her companion's neck, and drew her closely
towards her. "Don't cry, Elfie; I'll love you," she said. "I'll
love you ever so much; and you'll believe God loves you
too; won't you?" she added coaxingly.
Elfie clung to Susie, and held her in a passionate

embrace. "Say it again—" she whispered, "say you love me,
Susie; it's what I've been wanting ever so long, I think."
"Everybody wants it," said Susie. "God puts the feeling

in our heart, mother said; and then he gives us people to
love us, just that we may know how he loves us himself."
"Tell me some more about it," said Elfie, still in the

same subdued voice, and clinging fast round Susie's neck,
her dirty tangled head of hair resting on her shoulder.
"I don't know how to tell it, Elfie, but just as the Bible
tells it. Mother made me learn a good many verses about
the love of God. I'll tell you some of them. 'God is love';
'Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth
them that fear him'; 'God so loved the world, that he gave
his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him
should not perish, but have everlasting life.' Now, don't you
see God must love you, for you're in the world, and God so
loved the world that he sent Jesus Christ to die that we
might be saved?"
"Saved?" repeated Elfie.
"Yes; saved from our sins—the wicked things we do that

make God sorry, and angry too," said Susie.
But Elfie did not care to hear about this; she wanted to
know whether it was possible for God to love her—whether
he had told Susie, he would love her.
"I'd do anything for that," she said, pushing back her

tangled hair. "Do you think he'd like me better if I was to
keep my face clean and comb my hair like you do?" she
asked.
Susie smiled. "I think God does like people to be clean,"

she said; "and I'd like it, Elfie."
"Then I'll do it," said Elfie in a determined tone. "I've

thought it was no good. Before, I was just street rubbish,
and nobody cared for me; but if you do, and God will, I'll
wash my face; and perhaps he will by-and-by, as the Lord
Jesus his Son was a poor man himself."
And Elfie went at once to fetch some water to wash her

face, and Susie promised to help her to do her hair.
CHAPTER III.
OUR FATHER.
FROM this time Elfie began to pay some attention to her

personal appearance. She washed her face and hands, and
combed her hair every morning, before she went out, and,
of course, looked less wild; but her rags, poor child, were
past mending, and there seemed no hope of ever being able
to replace these with better clothes now. New ones—new
frocks, new shoes, that gave other little girls so much
pleasure—Elfie had never had. Sometimes she wore a pair
of old shoes or boots picked up in the street, and
sometimes she went barefoot. And it was much the same
with frocks and bonnets: sometimes she picked up a rag
that would cover her, or had one given her, and she wore it
until it dropped to pieces. She had never been quite naked;
but many times she had been almost so, until some one
had given her something to put on.
She began to wish now that some one would do so

again; and formed all sorts of plans for saving enough
money to buy herself a frock at a second-hand clothes' stall
—plans that always failed, for winter was drawing near, and
the two girls found it harder work than ever to pay the rent
and buy bread to eat.
"The rent must be paid," Elfie said over and over again,
as if to convince herself of a fact she half doubted.
Susie said nothing, but stitched away as fast as she

could, and always contrived to have the shilling for the
landlord when he called; for she knew if it were not paid,
they would be turned into the street, and for Elfie's sake, as
well as her own, she did not wish this to happen. Elfie said
she did not care, she had always been used to a street life,
but that it would never do for Susie; and so for her sake—to
keep Susie's home for her—she grew more careful and
steady, that she might be trusted by people to do odd jobs
for them, and thus bring in a few pence to add to the
weekly store.
But with all Elfie's care and steadiness, and Susie's

close stitching, they had a hard time of it to make ends
meet; and Susie grew pale and weak, and often suffered
from pain in her side. She went regularly to church on
Sunday, but she could never persuade Elfie to do so. Church
was for decent folk, not for her, she said; but she looked
forward to sitting down with her arms round Susie's neck,
to listen to her reading from the Bible, on Sunday
afternoon.
Sometimes they contrived to have a fire on Sunday, but

it was not often they could have one all the week, except to
boil the kettle occasionally; for Susie still kept up the habit
of having regular meals, and was gradually winning Elfie to
like this plan too.
People began to notice the pale, pinched little face

under the shabby black bonnet, that was seen so regularly
every Sunday in a quiet corner of the church; and at length,
a lady spoke to her as she was coming out one day.
"Where do you live, little girl?" asked the lady kindly.
It was very cold, and the lady could not help shivering
in her warm furs, and she noticed that Susie had only a thin
cape on.
"In Fisher's Lane, please, ma'am," answered Susie,

dropping a courtesy and blushing.
But the lady did not know Fisher's Lane. "Do you go to
the Ragged School?" she asked.
Susie shook her head. "I don't know where it is," she
said.
"That is a pity," said the lady, "for there is a Sunday

school there afternoon and evening, in a nice, warm room,
and the teachers would be glad to see you, I am sure."
"Would they?" said Susie. "I used to go to Sunday

school before we came to live here. Perhaps Elfie knows
where it is, and maybe she'll come with me."
"Ask her," said the lady; "we shall be very glad to see
you both."
She did not stay to ask who Elfie was; but she looked
after Susie as she ran down the street, and was surprised to
see her join poor, ragged, neglected-looking Elfie—for Susie
still contrived to keep a decent appearance, although her
clothes were so thin and old.
The lady's invitation was repeated to Elfie; but to

Susie's surprise she did not look at all pleased.
"Do you know where the school is?" asked Susie.
Elfie nodded. "Yes, I know where it is, but I shan't go."
"O Elfie, do," said Susie coaxingly.
"No, I shan't. You may, if you want to leave me all alone

on Sunday afternoons," said Elfie sulkily.
"But I don't want to leave you, Elfie; want you to come

with me," said Susie.
"I don't want to come," said Elfie doggedly.
"Why not?" persistently asked Susie.
"I don't like schools, nor them that go to 'em." And to

end all further discussion on the subject, Elfie ran home,
leaving Susie to follow more leisurely.
There was nothing for her to hurry home for. The room
looked cold, bare, and desolate, for they could not indulge
in a fire to-day; they had not been able to make up the rent
money, and the thought of this had troubled Susie until she
went to church. There, however, she had heard the
message bidding her to cast her care upon God; and she
came home to the cheerless room, and her dinner of dry
bread, feeling as blithe as a bird.
"Why, what's come to you, Susie?" asked Elfie. "You was

crying and fretting about the rent money before you went
out, and now you look as though you'd got it all safe in the
tin box."
The mention of the rent brought a little cloud into

Susie's face, but it was quickly dispelled as she answered,
"O Elfie, I wish you could have heard the minister to-day,
and what he said about God taking care of us."
"It don't seem as though he took much care of you and

me," said Elfie sulkily, as she looked at the empty grate,
and tried to draw her rags over her bare shoulders.
"Are you very cold, Elfie?" asked Susie tenderly.
"I shouldn't think you was very warm," said Elfie

crossly. "Your frock ain't in rags perhaps, but it's as thin as
mine."
"Yes, it is thin," said Susie, "and I'm cold; but it seems
to me God does care even for our being cold, for he's sent
to tell us we may go where there is a fire this afternoon."
"Where's that?" asked Elfie sharply.
"At the school the lady told me about," answered Susie.

"She said there was a fire there, and that they would be
very glad to see us."
"Well, I shan't go," said Elfie. "I'd rather stop here in

the cold."
This seemed unreasonable to Susie. "Do tell me why

you won't go?" she said.
"No, I shan't. And if you go, don't you tell anybody you
know me," said Elfie.
"Why not? Have you been to the school before?" asked

Susie.
"I shan't tell you, and I won't go," said Elfie doggedly.
Susie was puzzled. She hardly knew what to do, for she
did not like to leave Elfie, and yet she wanted to go to
school. But at length she decided to stay at home and read
to her companion, and go to the school in the evening, if
Elfie would show her the way; for they had no fire and no
candle to burn to-night, and it would be very dull to sit
there in the dark listening to the noises in the other lodgers'
rooms, for there was rarely a Sunday evening passed
without a quarrel in the house. Elfie would go out to play
with some of her companions as soon as it grew dusk; but
Susie had given up going out to play on Sunday.
After a little persuasion, Elfie agreed to take Susie to
the corner of the street where the school was; but she
would not go any further, and she promised to meet her at
the same corner when she came out after school.
"But I don't know what time the school will be over,"

said Susie.
"I do," said Elfie with a short laugh; "but mind you ain't
to tell any of 'em who showed you the way," she added in a
more serious tone.
Susie promised not to mention her name, and she

hoped the lady who had invited her would forget that she
had said she would bring Elfie with her; but she could not
help thinking it very strange that Elfie should dislike the
idea of coming so much.
The children had begun to assemble when she reached

the school; and hardly knowing where she was going, Susie
went into the large, light, warm room, and looked round for
the lady whom she had seen in the morning. She was not
there, but another teacher came forward and asked her
name, and where she lived; and on hearing she could read
put her into the Bible class at once.
Susie looked shyly at her companions, who were, of

course, looking at her, but not very shyly, for many of them
looked as though they were used to a street life, and most
of them were older than herself. What a treat it was to
these poor girls to sit down in a warm, light room, Susie
could only guess. To her it was very delightful—the mere
sensation of light and warmth; and the only drawback to
her enjoyment was the thought that poor Elfie was not
sharing it.
She could join in singing the opening hymn; and then,
when the books were given out, she found her place more
quickly than the rest, and ventured to lift her eyes to the
teacher's face for a minute, and then saw that the lady was
looking at her.
"You have not been to the school before, have you, my

dear?" she said in a gentle voice.
"No, ma'am," answered Susie.
"I hope we shall see you very often now. Can you come
every Sunday?" said the lady.
"Yes, ma'am," replied Susie.
And then, the others having found their places, the

reading commenced. The lady explained the meaning of
each verse as they went on, but spoke more particularly of
God's care for his children.
When school was over, and Susie met Elfie, she told her
of the evening lesson, and how like it was to what she had
heard in the morning; but Elfie answered, "I'm going to
take care of myself now, and then perhaps God will do it for
me by-and-by."
"I think we need God's care now," sighed Susie,

thinking of the deficient store of halfpence in the tin box at
home.
"Well, we don't get it," said Elfie defiantly; "and going to

that school won't bring it neither. Don't go again, Susie,"
she added.
"But I like it; and I must go now, because I've

promised," said Susie. "I do wish you would go with me, it
is so nice, Elfie. We sing, and read, and pray to God; and
the room is so beautiful with the fire and the gas."
"I know all about it," said Elfie sulkily; "and I know just
what you'll do too: you'll go to that school, and then you
won't like me. Some of 'em 'll tell you I'm a bad girl, and
then you won't speak to me." And the thought of this so
overcame poor Elfie that she burst into tears.
Susie put her arm round her neck, and drew her own
thin cape over her shoulders. "Nobody shall make me say
that about you, Elfie," she said. "Don't cry. I'll love you
always; and you shall come to school with me, and learn to
read."
But Elfie still shook her head about going to school. "I
can't go there," she said.
"Yes, you shall, Elfie. I know why you don't like to go;
it's because your frock is so old. But we'll try and make
another this week. I think mother would like you to have
her frock to go to school in," she added. "And there's her
shawl; perhaps we could make two of it; and I don't think
she'd mind, as we are so cold."
Susie was determined that nothing should damp her

happiness to-night, and she would not listen to Elfie's
refusal to go to school. She felt brave, too, or she could not
have spoken about cutting up her mother's dress and
wearing her shawl as she did. Yes, the little girl was brave
and hopeful. What she had heard of God's care and tender
love to-day had brought back all the lessons of her
childhood; and she could believe that God was her Father,
and cared—really cared for and loved her.
When they reached home she said, "I wish you'd kneel
down and say 'Our Father' of a night, like I do, Elfie."
"But I don't know it," said Elfie.
"Well, I'll teach you, shall I? You can say it after me in

bed until you know it by yourself; only, I'd like you to kneel
down and say it first, like I did to mother."
Elfie was generally willing to do anything to please her

companion, and she very readily consented to this. And so,
after shutting the door, the two girls knelt down in the pale
moonlight beside a chair, and Elfie repeated the words
slowly and reverently as Susie uttered them—the divine
words that make all men brothers and all women sisters.
There must have been some such thought as this in

Susie's mind, for as she crept into bed after Elfie she said,
"I did not think of it before, but you are my sister, Elfie, so I
shall never forget to love you;" and she kissed her as she
spoke.
Elfie threw her arms round her. "Say you'll love me

always," she whispered; "for there's nobody else in all the
world if you don't."
"I do love you," said Susie. "But oh, Elfie, I wish you'd
believe God loves you too—that he is our Father."
"I don't know nothing about fathers; I never had a

father," said Elfie. "But if you'll love me, perhaps I shall
believe that God does, by-and-by—especially as the Lord
Jesus was a poor man. I like to hear about that, because,
you see, it makes it seem somehow that he knows all about
poor people—even street rubbish like I am, if he had no bed
and no home."
Before they went to sleep that night, Elfie had learned

to repeat the Lord's Prayer almost perfectly (she could learn
quickly if she liked); and at last dropped to sleep
murmuring the words, "Our Father—our Father." And Susie
thought over all she had heard that day of the heavenly
Father's love; and at last fell asleep, to dream that her
mother had come back to lift all the care off her shoulders,
and shelter her from every rough wind that blew.
But Monday morning brought the every-day anxiety

with it; and Susie's first thought was of the landlord, and
what he would say when he came in the afternoon and
found she had only tenpence of the rent saved up in the tin
box. She tried to recall something of what she had heard
the previous day—tried to cast her care upon God; but it
was very hard; and it was not until she had knelt down and
prayed, ay, and sobbed out her trouble before him, that she
could believe any of it this morning, although she had felt
so sure of it the day before.
Elfie had woke up first and gone out. She often did this
if there was only a small piece of bread in the house,
because then she could leave the bread for Susie, and pick
up her breakfast at the market, or about the streets.
So, after eating her bread, Susie took out her work,
sitting upon the low stool, with the blanket of the bed
wrapped round her, for it was bitterly cold this morning, and
they had no fire. They had been afraid to buy coals or
wood, as they could not make up the rent. This was Susie's
great anxiety this morning. What the landlord would say,
she did not know. He was a gruff, cross man; and Susie
dreaded his visit—sat trembling with fear at the thought of
hearing him come up the stairs; and again and again lifted
her heart in asking that they might not be turned out of
their home.
CHAPTER IV.
ELFIE'S SIXPENCE.
SUSIE'S suspense as to the result of the landlord's visit

came to an end sooner than she expected. He called earlier
than usual to-day, and the poor girl's last faint hope that
Elfie would be able to earn twopence and get back before
he came was cut off as she heard his halting footsteps
coming up the stairs. He knocked at the opposite door first,
and Susie hoped he would be detained there, and she crept
to the top of the stairs and looked over, in the hope of
seeing Elfie coming up.
But Elfie was not to be seen; and with a sinking heart,

Susie went back and took down the tin box, and then sat
down to her work again, waiting for the door to open and
Elfie to come in, for somehow she had persuaded herself
that she would come in yet. But in a minute or two, the
opposite door closed, and then there was a knock at her
own. Susie could hardly walk across the room to open it,
she trembled so violently.
"Good morning," said the landlord pleasantly, as he

stepped in and looked round the room. "You keep the place
nice and clean," he said approvingly. "But why don't you
have a fire, child? It's cold to-day, and you sitting at your
sewing."
"Yes, sir," said Susie meekly, glancing at the empty

grate, and hardly knowing how to tell him she had not been
able to make up the rent.
"You ought to have a fire," went on the man, not
noticing her confusion, and wishing to say something kind
to the poor little orphan. "You ought to have a fire this cold
day; every other room in the house has one."
"Have they, sir?" said Susie, thinking the man was

displeased. "I'm very sorry I can't get one too; but I don't
think the place will get damp—we have one sometimes."
"The place get damp!" repeated the landlord. "What do

you mean, child?"
"Please, sir, I thought you was afraid the room would

spoil," said Susie, still dreading to make the revelation that
she had only tenpence of the rent.
"Spoil!" repeated the man. And he looked round on the

patched, discoloured walls, and laughed. "Why, child, you
keep your room nicer than any other in the house. I was
thinking you must be cold."
"I don't mind that much, sir, if I can only stay here,"
said Susie; "but—but please, sir, I've only got tenpence of
the rent to-day. I hope you won't turn us out for the other
twopence. I'll try and pay it next week, sir," she added.
The man took the halfpence and counted them, and

then looked at the little pale, pinched face before him. He
loved money, and was used to scenes of misery, but was
not quite without human feeling, and Susie's mute distress
was almost more than he could look upon unmoved. "Who
told you I should turn you out, child?" he said.
"No one, but—but I was afraid you would if I didn't keep

the rent paid," said Susie.

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Single Variable Calculus Early Transcendentals 8th

10.1 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations

Suggested Time and Emphasis

1 class Essential material

1. The definition of parametric equations and techniques of sketching parametric curves.

3. The parametrization of a given curve in different ways.

4. The investigation of families of parametric curves.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 x

Materials for Lecture

• Discuss the process of going from a parametric curve to y y

a relation between x and y. The figure at right is meant

when the cycle is about to repeat. Then, to the right of

Group Work 1: Name that Parametrization

(b) The curves are inverses of each other (or, they 2 x

are symmetric about the line y = x).

TEC Group Work 3: Lissajous Figures

4. It is a parabola. This is because x = cos 2t = cos2 t − sin2 t = 1 − 2 sin2 t = 1 − 2y 2 .

7. y y There are several reasons the graphs

TEC Group Work 4: Aperiodic Curves

x (t) = sin t y (t) = cos 2t 0<t <∞

3. Consider these two sets of parametric equations:

4. (a) Consider these two sets of parametric equations:

(b) Given any set of equations of the form

5. (a) Use a calculator to check that f (x) = x 5 − 3x 3 + 5x + 2 is one-to-one.

4. Describe the motion if you set a2 = 1, a4 = −1 and let 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .

6. Set a2 = 7 and a4 = 4 and do the same analysis as in Problem 5.

Use technology to help you to answer the following questions.

Suggested Time and Emphasis

Materials for Lecture

Group Work 1: Clarifying Areas

Group Work 2: You Gotta Have Heart

Now use the relations

2 sin2 t cos t + 2 cos3 t = 2 cos t sin2 t + cos2 t = 2 cos t

to obtain the result.

4. Explain the title of this exercise.

Suggested Time and Emphasis

Materials for Lecture

ANSWER (1, ¹/2)

• Draw the polar spiral r = θ, and show graphically that when θ = π

• Do several examples of converting Cartesian equations into polar equations, such as y 2 = 4x to

Group Work 1: Picture Pages

2 _2 _1 O 1 2 _1.5 _1 _0.5 O 0.5

r = θ, θ ∈ [−10, 10] r = θ3 , θ ∈ [2.5, 2.5]

Group Work 2: Cardioids

3. 2, − π2 , 12 , π6 , 12 , 56π . Note that the derivative is

Suggested Time and Emphasis

• DRILL QUESTION Compute the shaded area.

Materials for Lecture

Group Work 1: Calculus by the Light of the Moon

Group Work 2: On and On. . .