CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

From time immemorial, mankind has been moving from one place to another which can be

attributed to socio-political or economic motives. Scholars have attempted to seek an explanation

for the push and pull factors of migration and its changing dynamics, it is established that

migration is a social process that require more in-depth explanation. Most cases of migration

especially in Africa are associated with economic and political factors, such as people seeking

for arable land, fertile land, a land of economic and trading potentials or bands of people running

from a powerful opponent or invader to seek refuge far away or in a more secured environment.

Therefore, an in-depth analysis of migration can be explained within the premise of the tripod

factors of; why people leave their abode, how they identified and adapt to their new home and

why migration is recurrent.1

Migration is usually divided into two categories namely; voluntary migration and forced

migration. The distinction between involuntary (fleeing from political conflict or natural disaster)

and voluntary migration (economic or labour migration) is difficult to make and partially

subjective, as the motivators for migration are often correlated. Voluntary migration is based on

the initiative and the free will of the person or group involved and is influenced by a combination

of factors ranging from; economic, political and social: either in the migrants` place of origin

(determinant factors or "push factors") or in the place of destination (attraction factors or "pull

factors"). Push and pull factors are the reasons that push or attract people or group to a particular

place. Push factors are the negative aspects (for example wars) of the country of origin, often

1
C. Ifemesia, Traditional Humane Living among the Igbo. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers Ltd. 195.
1
decisive in people's choice to emigrate. On the other hand, the pull factors are the positive

aspects of a different country that encourages people to emigrate to seek a better life. Although

the push-pull factors are opposed, both are sides of the same coin, being equally important.

Although specific to force migration, any other harmful factor can be considered a "push factor"

or determinant/trigger factor, such as; poor quality of life, lack of economic opportunities,

excessive pollution, hunger, drought or natural disasters. Such conditions represent decisive

reasons for voluntary migration, the population preferring to migrate in order to prevent

financially unfavorable situations or even emotional and physical suffering.2

Therefore, forced migration refers to the movement of refugees and internally displaced people

(displaced by conflict) as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters,

chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects. 3 These different causes of

migration leave people with one choice, to move to a new environment. Immigrants leave their

beloved homes to seek a life in camps, spontaneous settlement, and countries of asylum. 4 Some

of the push factors for forced migration include but not limited to; few opportunities, over-

population, desertification, famine or drought, political fear of persecution, slavery or forced

labour, loss of wealth, natural disasters, death threats, discrimination, poor chances of marrying,

desire for more political or religious freedom, war and disease. On the other hand, some of the

pull factors are; economic opportunities, better living conditions, having more political or

religious freedom, enjoyment, attractive climates, security, family links, industry and better

chances of marrying.5 However, in the case of Igbo migration, scholars have laid more emphasis
2
G. Tataru, “Migration – An Overview on Terminology, Causes and Effects”. Logos Universality Mentality
Education Novelty: Law. 2020, 7 (2): 10–29.
3
Forced Migration Review". www.fmreview.org. Retrieved on 10th April 2023.
4
E. Colson, “Forced Migration and the Anthropological Response”. Journal of Refugee Studies. Vol. 16, No. 1,
2003, 1–19.
5
E.S. Lee, A Theory of Migration. Demography. 1966, 3 (1): 47–57.
2
on economic factors which coincide into voluntary internal and external migration while the

issue of forced migration is been downplayed. Wherever the Igbo migrate to whether locally or

internationally, they also form a group or bond in their host communities.6

This research explores the history of Igbo migration into Wukari as well as their role in the

economic development of the town which they have been major players and contributors. The

impact of the various crises on the Igbo traders and businesses would also be examined.

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

The issue of migration is at the front burner as far as research is concerned and it has also been

one of the major challenges facing the world even in the 21 st century which arises from forced

migration and voluntary migration. The spate of wars, conflict and unrest has led to the mass

exodus of people from their place of abode to seek asylum in foreign lands. Quite a number of

scholars have written on the issue of migration but more attention need to be given to the trend of

Igbo migration across Nigeria and outside Nigeria. It is widely believed that most Igbo migrants

are economic migrants seeking opportunities which their primary place of abode could not offer.

It is also important to note that most Igbo migrants migrate to the South and the North West

where they have a long history of sojourn especially in places like Lagos, Ibadan, Abeokuta,

Abuja, Kano and Kaduna which are considered major or big cities. Meanwhile othes migrated to

the North-East in places like Wukari where they engaged in businesses and made it their place of

abode. In general, the history of Wukari and the Jukun has not been paid due attention by

scholars, in the same vein, the activities and contributions of other ethnic groups in Wukari such

as the Igbo have not been given the needed attention. Therefore, this research sets out to explore

6
C. Onwubu. Ethnic Identity, Political Integration and National Development: The Igbo Diaspora in Nigeria. The
Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 13, no.3, Sept 1975, 399-413.
3
the role of the Igbo in Wukari in terms of economy and development. Thus, the study is geared

towards investigating the following.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The central aim of this study is to examine the role of the Igbo towards the economic growth and

development of Wukari town from 1999-2019. Other objectives include;

i. What factors were responsible for the influx of the Igbo into Wukari?

ii. What were the contributions of the Igbo towards the economic growth and

development of Wukari?

iii. What were the impact of crises witnessed in Wukari on the Igbo?

iv. What were the challenges faced by the Igbo in the course of their living in Wukari?

1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study focuses on the role of the Igbo traders to economic growth and development of

Wukari. The study would examine the migration of the Igbo as well as the factors that aided such

and how they have contributed to the economy of Wukari. This research covers the period of

1999 -2019. The year 1999 marked the transition from military rule to civilian administration in

Nigeria is important as it marks a watershed in the history of Nigeria when the country transition

from military rule to democratic rule, this also led to more influx of Igbo to Weary without much

restriction to their movement due to the fear associated with freddom of movement under the

military regime. The year 2019 is equally important because it marks an election year in Nigeria

where general elections are held into various political offices from presidential to governorship

and others. In terms of geography, the study shall cover Wukari town, which is generally

4
accepted as the capital of the Jukun kingdom cum defunct Kwararafa Confederacy and the last

relic of Jukun culture. Wukari is widely seen as a traditional state and both the temporal and

spiritual home of the great Jukun people. The town is also the headquarters of Wukari Local

Government area which comprises Wukari town and surrounding villages all located in the

present day Taraba State which was created on 27th August, 1991.7

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study is significant as it provides a historical account of the migration of Igbo people into

Wukari. The study further relays their contributions to the economy, the growth and

development of Wukari. The study also highlights the effects of the civil war as well as the

various episodes of the Wukari crises on the Igbo people and their businesses. This study is also

a novel contribution to scholarship and a platform for further research as well as future

researchers in this area of discourse and more importantly, this study is also a contribution to the

body of already existing scholarly works on Wukari and the Jukun.

1.6 Research Methodology

The methodology adopted in this work is historical research method, using primary and

secondary sources. The primary sources include oral interviews and archival materials. The use

of oral evidence constitutes an integral part of a study of this kind. The use of secondary source

such as; books, journals and articles, unpublished long essays and dissertations are equally

important for the successful completion of this work, the use the internet will be of great

advantage to this study.

7
B. Sukuji, The History of Jukun and Kwararafa Kingdom. Kaduna, 1995.
5
Certain constraints were encountered in the course of gathering data relevant to this proposed

study. Getting oral information from informants posed to be more difficult than envisaged due to

unnecessary suspicion and some respondents are skeptical about declaring their asset or business.

1.7 Conceptual Clarification

It is important to define the major concepts used in this study in order to avoid any ambiguity

that may arise in their use in the body of the work. The major concepts to clarify include;

migration, growth and development.

Migration according to encyclopedia Britannica is the permanent change of residence by an

individual or group which excludes such movements as nomadism, migrant labour, commuting,

and tourism, all of which are transitory in nature. Migrations fall into several broad categories.

First, internal and international migration may be distinguished. Within any country there are

movements of individuals and families from one area to another (for example, from rural areas to

the cities), and this is distinct from movements from one country to another. Second, migration

may be voluntary or forced. Most voluntary migration, whether internal or external, is

undertaken in search of better economic opportunities or housing. Forced migrations usually

involve people who have been expelled by governments during war or other political upheavals

or who have been forcibly transported as slaves or prisoners. Intermediate between these two

categories are the voluntary migrations of refugees fleeing war, famine, or natural disasters.8

Growth according to Encyclopedia Britannica is the increases in cell size and number that take

place during the life history of an organism. Growth is seldom random. Rather, it occurs

according to a plan that eventually determines the size and shape of the individual. Growth may

be restricted to special regions of an organism. 9 In the same vein, Economic growth means an
8
Encyclopedia Britannica, April 2023.
9
Encyclopedia Britannica, April 2023.
6
increase in real national income/national output. Economic growth measures an increase in Real

GDP (real output). GDP is a measure of the national income/national output and national

expenditure. It basically measures the total volume of goods and services produced in an

economy. Economic growth can also be defined as an increase in the production of economic

goods and services in one period of time compared with a previous period. 10 Growth therefore is

the increase in size or density of an organism, a product, service, environment or an economy.

Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of

physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. The purpose of

development is a rise in the level and quality of life of the population, and the creation or

expansion of local regional income and employment opportunities, without damaging the

resources of the environment. Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately,

and includes an aspect of quality change and the creation of conditions for a continuation of that

change.11

Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g.

measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care. Development looks at a wider range of

statistics than just GDP per capita. Development is concerned with how people are actually

affected. It looks at their actual living standards and the freedom they have to enjoy a good

standard of living. Economic development refers to the allocation of resources such as land,

labour, capital among others in a way that has a positive effect on the level of business activity,

employment rate, and income distribution. It is also an investment in growing the economy and

improving people’s livelihoods and prosperity.12 Hence, development is the noticeable

10
T. Pettinger, Difference between Economic Growth and Development.
https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/1187/development/economic-growth-and-development/
Retrieved on 10th April 2023.
11
What is Development. Issues in Development. February 2021.
12
Pettinger, Difference between Economic Growth…
7
improvement in the quality of life as well as standard of living of individuals, families, groups of

people, community or country.

1.8 Review of Related Literature

It is imperative to examine some related literature to this discourse to further enhance deeper

understanding of this study from the point of view of different scholars who have undertaken

similar or related studies. The literatures to be reviewed would cover some aspects of the history

of the Jukun of Wukari and more importantly the issue of migration of the Igbo and other related

tribes/ethic groups that are deemed useful to this research.

In the work “Some Aspects of Jukun Culture and Belief Systems in Pre-colonial Times,” by Eze

C. Okonkwo and Tanko A. Adihikon, the authors opined that no Nigerian people have a history

more complex, paradoxical and mysterious, than the Jukun. On this premise, the authors

discussed such aspects of Jukun history ranging from culture, marriage, birth, death, religion,

eating and naming ceremony which they believe has not been adequately explored. Okonkwo

and Tanko captured and historicized the history of the Jukun before colonialism and the

attendant culture shock brought about by the wave of colonialism. 13 This laudable effort is

important in documenting the aesthetic aspect of the life of the Jukun people which is an aspect

of this research.

Shishi Zhema’s thesis “A History of the Social and Political Organization of the Jukun of

Wukari Division, C.1596-1960,” espoused the social and political organization of the Jukun

people, the author first cleared the air on the identity of the people in the study area and

examined their genesis and eventual movement to their present location while upholding the

13
E.C. Okonkwo and T.A. Adihikon “Some Aspects of Jukun Culture and Belief Systems in Pre-colonial Times,” in
V.O. Ukaogo (ed), United in Differences, Disunited in Agreement: Analysis of Peoples, Traditions, Culture, and
Endless Conflicts Amongst the Jukun of Central Nigeria. Makurdi: Academic Press Ltd, 2015, 29-43.
8
tradition that the people came from the “East” which points to Yemen and the middle-east

region. Zhema opined that it is the social and political organization of the people in question that

gave rise to the concept of “Jukun” as a generic term for describing the different sets of

nationalities within the polity. This social and political setting eventually became an effective

mechanism that saw them establish their influence over other groups in the Benue valley. This

culminated in the creation of the Kwararafa in which Wukari became the successor state. 14 This

work is relevant in interrogating the history of the people especially on their tradition of origin

and migration which is a vital part of this study.

In the work “Ethnic Identity, Political Integration and National Development: The Igbo in

Diaspora in Nigeria by Chukwuemeka Onwubu 15examined the issue of migration from ethnic

perspective, the author averred that migration among the Igbo is a conscious movement premised

on ethnicity which underscores their bond of brotherhood and togetherness everywhere they go

as exemplified in the Northern and Southern-Western side of Nigeria, this according to him

undermines national integration and mix with other ethnic groups. This feature is synonymous

with the Igbo even among those that migrated outside Nigeria. The author also postulates that

population pressure within Igboland is responsible for migration outside Igboland and well as

economic factors.

Udoaku Ola in “The Socio-Economic Basis of a Diaspora Community” explored some of the

factors responsible for Igbo migration to other places. The author examined the colonial and

post-colonial period where emphasis was laid on education as a social pull factor to urban

centres and places abroad as a result of the opportunities that come with western education. A

14
S. Zhema, “A History of the Social and Political Organization of the Jukun of Wukari Division, C.1596-1960.”
PhD Thesis, Benue State University, Makurdi, 2016.
15
Onwubu, Ethnic Identity, Political Integration…399-413.
9
good analogy was how some Igbo communities pull resources together to sponsor certain

members abroad for further studies with the goal of studying, succeeding and been able to pave

way or take others abroad. In addition, the Igbo are adventurous individuals who like to explore

and seek opportunities in other places especially in the area of commerce and trade. 16

Ajani Oludele Albert and Onah Onodje in their article “Migration and Cultural Identity

Retention of Igbo Migrants in Ibadan, Nigeria” argued that internal migration remains one viable

means of cultural diffusion among different ethnic nationalities. It enhances the diffusion of traits

of a culture into another. However, in the process of this diffusion, immigrants may retain certain

elements of their culture. Cultural retention is the act of retaining the culture of a specific ethnic

group, especially when there is reason to believe that the culture, through inaction, may be lost.

Many African-American, European and Asian organizations have cultural retention programs in

place. In Nigeria as in other parts of Africa, Home Town Associations of migrants have been at

the fore in cultural retention activities. The authors investigated the issues relating to cultural

identity retention among a highly migratory ethnic group, the Igbo, whose origin is in the Eastern

part of Nigeria in their sojourn in Ibadan, a city in the south western Nigeria. The authors

indicated that the Igbo migrant association was a very active agency in the promotion of Igbo

cultural identity among its members. Both material and non-material cultural elements were

equally affected in the process of adaptation by the migrants. The study concludes that though

the migrants indicated a high level of integration into their host culture, they continued to retain

certain cultural elements of their community of origin.17

16
O. Udoaku, The Socio-Economic Basis of a Diaspora Community: Igbo Bu Ike. Review of African Political
Economy, vol. 29, no. 9, 2002, 304.
17
O.A. Ajani and O. Onah, Migration and Cultural Identity Retention of Igbo Migrants in Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal
of Sustainable Development; Vol. 9, No. 2; 2016, 137.
10
Obinna Mouh in his work “Historiography of the Igbo Migrations and Diaspora” posited that

migration is a universal phenomenon in the history of mankind as people have continued to

move from one place to another perhaps for some socio-political and economic reasons. It may

appear on the surface that the search for explanations of migration, as a social process, is a

search for the obvious, yet historians and scholars of migration studies are still struggling to

arrive at a consensus on the explanation of this concept and its changing dimensions. As a social

process, migration discourse requires more than just a peripheral examination. There is then a

need to look at the various dimensions and trends associated with this phenomenon. It is apparent

that most migrations in Africa, and to an extent the world, are usually explained on economic

and political forces, yet there are other dimensions and reasons why people leave their homes for

another. Migration discourse therefore must seek to explain three inter-related issues; why

people leave their homes for another, how they identified and see themselves in their host

communities, and most importantly, why this phenomenon is a recurrent one. The author

highlighted socio-political and economic reasons as the factors that can be attributed to

migration. Accordingly, migration to seek for greener pasture has assumed a place of pride and

accomplishment among the Igbo. They travel out of their villages to seek opportunities and

return from time to time to invest in and develop their community, the Igbo migrants are also

synonymous with forming associations wherever they find themselves which they use as a tool to

drive home development in their place of sojourn as well as their various communities.18

In the article “Traditional Igbo Economy: Challenges to Growth and Development” by Joseph C.

Chukwu underscored the prowess of the Igbo for economic development, this was exemplified in

the three mainstay on which the Igbo economy rests which are; agricultural, non-agricultural

18
O. Mouh, Historiography of the Igbo Migrations and Diaspora. Historical Research Letter, vol 46, no 1, 2017, 29-
33.
11
production and trade. The major highlight on the area of agriculture is climate, labour, patronage

and types of crops cultivated. The non-agricultural industry includes arts and crafts, pottery,

sculpture, salt making, mat making, palm wine tapping and cloth weaving. Trading activities

among the Igbo can be categorized into local and long distance trading. These economic

activities all contributed immensely to economic development and remain an innate skill that the

Igbo take with them in their migration and sojourn from place to place. 19 This study is relevant

because it highlights some of the economic stay of the Igbo although it did not directly bear on

Igbo migration into Wukari, this study will therefore fill the gap.

Ejikemeuwa J. O. Ndubisi in the work “Migration and Igbo Cultural Identity: An Evaluation”

highlighted culture simply as a way of life of a people. As a people, the Igbo have a culture that

is peculiar to them. This is what can be referred to as Igbo cultural identity. However,

experience has shown that Igbo cultural identity has seriously been threatened due to waves of

migration. The pertinent question now is: How can Igbo people maintain their cultural identity

in the face of myriads of challenges posed by migration? Employing the philosophical methods

of phenomenology and critical analysis, the author observes that migration has dealt a very

deadly blow on the cherished cultural identity of Igbo people. The study therefore submits that

every people have cultural identity and when there is a complete loss of identity of a particular

people, it speaks nothing but doom. The author beckons on all Igbo scholars, traditional rulers

and leaders, public servants of Igbo extraction and all people of good will to help to revitalize the

Igbo cultural identity while emphasizing the need for Igbo Cultural Renaissance as a way of

reviving Igbo cultural identity that is at the verge of extinction.20

19
J.C. Chukwu, Traditional Igbo Economy: Challenges to Growth and Development. Journal of Culture, Society
and Development, vol 10, 2015, 70-77.
20
E. J. O. Ndubisi, Migration and Igbo Cultural Identity: An Evaluation. Journal of African Studies and Sustainable
Development, Vol. 2 No 1, 2019, 76.
12
Amosi Odi in “Igbo Diaspora: The Binding force of Information” averred the relevance and

central place of economic interest in Igbo migration while describing the Igbo as the most

dispersed people in Africa and if not in the world at large. The author further argued that

materialism is also at play in the quest of the Igbo adventure or migration from place to place

whereby they seize every given economic opportunity within and outside their immediate

hemisphere up to oversea countries. The author argued that the most significant factor that can be

attributed to Igbo migration is trade and economic activities stating that the witnesses urban drive

in Nigeria in the 1980’s encouraged many Igbo youth to seek for greener pasture in the urban

centres. While on the international scene, the level of development, economic opportunities and

wealth of those nations attracted the Igbo people to those countries. The author also stressed the

effect of the civil war on the exodus of the Igbo people out of their homeland to disperse across

the world.21 Although the author did not make mention of Igbo people in Wukari, this study will

however fill the lacuna.

Anja Rudiger and Sarah Spencer in their work “Social Integration of Migrants and Ethnic

Minorities Policies to combat Discrimination” discussed the concept of integration pertaining to

migration, which was defined as the process by which people who are relatively new to a country

(i.e. whose roots do not reach deeper than two or three generations) become part of society. This

can be achieved through assimilation which connotes the assimilation of migrants to a pre-

existing, unified social order, with a homogeneous culture and set of values. Integration is

perceived as a one-way process, placing the onus for change solely on migrants. Inclusion and

participation lay emphasis on the concept of participation, which denotes democratic notions of

access, agency and change, though it does not directly refer to relationships between social

21
A. Odi, Igbo Diaspora: The Binding force of Information. Liberties and Cultures, vol 34, no 2, 1999, 159.
13
groups. Inclusion is probably the term closest to integration, with the advantage of providing a

better link to mainstream policy concerns, since policymakers use it to refer to all social groups,

not just migrants and minorities. Social inclusion is a stated policy goal for governments

throughout the EU, directed at eliminating the exclusion of all disadvantaged groups to enable

everyone. Cohesion deals with the role of social interaction which is crucial in the process of

integration. It is through social contacts and the climate created by the possibility of such

contacts that people develop a sense of belonging in a particular social space. The concept of

integration suggests an emphasis on unity and stability that appears to entail a normative vision

of social cohesion. Equality emphasize that if cohesion thrives on the interaction of different

communities, this interaction must be guided by the principle of equality. While the building of

social networks based on the recognition of difference is essential for the process of integration,

this will fail if migrants and ethnic minorities are not treated as equals. It is therefore the task of

integration policies to ensure that migrants and ethnic minorities obtain equal rights so that they

become full partners and participants in the development of a cohesive society. Multi-culturalism

is another approach to integration, guided by the principles of reciprocity, equality, diversity and

cohesion, is compatible with a multicultural understanding of the functioning of modern

democracies. Multicultural integration policies support neither the crossing of boundaries from

one culture to another, as do assimilation policies, nor the preservation of those boundaries, as

does segregation, but aim to foster their permeability. By facilitating participation of all groups

in all social, economic and political spheres, such policies encourage the continual development

and cross-fertilisation of cultures and identities, and can therefore help overcome divisions and

14
segregation.22 This work underscores the important aspects of migration and migrants to combat

discrimination.

In the work, “International Migration: Drivers, Factors and Megatrends, A Geopolitical Outlook”

by Martin Hofmann, Audrey Jolivel, Daria Huss and Caroline Ambiaux argued that migration

cannot be explained by any single cause, model or theory. There are, however, some main

drivers, or “megatrends”, that influence size, direction and patterns of international migration

flows more than others. International migration is shaped by a variety of factors, each of which

have their own significance but also influence the other factors. Some of the key factors that

influence migration are; Such factors are highlighted as war, civil war and conflict, the

globalization of economies, values and aspirations, changing technologies and means of

communication, shifting demographics, increased longevity, increased education levels,

urbanization and climate change. Furthermore, mobility is a basic human condition and

throughout history a certain share of the population has always migrated. Over the last 50 years,

the share of migrants among the world population has been comparatively stable, ranging

between 2 percent and 3.5 percent, which is remarkably little. But since the world population has

grown significantly over this period, the total number of migrants has also grown, from 81.5

million in 1970 to 272 million in 2019. Against the background of expected world population

growth, and assuming future migration develops along past and present trends, the total number

of international migrants is likely to increase to 330.9 million by 2050.23

In the report “Migration and Its Impact on Cities”, defined migration is a continuous process that

has been the subject of political debate worldwide. Migration has shown an unbroken upward
22
A. Rudiger and S. Spencer, Social Integration of Migrants and Ethnic Minorities Policies to combat
Discrimination. A Conference on “The Economic and Social Aspect of Migration” jointly organised by The
European Commission and the OECD Brussels, 21-22 January 2003, 4-7.
23
M. Hofmann, A. Jolivel, D. Huss, and C. Ambiaux, International Migration: Drivers, Factors and Megatrends.
Policy paper: International Centre for Migration and Policy Development. March 2020, 1-2.
15
trend, be it of people who have left their homelands voluntarily for economic or other reasons, or

of those who have been forced to leave their homes (refugees, displaced persons, etc.). Managing

human mobility is one of the greatest challenges for destination countries worldwide, in

developed and developing countries. This is further exacerbated in cities where migrants

typically seek a better quality of life. The causes and routes of migration flows for different types

of migration are difficult to distinguish, posing difficulties for governments. With refugees

protected by the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and voluntary migrants admitted

into destination labour markets through the sovereign decision of host countries, governments

need to plan for different types of migrants accordingly. This report focuses on the state of

migration (internal and international, voluntary and involuntary) and attempts to highlight the

different types and causes of migration in the world today. Migration trends, both internal and

international, are presented, along with global migration projections. The number is expected

only to increase, from an estimated 244 million international migrants in 2015. Internal

migration is three times that of international migration (763 million according to the latest

official estimates), affecting the lives of far more people, although it is given much less attention

in political debates and planning processes.24

The chapter successfully created a preamble for the work through the background to the study

while espousing the central issues that gave birth to the research via the mechanism of statement

of problem. The aim and objectives were discussed as well as the scope and limitation of the

study. The study also stated the significance and relevance of the research and explored the

methodology employed while using the conceptual clarification sub-section to define and adopt a

working definition for the research while related literatures were reviewed.

24
Migration and Its Impact on Cities. World Economic Forum, October 2017.
16
 CHAPTER TWO

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY OF WUKARI

This chapter is an exposition of the geography and the location of Wukari. The chapter also

considers the history of origin, migration and settlement of the Jukun people of Wukari with due

consideration of other tribes that inhabit the study area. This chapter also examines the social

cum economic activities that are prevalent in the area of study.

17
2.1 Geographical Location of Wukari

The study area is located in the Benue valley region in Southern part of Taraba State. It is

bounded to the South and South-West by Benue State, to the North by Gassol Local Government

Area of Taraba State and about 37km North-West of river Benue at Ibi to the East by both Donga

and Takum Local Government Areas of Taraba State. Wukari doubles as an independent town

and the headquarters of Wukari Local Government Area which was created in 1976 as part of the

defunct Gongola State and became a part of Taraba State when it was created in 1991. Wukari

approximately covers an area between 70N and 100N, 80 and 120E lying between the latitude

7050N and longitude 9042E covering an area of 2,535km sq. Wukari has a tropical climate

characterized with wet and dry seasons and a total annual rainfall of about 1300mm with highest

temperature recorded between March and mid-April. However, more of the downpour occur in

June and July with a break of days in August ending, while downpour descends in September

and sometimes October. The average annual rainfall is about 1300 centimeters 25. The dry season

begins in November and terminates in March. The dry season reaches its peak in January and

February when the dusty North East trade wind blows across the area. The average annual

temperature in Wukari area is about 26.80C with a precipitation average of about 1205mm 26. The

Guinea-Savannah type of vegetation encourages agriculture and related economic activities. The

soil of the area is very rich with its alluvial nature, which to a great extent makes it conducive for

growing varieties of food and cash crops. This is due to the Donga River that flows from the

eastern boundary together with the Riti and Benue Rivers that flow via the North Western

boundary of Wukari, creating very large flood plains in the Middle Benue area. The drainage of
25
A. D. Barau, The Economics of Rice Processing Industry in Wukari, Unpublished M. Sc., Department of
Agriculture Science, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
26
Climate: Wuakri http://en.climate-date.org./location/388485/ Retrieved on 20/06/2022
18
the area has profound effects on the land use, with the majority of the inhabitants engaged in

agrarian activities. The plains of the Benue valley and its tributaries like the Donga and Taraba

(Tella) rivers are extensive and gently undulating, ranging from over 1000ft (300m) in the east

and south, to between 400 and 600ft (120 and 180m) above sea level along the line of the Benue

river27.

The indigenous people of the area are mostly Jukun (Wapan) under the leader of the Aku-Uka

(King) of Wukari, although there are other ethnic groups found in the area such as the; Hausa,

Tiv, Kuteb, Chamba, Etulo, Igbo, Yoruba among others.28

2.2 Historical Background of Wukari

Many African traditions of origin have been classified to the Middle-East area by externalist

theories such as H.R Palmer and C.K Meek including the history of the Jukun of Wukari

although many core African historians have questioned such claims. The jukun like most groups

in Nigeria were not accustomed to preserving their history in written form because the art of

writing is a recent development. What is available and accessible are recollections of important

historical events which has been committed to memory and passed down through generations,

hence, the historical background of the Jukun would be examined through the various oral

traditions.29

The Jukun are generally believed to claim descent from the North or East, that is, Egypt, Yemen

or Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula entering Nigerian area through the Mandara hills and lake

chad where they first settled at Ngazagarmu which later became the capital of the Kanem Borno

27
M. Hamman, The Rise and Fall of Emirate of Muri (Hamaruwa) c1812-1903, Unpublished PhD, Thesis, History
Department Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1983
28
D.O. Emeka, The Geography of Taraba State, Nigeria. Department of Geography, Taraba State University,
Jalingo, 2010.
29
U.U. Okonkwo, and S. Zhema, Jukun-Aro Relations: A Reconstruction of the Hamitic Hypothesis. 2017, 17, 21-
22.
19
Empire. From there they moved to upper Gongola valley before finally settling in the middle

Benue valley. According to this account, the Jukun were believed to have migrated alongside the

Kanuri of Borno and later moved to the western part of Borno around 12 th AD before gradually

settling in the Benue valley.30

Another version known as the Jukun Kona tradition holds that two Jukun brothers who came

from the east via Gongola basin founded Kona and Kwararafa. The elderly one between them

first settled at Akuro near Lau and subsequently established Kona state while the younger went

ahead to establish Kwararafa.31

According to Palmer, the Jukun came from Yemen and from there crossed to Kordofan, the Fitri

region, the Mandara, Gongola before finally settling in the Benue Basin. Palmer further

reiterated that the Jukun were not originally from the Benue region which is their present habitat

but they had migrated from Kordofan and the region of the Nile passing through the Fitri region,

Mandara and Gongola region and then settling at the Benue valley.32

Meek also supported the argument that the Jukun migrated from Yemen passing through the

mandara highlands and the Lake Chad area down to the Gongola region. There were speculations

that the centre of the Jukun kingdom was once located north of the Benue, the Jukun occupied

the entire South-Western Borno prior to A.D 1550.33 Meek in Dura further argued that Kororofa

may have been a corruption of the term Kwana Apa (the people of Kona) or Kuru Apa (the King

of the Apa or Jukun). He further pointed out that the derivatives of the words Kororo (salt) and

30
Okonkwo & Zhema. Jukun-Aro Relations…37-39.
31
Okonkwo & Zhema. Jukun-Aro Relations…37-39.
32
H. R. Palmer, Sudanese Memoirs, vol. 1-3. London: 1923, 89.
33
C.K. Meek, A Sudanese Kingdom: An Ethnographical Study of the Jukun-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria. (Negro
University Press, New York), 20, 56-57.
20
Kworra (river) may allude to the salt people, owing to the salt mines in Jukunland, and people of

the river or water as a result of the fishing activities of the people.34

Due to the fact that the present Jukun are not totally abreast of all the past deeds of their

ancestors due to the severe lack of information on some important aspects of the history of the

Jukun, many historians have to rely on tentative theories.

It can be argued that the present Jukun have forgotten the

past deeds of their ancestors because of the time involved.
In fact, what is known about their external activities comes
from non-Jukun sources. Thus, today, the whole Jukun
history is quite obscure, only tentative speculations can be
made...35
Sa’ad Abubakar posited that;

The Jukun claimed entry into the Nigerian area through the
country between Mandara highlands and Lake Chad. They
dispersed into two migrating groups. One moved
westwards to the Upper Gongola valley where they
established their stronghold at Kanem while the other group
migrated towards the south to upper Benue basin and then
westwards to lower Gongola valley.36
It is believed that the latter group led the Jukun into their present place of abode in th lower

Benue whereby Gongola and parts of upper Benue basin were important parts of the Jukun

habitat before the 18th century.37

34
Y. D. Dura, “Conflicts and Conflict Management between the Tiv and Their Neighbours in the Benue Valley
Region of Central Nigeria, 1900-2001,” (PhD Thesis, University of Nigeria Nsukka, July 2016), 38-43.
35
S. Abubakar, “Peoples of the Upper Benue Basin and the Bauchi Plateau before 1800”, Obaro Ikime (ed. ), in
Groundwork of Nigerian History, (Historical Society of Nigeria), Oluseyi Press, Limited. Ibadan, 1999, 169–170.
36
S. Abubakar, “Precolonial Government and Administration among the Jukun”. Inaugural Lecture Series, no. 38.
University of Maiduguri, 1986, 88.
37
J.M. Smallwood, Development Programme of Wukari Dividion, 1936. NAK/339.
21
 Thus it can be argued that the Gongola basin is the main
Jukun abode. Moreover, it contains a quite a number of
Jukun communities such as Kirfi, Shani, Pidinga and
Jalingo.38
In the Benue basin, the Jukun group assimilated other non-Jukun speaking groups and carried out

several other activities of trade and military campaigns.

Thus, the Jukun had been influential on the Gongola basin

long before the 19th century. It may be from those regions
that the Jukun’s well-known external activities in the
preceding centuries prior to the 19th century were carried
out.39
According to oral tradition, the word Jukun is a “Wapan” expression, Apa-Jukun, which is

translated to mean “people” or “human kind.” This tradition argued that the concept of “Apa-

Jukun” arose due to the various campaigns that the Wapan people unleashed on the Hausa states

of Kano, Zaria and Katsina. The tradition reiterates that the Jukun people displayed extraordinary

skill in battle that caught the admiration of the Hausa people, thus, they demanded to know who

the Wapan people were. In response, they replied “Ichi Pa-Jukun,” (we are people).40

It is also argued that the Jukun got their name from the many raids to the Hausa states where they

were labeled as “Jukun”, which means “Human Being”. Among the Hausa city states are; Kano,

Katsina, Zazzau (Zaria), and Kebbi. Subsequently, the Hausa people were impressed by the

speed of the attack and described them as “people who are pouring like water”, that is, Kwararo.

By the time Kano was subdued; the people of Kano were amazed at the nature of the attackers

and started asking them “who are you people?”, because of the secretive nature of the Jukun

people, they told the Hausa they are “Pa-Jukun” which literary means Human Beings. The Jukun
38
Abubakar, “Precolonial Government and Administration…
39
Abubakar, “Precolonial Government and Administration…
40
Oral Interview with Tanko Haruna, Retired Civil Servant, Wukari, 72 years. 15 th April 2023.
22
wars with the Hausa were wars of emancipation of the people of the towns that were sold into

slavery and thereafter they return to their place of abode. The word “Yaakasain” which means

“Am coming back” was evolved as a result of the Jukun warning to the cities that were

suppressed; certain places are named after this term in present day Kano and Zaria. 41

A document in a manuscript found in the custody of the Alkali Fika, which chronicled the

history of Kano also suggested a link between Kano and Kwararafa. It is stated that Kano was

established by “remnants of the people of Lamerudu.” and that some of these people under the

headship of Aku Mabu went and founded Kwararafa. Another manuscript acquired by Palmer at

Fika recounts that the offspring of the children of Tuba ul Awal came out of the land of Yemen

and situated themselves at Ngazargamu, the former Bornu capital. A squabble relating to royal

succession led to wide dispersal of these migrants into various places, some went to Bagirmi,

Mandara hills, some to Pabir country, some to Gombe, Danski, others went to Biyri and Kalam;

and from these three families arose, crossed a river and arrived a country beside the river, the

name of the place being Wukari.42

Another version claimed that the Jukun originally came from the South to their present location

and that they belong to the Benue-Congo group of languages whose centre of dispersal fall

within Nigeria. Furthermore, Greenberg’s classification of African languages grouped the Jukun

and the languages closely related to it as the Jukunoid group, a sub-family of the Benue-Congo.

This group consists of the Jukun, Kporo, Ashuku, Ichen, Kuteb and Yakuben and they are all

located in the Benue valley. The Jukun language form a part of languages spoken in the Niger-

41
Oral Interview with Goshi Bako, Retired Headmaster, Wukari, 69 years. 15 th April 2023.
42
NAK/SNP17/K7676. Jukun Speaking Peoples of Nigeria.
23
Delta across Cross River along the Cameroon mountains, Ogoja, Mambila and the Benue valley

in general.43

In support of the above argument, Erim asserted that the Jukun descended from the South to their

present place of abode, South in this context referring to Cross-River area. The theory further

argued that the Jukun were not the founders of Kwararafa but it was rather a multi-ethnic

confederacy of over centuries and have progressively shifted its capital south well into the Benue

valley as it sought to effectively compete in the political and economic sphere of the zone. Erim

further posited that;

A confederacy once existed within the Benue valley in

remote times; it was called Kwararafa and its southern
region known as Apa. Its capital shifted from place to place
depending on the political climate of the time.44
Like every other groups, the settlement of the Jukun in the Benue valley and Gongola region was

connected to agriculture and sporadic wars especially for the Jukun. The Jukun speaking people

are spread across a number of towns and villages which include; Awe, Shendam, Doma (all in

Plateau State), Pidinga (in Bauchi State), Abinse, Katsina-Ala (in Benue State), Wukari, Donga,

Lau, Bandawa, Jalingo, Kurmi, Jibu, KArim, Dampar (in Taraba State) among others.45

An entirely different and more radical approach to the Jukun origin is by Lawson, in this

approach, the evidence available and the interpretations all pointed to the fact that the origin of

the Jukun could be found around the area of the Congo basin in the central African region with a

migratory route through the present Republic of Cameroun and the Cross River area of Nigeria

to their present home in the lower Benue valley area of central Nigeria; rather than the Middle-
43
J.H. Greenberg, The Classification of African Languages. American Anthropologist. New Series, vol. 50, no. 1,
part 1. 1948, 234.
44
E. O. Erim, African Historiography: Trends, Praxis and Democracy in Nigeria. Inaugural Lecture, University of
Calabar, 2014, 21-22.
45
Erim, African Historiography…
24
Eastern origin with a north-eastern route of migration through Egypt, the Lake Chad region and

Borno before finally settling in the lower Benue area as argued in most narrative sources. 46

This tradition is referred to as the ‘UsirSken’ which is a derivative of the Kuteb language group

of the Jukunoid. This phrase which is in the Kuteb language simply means ‘morning sun’ as

‘Usir’ is the name of the sun in Kuteb while ‘skh’en’ or ‘skean’ means ‘morning’. The two

words are put together to become “Morning Sun”. This tradition traces the origin of the Jukun

and other related groups from the direction of the morning sun (“UsirSken”), while mentioning

the land of the ‘Bafum’ in present day Cameroon as their migratory route. The tradition also

made stated the people passing through a body of water that is bigger than a river around the land

of the ‘Dama’, which is a reference to present Cross River and Akwa-Ibom area and yet to

another river which is said to be located to the direction of the evening sun –“Usirreb”. This is a

glaring reference to the River Katsina-Ala from where the Wapan and other groups went

northwards while the Kuteb, Ichen and Yukuben went eastward and established the settlements

of Kwen Ussa and later Mbarikam, Lumbu, Rufu, Zuka, Achilo, Shibon, Nyivu and Gankwe,

and others.47

A major characteristic of the Jukun settlement is the large compounds to house many people. The

size of every family is an important factor in the production system and it also adds to the

prestige of family heads. As a result, large compounds are identified by the name of the family

head. An average of 6 members per household and 20 to 30 members is very common in the

area.48
46
E.L. Hassan “Exploring Non-conventional Evidence in the Study of Jukun Origins, Migration and Identity,” in
Victor O. Ukaogo (ed.), United in Differences, Disunited in Agreement: Analysis of Peoples, Traditions, Culture,
and Endless Conflicts Amongst the Jukun of Central Nigeria. Makurdi: Academic Press Ltd, 2015, 161-182.
47
Hassan “Exploring Non-conventional Evidence.”
48
J.D. Ndera, “Historical Archaeology and the Study of the Kwararafa Kingdom in the Benue Valley of Nigeria”
Paper presented at the 18th Annual Conference of the Archaeological Association of Nigeria, Iffe-Ijumu, Kogi
25
Thus, the strength of the family usually determines the amount of available labour for farming,

fishing, and other economic and social activities. The compound is often built in a circular shape

and encircled by trees or flowers and those who can afford it buy “Zana” (which is a thick grass-

weaved mat-like material) which is subject to renewal every one or two years. The compound is

split into two; the inner section is reserved for men called “Byeko”. The adult males take their

meals in this place and are not supposed to be seen eating by their female folk. However, Jukun

settlement pattern has undergone tremendous changes due to Western education introduced by

the missionaries, and modernization alongside the quest for modern architectural design, which is

visible in Wukari.49 Having presented the two theories on Jukun origin and migration, this study

aligns itself with the first theory which postulates that the Jukun originated from the east –

Yemen.

2.2.1 The Igbo People

The term “Igbo” has been deployed to refer to Igbo territory, the speakers and the language.

According to Afigbo;

The Igbo, like any other group of people, are anxious to

discover their origin and reconstruct how they came to be
where they are. …their experiences under colonialism and
since Nigeria’s independence have emphasized for them
the reality of their group identity which they want to anchor
into authenticated history.50

State, Nigeria, 7th-10th November, 2007.

49
Hamman, The Political Economy of the Middle Benue Basin …
50
Afigbo, A.E. Prolegomena to the Study of the Culture History of the Igbo-Speaking Peoples of Nigeria. Igbo
Language and Culture. Oxford University Press, 1975, 28.
26
The Igbo people live chiefly in southeastern Nigeria, they speak Igbo, a language of the Benue-

Congo branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The Igbo language is part of the Niger-

Congo language family.51 Its regional dialects are somewhat mutually intelligible amidst the

larger “Igboid” cluster. The Igbo homeland straddles the lower Niger River, east and south of

the Edoid and Idomoid groups, and west of the Ibibioid (Cross River) cluster.52

The Igbo may be grouped into the following main cultural divisions: northern, southern, western,

eastern or Cross River, and northeastern. Before European colonization, the Igbo were not united

as a single people but lived in autonomous local communities. By the mid-20th century,

however, a sense of ethnic identity was strongly developed, and the Igbo-dominated Eastern

region of Nigeria tried to unilaterally secede from Nigeria in 1967 as the independent nation

of Biafra. By the turn of the 21st century, the Igbo numbered 20 million.53

The Igbo people are an ethnic group in Nigeria. They are primarily found in Abia, Anambra,

Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo States. A sizable Igbo population is also found in Delta and Rivers

States. Ethnic Igbo populations are found in Cameroon, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea, as

migrants as well as outside Africa. 54 There has been much speculation about the origins of the

Igbo people, which are largely unknown.55 Geographically, the Igbo homeland is divided into

two unequal sections by the Niger River—an eastern (which is the larger of the two) and a

western section. The Igbo people are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa.56

51
“Igbo | Culture, Lifestyle, & Facts | Britannica”. http://www.britannica.com. Accessed on 17 th April 2023.
52
R. Fardon, and G. Furniss, African Languages, Development and the State. Routledge. 1994, 66.
53
T. Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: The Growth of Nigerian Private Enterprise (illustrated ed.).
Edinburgh University Press. 1994, 272.
54
G. Mwakikagile, African Countries: An Introduction with Maps. Pan-African Books: Continental Press. 2006, 86.
55
“The Igbo People - Origins & History”. http://www.faculty.ucr.edu. Accessed on 17th April 2023.
56
L. Williams, Nigeria: The Bradt Travel Guide. Bradt Travel Guides. 2008, 32.
27
There are many versions and theories of Igbo origin which include; Oriental theory, Niger/Benue

Confluence theory, Homeland/Autochthony hypothesis, Migration from heartland and West

Niger Igbo migrations. The oriental theory expresses the view that the Igbo came from Middle

East, Egypt, Israel and Hebrew or Jewish origin. The theory argued that the civilization found in

Igbo Ukwu by Thurstan Shaw and D.D Hartle in Afikpo through archaeological findings in 850

A.D and 3000 BC respectively cannot be possible without external contact. The Niger Benue

Confluence theory of Igbo origin suggested that the Igbo must have lived in Niger/Benue

Confluence as a cradle land before dispersing to their present locations all over Nigeria, this

theory is supported by linguistic and scientific claim of the Kwa sub-family language that

inhabited this region. In addition, the Homeland/Autochthony hypothesis supported mostly the

northern Igbo. According to archaeological excavations in Eziukwu Ukpa Rock Shelter near

Afikpo have produced stone tools and pottery dating back to 2935 BC-15AD as well as human

activities. Furthermore, Migration from Heartland suggested that the Igbo migration occurred

form the core of Igbo heartland. From about the 43000 to 1400 AD, the Igbo began to move

South and East from Akwa and Orlu region. The theory of the West Niger Igbo migrations is

associated with Ezechima legendary which links the Igbo West of the Niger to have come from

Edo. Most of the towns associated with Ezechima legend include; Onitsha, Onicha Ugbo, Onicha

Olona, Onicha Ukwu and Agbor.57

The Igbo ethnic group has become a group that has risen to prominence in Wukari. Generally

speaking, the Igbo migration from their homeland to other terrain can be divided into two phases;

from 1460-1880 that is, the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the Western hemisphere brought

with it the lack of manpower by European expanding empires, to work on new plantations that
57
Okonkwo & Zhema. Jukun-Aro Relations…54-70.
28
produced sugar cane for Europe and Igbo Migration from 1970, when the Nigerian Civil War

ended till present.58 The Igbo are mostly economic migrants with strong business acumen which

they display wherever they go, therefore, it is not surprising that they dominated some key

economic structures of Wukari mostly in trade, businesses, education, healthcare, hospitality,

carpentry, mechanic, panel beaters, painters, electricians, bakers among others.59

2.3 Socio-Economic Setting of Wukari

Prior to the advent of the Europeans, the Jukun people practiced agriculture extensively as means

of survival and exchange. About 90 percent of the male population are involved in agricultural

activities. Some of the major crops grown are; guinea corn, millet, sweet potatoes, cassava, rice,

beniseed, coco yams and ground nuts. The Jukun also practiced rearing of animals, some animals

reared are; sheep, goats, dogs, chickens and ducks. Some of the simple farm implements used by

the Jukun in the course of farming are cutlasses and hoes.60

Craft and Industry is another important aspect of the economic activity of the Jukun, wood work

was practiced among the Jukun. Wood was used to make wooden farm implements and

household items such as; knives, cutlasses and axes while the wood of the wide-girthed tress was

used to make doors. Wooden household implements such as bench, stool, pestle, mortar and

plates were made from wood.

Hunting and Fishing are also parts of the economic activities of the Jukun. Hunting is an

economic activity as well as a sport and sometimes combined with farming. Animals such as

porcupines, leopard, antelopes and so on are hunted as games by the hunters and domestic dogs

are very much used by the hunters to serve as aids on their hunting expedition. Hunting is done
58
K..I. Anthony. Igbo Migration and the Future of Traditional Paradigms. Journal of African Studies and
Sustainable Development. Vol. 2 No 5, 2019, 37-39.
59
Oral Interview with Emeka Christopher, Businessman, Wukari, 40 years. 13th April 2023.
60
A. Dada “The Kyadzwe Textile Industry of the Jukun in Wukari, Tar«a State, 1900-2000.” (M.A Dissertation;
Benue State University, Makurdi, 2016).
29
both in the rainy and dry seasons. Fishing is commonly practiced by the Jukun (Wanu) along the

river banks. The swampy nature of the terrain encouraged boat making among the Jukun people

of these coastal areas.61

Dyeing and weaving are also economic activities common among the Jukun. Dyeing was

originally the prerogative of almost every woman, although due to the intricacies involved in the

processes, there were specialists in the craft. Weaving among the Jukun is practiced by both man

and woman. The Jukun are renowned for a narrow embroidered cloth which is known as the

Kyadzwe (this is the most significant cloth of the Jukun). Weaving as a domestic industry

flourished throughout Jukunland, it was restricted to areas where the raw material, that is, cotton

can be obtained.62 The aspect was blacksmithing was well developed among the Jukun people,

simple farm implements like hoes, cutlasses were produced as well as hooks for fishing, arrow

head, bows and spear for hunting for war as the case may be. Another economic venture is beer

brewing popularly known as “ache or talashi” which is mostly produced by women from

sorghum, millet or maize.63

Salt making is one of the important occupations that flourished in the pre-colonial Middle Benue

Basin. The mineral was obtained from several places, most of which were controlled by the

Jukun. In the Wukari area, the salt was extensively mined in the Akwana community. The salt

was said to have been discovered by one Atsiyikpa during the reign of Katapa c1660– 1669.64

Antimony was another important mineral that had contributed to the pre-colonial economy of

Wukari area. The mineral was mined from Arufu and that it was found in large quantity not far

61
Meek, A Sudanese Kingdom… 414-428.
62
Oral Interview with Gift Atten. Housewife. 72 years, Wa’aka. 15th April 2023.
63
Sukuji, The History of Jukun… 20-21.
64
Freemantle, Gazetteer of Muri Province, in Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. Gazetteer of Northern Provinces of Nigeria:
The Eastern Kingdoms Vol 2, London, 1972, 35
30
below the surface.65 The mineral was collected through an underground mining, which involved

intense labour. The implement used in the mining exercise is called “Kota‟ (both in Jukun and

Hausa language) and “Siko‟ also known as ‘Dundurusu’. This instrument served as a hoe for

digging and the earth is thrown to the surface in baskets. 66

Wukari has developed a relatively high population density which is most likely the result of

migrants from the neighbouring states and some villages within the state. The Jukun-speaking

people include Wapan, Kpanzun, Wanu, and Wurbo. 67 In recent times, the civil service and the

Federal University has a significant impact on the town, thereby creating more economic

opportunities and making it possible for other ethnic groups to migrate from various parts of the

country into the area.68

A major characteristic of the Jukun settlement is the large compounds to house many people

within a limited area due to the practice of polygamy especially among the non- Christian

groups. The size of every family is an important factor in the production system and it also adds

to the prestige of family heads. As a result, large compounds are identified by the name of the

family head. An average of six members per household and twenty to thirty members is very

common in the area.69

65
W. B. Baikie, Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the rivers Kwora and Binue, Commonly Known as the Niger
and Tsadda in 1854. Cass London 1966
66
M. Hamman, “The Rise and Fall of Emirate of Muri (Hamaruwa) c1812-1903”, Unpublished PhD, Dissertation,
History Department Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1983.
67
J. D Ndera, and M. Wombo, Historical Reflections on Chieftaincy and Colonial Experience in the Tiv land.,
Ahmadu Bello University Press, Zaria, 2013.
68
Oral Interview with Adi Mashi, Civil Srevant, Wukari, 40 years. 13th April 2023.
69
J.D. Ndera, “Historical Archaeology and the Study of the Kwararafa Kingdom in the Benue Valley of Nigeria”
Paper presented at the 18th Annual Conference of the Archaeological Association of Nigeria, Iffe-Ijumu, Kogi
State, Nigeria, 7th-10th November, 2007.
31
 CHAPTER THREE

THE ROLE OF IGBO TOWARDS ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF

WUKARI

This chapter captures role the Igbo people played in the economic growth and development of

Wukari. Without gain saying, the Igbo people are major players and stakeholders in the economy

of Wukari via trade, commerce and business. The chapter also discusses the migration of the

Igbo people into Wukari as well as the socio-economic activities they engage in while

emphasizing their role in the economic growth and development of the study area.

3.1 Igbo Migration into Wukari

In terms of geography, the Igbo land is located in the South Eastern region of what is known as

Nigeria. The southern part of Nigeria exhibits a wide variety of topographical features. It is

situated within the parallels of 6 and 8 east longitudes and 5 and 7 north latitudes. As a culture

area, it is made up of Enugu, Anambra, Imo, Abia and parts of the Delta, Cross River, Akwa

Ibom and Rivers States of Nigeria. The Igbo share common boundaries with other ethnic groups:

32
eastward, the Yako and Ibibio; westwards, with the Binis and the Isokos, Warri; northward, with

the Igala, Idoma, and the Tiv, and southward, the Ijaw and Ogoni.

However, Igbo migration can be divided into three parts, the first part captured Igbo migration

from 1400-1880, that is, the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the Western hemisphere which

brought with it the lack of manpower by European expanding empires, to work on new

plantations that produced sugar cane for Europe, and other products such as coffee, cocoa, rice,

indigo, tobacco, and cotton.70 Kanu argues further that;

Contrary to the native Americans, Africans were excellent

workers they often had experience of agriculture and
keeping cattle, they were used to a tropical climate,
resistant to tropical diseases, and so the Atlantic slave trade
became an integral part of an international trading system
which was then guarded by international laws.71

This period of carnage lasted for about five hundred years, during which an estimate of 12

million viable Africans were enslaved from their home lands to locations around the Atlantic:

Brazil, the Caribbean, and other Spanish-speaking regions of South America and Central

America, the Atlantic Islands, continental Europe, and English-speaking areas of the North

American mainland. Around 1760, discussions about the abolition of the slave trade had become

a very important agenda in public debates. And the Igbo in diaspora were not exempted from it.

In fact, Olaudah Equiano, a freed Igbo slave became the most popular black African in the

British Empire towards the end of the 18th century. His autobiography which related the horrors

of his capture and eventual selling into slavery, translated into several languages was a principal

instrument in the abolitionist fight against slavery. By 1787, the first group slaves were settled in

70
K.I. Anthony. Igbo Migration and the Future of Traditional Paradigms. Journal of African Studies and Sustainable
Development. Vol. 2 No 5, 2019, 35-36.
71
K.I. Anthony, African Philosophy: An Ontologico-Existential Hermeneutic Approach to Classical and
Contemporary Issues. Nigeria: Augustinian. 2015, 12.
33
Sierra Leone, the West Coast of Africa. Here a new Igbo consciousness emerged as the Igbo

were the second largest group among the freed slaves in Sierra Leone where they joined the

Church Mission Society as missionaries.72

Furthermore, the Igbo migration to Wukari in the pre-colonial period was up to three major trade

routes which linked Wukari to Igboland. The first is the Enugu Ezike route which passed through

Akpanya to Ejule, the famous horse market and veered to northeast to Wukari. The Obolo-Afo

route passed through Eha-Amufu, Utonkon and Igumale and joined Ejule-Wukari route. In Ezza,

the route turned northeast passing through Yola and Wukari to Ibi and Benue. Along these trade

routes, there endless flow of traders who engaged in commercial intercourse. The fame of new

economic opportunities provided by Wukari as the largest Jukun centre were capable of causing

a flight of Igbo population in the area.73

The second wave of the Igbo migration was from 1900-1970, prior to the turn of the 20th

century, missionaries and traders had no access into Igbo land. They carried out their dealings

with traders from the ports in the bight, and middle men from those ports handled the trade with

the inland areas. Moreover, mortality among the Europeans was very high, to the point that the

hinterland was known as “The white man’s grave”. According to Isichei, this led to the

importation and deployment of Sierra Leone missionaries who were of Igbo descent to Igbo land.

With the further incursion of Christianity as well as Christian missionaries into the heart of Igbo

land, traditional structures were destroyed and replaced by European patterns, a good example

was the blowing up of Aro-Chukwu shrine from 1901-1902, an expedition organized by Moor

and backed up by the government.74

72
Kanu, Igbo Migration and the Future…37.
73
C.E. Okonkwo, and T.A. Adhikon, The Igbo Community and the Economy of Wukari, Tarawa State up to 2013.
Uzu Journal of History and International Studies (UJUS), vol. 4, no. 1, 2014. 110.
74
E. Isichei, The Igbo people and the Europeans: The Genesis of Relationship in 1906. London: Faber and Faber.
1973.
34
However, with the advent of missionaries came schools and the rapid expansion of educational

possibilities for the Igbo who were beginning to be educated at various levels and preparing them

to take up responsibilities as teachers, clerks, managers, skilled labourers, artisans, among others.

They therefore worked for western trading companies, missionary organizations and the colonial

administration which makes them move to different parts of Nigeria and became major

minorities in Nigerian cities and urban centres. Although, as they moved beyond the Igbo

speaking area, they encountered restriction and many times outright refusal into areas they

wanted to go. This is evident in the Hausa Fulani Muslim dominated North that restricted the

Igbo to Sabon Gari (a quarters for foreigners). Here they have remained strangers, in some

places even to this very day.75

The third wave of Igbo migration was from 1970 (which marked the end of the Nigerian Civil

War) till date, it was a war that brought the Igbo world to her knees, and set the pace for further

movement of the Igbo. Following the war, the poverty and structural collapse experienced in

Igboland at the time served as a catalyst that catapulted the Igbo to, not just different parts of

Nigeria, but to different parts of the world in search of greener pastures. The major force that

gave power to the migration of the Igbo is the Igbo apprenticeship system of wealth creation

popularly known as ‘Imu-Olu’ (which means learning work) or ‘Imu-Ahia’ (which means

learning trade) or ‘Igba boy’ (which means to serve) is a major factor in any discussion about the

Igbo wealth creation or commerce. This trend continued as a result of a great number of Igbo

business men and women are now found in different parts of Nigeria doing trade.

75
Kanu, Igbo Migration and the Future…38.
35
Beyond the borders of Nigeria, Igbo people are found in virtually major countries in the world

such as; South Africa, Kenya, Ghana, Cote D’ivore, Togo, Benin, China, United Kingdom,

Malaysia, Canada and about two million in the United States of America.76

The Igbo migration into Wukari can be traced to the colonial period basically for trade and

missionary activities, however, there was a turn in events during the Nigerian Civil War from

1967-1970 where a lot of Igbo fled for fear of their safety being southerners in the North, but

after the civil war, the Igbo migration received a fresh surge as they moved enmasse to Wukari

and other places within and outside Nigeria especially in order to cushion the effect of the Civil

War on their region and on themselves as individuals. The Igbo migration was hinged on the

premise of trade and economic opportunities which may not be available in their region. 77

According to a respondent who came to Wukari in the year 1994, came with the desire to engage

in commercial activities by engaging in selling and selling of grains and later diverted into

pharmaceuticals at a time when much people were not engaged in that particular line of

business.78

The influx of the Igbo people into the Benue valley during the colonial period brought them in

contact with the Jukun people of Wukari. One of the motivating factors of this period is the

desire in engage in agriculture especially farming and trade. A respondent noted the fame of

Wukari as a fertile land from far away Enugu state which was a motivating factor to propel him

to see things for himself and to engage in farming as well as trading in agricultural products;

I am from Enugu State, I came to Wukari following the end

of the Civil War and proper to my coming, I have heard of
the fertile land durable for farming in Wukari. Therefore, I

76
Kanu, Igbo Migration and the Future…38-39.
77
Oral Interview with Celestine Chukwuma, Businessman, 50 years, Wukari. 17st May 2023.
78
Oral Interview with Chukwudi Augustine, 70 years, Businessman, Wukari. 17th May 2023.
36
 journeyed down to Wukari in order to engage in farming
and trade agricultural products.79

Following the end of the Civil War and the carnage and devastation that occurred in Igboland

destroying their means of livelihood, economy, institutions and sustenance, most of the people

had to leave their ancestral home which could no longer support and sustain them to search for

conducive environment to earn decent living. Hence, the mass movement of the Igbo people to

Wukari and environs for economic opportunities and adventures. As emphasized by Eze, the

Civil War had a tremendous effect on both the outflow and inflow of the Igbo people into the

Benue valley in general and Wukari in particular. The Civil War was responsible for the mass

exodus of the Igbo people from Wukari and after the war, they were the most dominant migrant

group to into the Benue valley as a result of seeking for greener pasture, better living conditions

and economic opportunities. The Igbo people believe so much in entrepreneurship (business) and

trading activities or any venture that would yield economic benefits and turnover.80

The early Igbo migrants were said to have settled in Wukari sparingly depending on where they

find befitting for them. The first thing they did was to identify the line of business they want to

venture into and choose the settlement area that fits into such business. Settlement was also

based on availability of houses as well as cheaper ones. According to a respondent;

My father came to Wukari in the 1950’s and first

settled in Angwan Ajiduku where he worked as a
carpenter, though some of the Igbo people stayed in
places like Akata, Marmara and other suburbs
suitable for their business.81

79
Oral Interview with Chijioke Peters, 45 years, Farmer/Trader, Wukari. 17th May 2023.
80
Oral Interview with Eze Mario, Businessman, 75 years, Male, Wukari. 17th May 2023.
81
Oral Interview with Gerald Ifih, 40 years, Trader, Male, Wukari. 17th May 2023.
37
According to a respondent, the migration of the Igbo people into Wukari can be categorized into

the period before the Civil War, the Civil War period and the post-Civil War era. The Igbo

people had been living and engaging in other activities in Wukari prominently since the colonial

period, but the Civil War era saw the mass outflow of the Igbo people from Wukari for fear of

their lives since their safety can no longer be guaranteed, this era was characterized by mass loss,

looting and destruction of their properties. After the Civil War, the Igbo people migrated back to

Wukari to seek better living conditions to cushion the effect of the war on them.82

3.2 Igbo Socio-Economic Activities in Wukari

Migrants of Igbo extraction are credited with sustained primordial linkages than any other group

in Nigeria; notwithstanding their level of acculturation at destination, they still maintain contacts

with home, although the regularity varies among individuals. As Nwolise and Olebunne noted;

There are no Igbo people located anywhere outside Nigeria

as Aborigines of other areas. This is unlike the situation
where there are millions of Hausas in Niger, Chad, Senegal,
Mali etc and Yorubas in Benin Republic. However, there
are millions of Igbo sons and daughters found in different
parts of the world.83

Rather, in the spirit of onye aghala nwa nne ya, which literally means do not abandon your

brother/sister, the Igbo form Town Union Associations (TUAs), at their destinations, to cater for

one another. Perhaps more than any other ethnic group, the Igbo people contributed to intensify

rural-urban migration and emigration beyond the borders of Nigeria. The benefits of belonging to

such associations range from emotional and psychological support for members in times of

difficulty, financial aid, settling disputes among individuals and subgroups, to serving as an

82
Oral Interview with Pius Ike, 53 years, Businessman, Male, Wukari. 17th May 2023.
83
Oral Interview with Nwolise, O.B.C. and Olebunne, C.P. Ndigbo: the Dwarfing of a Giant and Consequences on
Nigeria, Africa, Blacks in the Diaspora and Humanity. Forthcoming. 2010, 296.
38
avenue for social interaction and exchange of ideas. 84 Honey and Okafor further pointed out the

relevance of Hometown Associations, which they noted;

...serve as instruments for coping with a changing

environment... they also provide means of surviving amidst the
vicissitudes of life at a time of great flux and uncertainty... they
allow people to maintain their traditions. In addition, they can
become centres of innovation, especially for modernization of
the hometown. They do this by assuring that the town has the
instruments of modernity – among them schools and medical
facilities, as well as the kinds of infrastructure that are available
to people elsewhere.85

Thus, Igbo town unions or Igbo association undertake oversight function relating to informal

supervision of activities not only of members but also other relevant individuals and groups. The

direct consequence of such subtle supervisory activity is that it largely constrains the Igbo within

prescribed norms and values. In a way, it discourages frivolous behaviour especially among

young people many of whom ordinarily would have been persuaded to take advantage of the

anonymity inherent in urban centres to partake in crime. Criminological and urban studies have

identified a connection between urban environment and deviant behaviour. 86 Due to the

perceived importance of such home associations, it is almost compulsory for Igbo people in

diaspora; it serves as the foremost agent of orientation on urban life for new migrants. Thus,

town unions strive to help Igbo maintain a balance between traditional values and diversity and

the concomitant relativism in urban centres across Nigeria and beyond. Indeed, attributes such as

84
C.A. Onwumechili, “Igbo Enwe Eze?”. Ahiajoku Lecture. Owerri: Imo State Ministry of Information and Culture.
2000.
85
R. Honey, and S.I. Okafor, “Territorial Conflict in Jurisdictional Transformation”. In R. Honey and S.I. Okafor
eds. Hometown Associations: Indigenous Knowledge and Development in Nigeria. London: Intermediate
Technology pub. 1998, 138.
86
A.I. Opara, Criminology and Penology. Owerri: Cel-Bez and Co. 1998.
39
self-reliance, courage, perseverance, hard-work, goal-setting, accountability and innovativeness

among the Igbo have been highlighted.87

As noted earlier, the Igbo people in Wukari are involved in a catalogue of socioeconomic

activities. In terms of affiliations, most of them individuals belong to Town Union Associations

which exist at three levels, that is, local government level, state level and the general or holistic

level. The membership of such association is essential both as an avenue of social interaction and

emotional support in times of crises. As stated by a respondent;

It is expected that a full-fledged Igboman or woman is

expected to join his or her community association in
Wukari and attend meetings as scheduled... activities of
members are guided by a constitution or bye law. Hosting
of meetings is normally on the basis of individual
membership; due to the rotation of hosting-responsibility,
members readily become acquainted with places of
residence of others. The second level of association
involves the coming together of Igbo people from a
particular Local Government Area (LGA) in Southeast
Nigeria to form a union... belonging to this larger group
requires that an individual be a member of his or her
community association; most times the meetings take place
every second Sunday of the month... hosting is undertaken
by communities rather than individuals due to the size of
membership. The third level is almost as large as a
senatorial district and meetings take place every third
Sunday of each month.88

It is also noted that some Igbo people in Wukari also belong to social groups such as

neighbourhood associations, market unions and smaller age-grade among others.89

87
O.A. Olutayo, “The Igbo Entrepreneur in the Political Economy of Nigeria”. African Study Monographs, 20(3):
1999, 147-174.
88
Oral Interview with Chima Anayo, 40 years, Telecommunications, Male, Wukari. 18 th May 2023.
89
Oral Interview with Chima Anayo…
40
In the area of economic activities, it is generally believed that the Igbo people partake in virtually

all forms of business and occupational activities. However, trading is the major activity among

the people;

All over Nigeria and beyond, the Igbo people are known
for their ingenuity in trading which can be attributed to
natural endowment... that is why the Igbo people thrive in
business and can turn the most difficult trading terrain into
a gold-mine... does it mean that people of other ethnicity
that falter in seemingly booming economic environments
are mentally incapacitated?. The answer is no; rather Igbos
are divinely gifted to excel in trading more than other
Nigeria peoples.90

In the sphere of cultural engagement, the Igbo people in Wukari engage in cultural activities

despite been several miles away from their homeland in areas of marriage, family life, birth,

burial, dressing pattern, among others. Just like their kinsmen in the South-East, most Igbo

bachelors in Wukari delay in getting married. This may be due partly to the long period of

apprenticeship a young Igbo boy passes through and a bid to accumulate wealth to cover the cost

of an elaborate wedding and the bogus bride-price usually charged. However, the immediate

implication of increased age at marriage among men is that marriage among females is also

delayed; this impinges on length of fecundity and attainment of menopause before achieving

preferred fertility and family size.

For those that finally indicate readiness to get married, they either carry out their traditional

marriage rites in Wukari or Igboland. It is noted by a respondent that;

Ordinarily, marriage is contracted in a prospective wife’s

homeland with kinsmen and women in attendance... what
we see these days is that, for convenience, some parents

90
Igbo Migrant Traders in Ibadan. Unpublished Work.
41
 prefer that the ceremony takes place in Wukari and people
back home are informed much later.91

Another pattern that has been identified among the Igbo people of Wukari is the increasing rate

of inter-ethnic marriages between Igbo people and people from other cultural groups such as the

Jukun, Chamba, Kuteb, Bekwarra, Tiv and the Yoruba unlike what obtained in the past when

strong emphasis was laid on endogamy.92

Furthermore, it is observed that most young Igbo people and even some adults in Wukari are

relatively proficient in three to four languages which include, Igbo, Jukun, Hausa, and English

languages. In fact, some of these young people are more acquainted with Hausa language more

than Igbo. Some others speak Hausa and English only; the interest in Hausa language may be

explained by early exposure to the latter and the large number of Hausa speakers (which is

basically the lingua franca in this axis) that young Igbo come in contact, especially in the course

of primary and secondary school education and trade.93

In the area of educational activities among Igbo people in Wukari, there is a noticeable wide

intergenerational differences with the younger generation showing higher attainment than the

older. However, with the advent of the Federal University in Wukari, affordable educational

doors became opened to the Igbo people both old and young who seized the opportunity to

acquire university education. According to a respondent;

Most aged people among the Igbo in Wukari obtained

primary or secondary school certificate as the highest
educational qualification and ended up as traders or blue-
collar workers in establishments including the Federal
University Wukari... realising the importance of tertiary
school education in defining status, ranking and placement
91
Oral Interview with Ngozi Amajemba, Civil Servant, 50 years, Female, Wukari. 19 th May 2023.
92
Oral Interview with Ngozi Amajemba…
93
Oral Interview with Emeka Christopher, Businessman, 45 years, Male, Wukari. 19 th May 2023.
42
 of individuals, most parents/guardians struggle to train their
wards in higher institutions while some of them used the
presence of the university to further their educational
pursuit.94

The relatively large number of students of Igbo origin in the Federal University Wukari led to the

formation of community and state based Igbo Students Association (ISA) in the institution. It

should also be noted that majority of the Igbo people in Wukari are Christians and are mostly

Catholics.95

The Igbo people of Wukari also participate in politics, their participation is viewed from the

angle of general involvement in the wider Wukari politics; and secondly, with specific respect to

Igbo politics - within the group. It is also noted that in the broader sense, Igbo people in Wukari,

like other Nigerian peoples partake in the electoral process mainly as voters or indirectly as

advisers to office holders. They hardly contested elections in the town even for the least political

positions for fear of failure; a notion that is borne out of perceived ethnic sentiments that usually

prevail in Nigerian politics.96 Prominent leaders among the Igbo sometimes support the political

process of the state by donating to support certain political office seekers in a bid towards the

smooth movement of political leadership in the state. Their positive contributions has made the

state to honour some of its members.97

The Igbo people who settled in Wukari basically engaged in trade and commerce with other

ethnic groups found in the area, some of them specialize in buying and selling, transportation,

motor parts, clothing, sewing, hospitality, restaurant, education, healthcare among others. The

94
Oral Interview with Nneka Anyakorah, Trader, 50 years, Female, Wukari. 19th May 2023.
95
Oral Interview with Nneka Anyakorah…
96
Oral Interview with Vera Ezeolu, Public Servant, 55 years, Female, Wukari. 19th May 2023.
97
S. Fatima, M.D. Bawa, A.A. Isah, M.S. Abdulkadir, and F.M. Kuttu, Socio-Economic and Political Contributions
of Igbo Ethnicity in Sokoto Metropolitan. International Journal of Scientific Research in Humanities, Legal Studies
and International Relations. 2020, vol. 5, no. 1, 74-76.
43
Igbo people are renowned for their spirit of resilience, industry, innovation and entrepreneurship

in trading activities or business.98

3.3 The Role of Igbo to Economic Growth and Development of Wukari

Migrant ethnic groups have for long played significant roles in the development of their host

communities. The growth and transformation of Wukari economically can be attributed to the

activities of migrant Igbo. The impact of Igbo people is mainly felt in the area of the economic

growth of the study area. Being mostly traders, the Igbo people pioneered trading in motor-spare

parts thereby making significant contributions to the transport sector and other economic

spheres.99 The Igbo business men and women have asserted dominance in different areas of trade

such as; electrical appliances, timber, spare parts, mechanics, building materials, hotel,

restaurants, telecommunications, transportation, oil, gas, among others. For instance, the Igbo

people dominate the spare part business in Wukari and this has been a huge relief for the people

especially transporters who no longer need to travel far to get basic spare parts while the ones

that are not available are placed on order by the Igbo motor spare part dealer. 100 To further

buttress this point, a respondent stated that;

I came to Wukari from Anambra State in 1978, I started off

as a carpenter but later changed to spare parts business
which has aided me in catering for my family. When I
joined the business, there were only few Igbo and Yoruba
who were involved in the business.101

Initially, the traders involved in the spare part trade had their shops scattered all over the town

but they gradually come together and relocate to a certain area, that is, New Site along Takum

98
Oral Interview with Gerald Ifih…
99
K. Azaigba. The Igbo Factor in the Development of Dutsinma, Katsina State, 1976-2017. Ilorin Journal of History
and International Studies, Vol 1, No 7, 2017, 105.
100
Oral Interview with Daodu Ojo, Driver, 40 years, Male, Wukari. 20th May 2023.
101
Oral Interview with Ugwu Theo, Trader, 60 years, Male, Wukari. 21st May 2023.
44
road, this is also the area where most mechanic shops are located, also known as the Wukari

mechanic village.102 A respondent asserted this fact;

I came to Wukari in 1995 and started spare parts business

along Dikko street but when I realized that the business was
moving more at the new site in mechanic village where
most cars are been repaired, I had to relocate to new site.103
The Igbo are prominent in mechanical work and repairs of vehicle in Wukari alongside the

Yoruba people along Takum Road which is named Mechanic Village where the bulk of

mechanics in Wukari have their shops and workshops. With the increase in the number of people

in the town, vehicular movement and ownership also increased and so the need to repair and

maintain the vehicles. Some of them specialized in German vehicles such as Mercedes Benz,

BMW, some in Japanese vehicles such as; Toyota, Honda, Nissan and others.104

It is worthy to note that motorcycles are prominent feature of Wukari where most resident use

motorcycle alongside those that own cars, this made the motorcycle business a profitable venture

though the business is capital intensive. Some few individuals especially the Igbo were able to

invest in the venture and exercise dominance in the business. Most prominent among them are;

Peter and Paul motorcycle that operate separate shops along General Hospital road, Prince

motorcycle at Ibi Roundabout and others.105

Electrical and electronics business form a major economic mainstay in Wukari where Igbo

influence is greatly felt, most of the electronic shops are owned by the Igbo. This include,

television set, dvd, cd players, rechargeable lamps, fans, bulb, wire, home theatres, iron, electric

cooker and other electrical appliances.106

102
Oral Interview with Ugwu Theo…
103
Oral Interview with Chinedu Matthew, Spare Parts Dealer, 50 years, Male, Wukari. 21 st May 2023.
104
Oral Interview with Samuel Matthew, Mechanic, 35 years, Male, Wukari. 20th May 2023.
105
Oral Interview with Prince Echendu, Motorcycle Dealer, 41 years, Male, Wukari. 21 st May 2023.
106
Oral Interview with Chima Ugo, Businessman, 35 years, Male, Wukari. 21st May 2023.
45
Furthermore, the dominance of the Igbo people is strongly felt in the sale of building materials in

Wukari. Although, a few indigenous people are involved in this business but it’s dominated by

the Igbo people.107 In addition, the Igbo also dominated the sale of soup condiments. Aside from

the sale of vegetables like tomatoes, pepper and onions, the other soup condiments particularly

those used for menus in Southern Nigeria are sold mainly by the Igbo.108

A few number of places are also dominated by the Igbo where they live and basically trade such

as Dikko street, Old Market, Ibi round about, Avyi, Ajiduku, Old market, Takum junction, New

Site, New Market among others. These places are economic hubs where they ply their trade, sell

spare parts, electronics, food and drinks, phone and accessories, alcoholic beverages, grocery

stores and supermarkets among others. The Igbo also employed the indigene of the town as well

as people from other ethnic groups to their businesses which has gone a long way in poverty and

crime reduction and created job opportunities while significantly improving the economic

standard of people in the study area. It is also noteworthy to underscore the fact that the Igbo

people contribute to revenue generation to the coffers of the Wukari local government council

and Taraba state via the payment of tax. 109 Through the payment of taxes, Igbo migrants have

significantly aided the infrastructural and general development of Wukari. This is particularly

important because taxes are the pivot on which all human and physical improvements programs

revolve.110

Another aspect of the role of the Igbo to the economic development of Wukari is through their

apprenticeship system which is a unique feature of the Igbo and an indication of their

entrepreneurship spirit, through this apprenticeship system, a lot of people both indigene and

107
Oral Interview with Sanfo Aji, Bricklayer, 45 years, Male, Wukari. 20th May 2023.
108
Oral Interview with Magdalene Atoshi, Trader, 50 years, Female, Wukari. 20th May 2023.
109
Bawa et al, Socio-Economic and Political Contributions…74-76.
110
Azaigba. The Igbo Factor in the Development…107-108.
46
people from other ethnic groups have the privilege to learn technical and trade skills under them

before going ahead to establish their own businesses after due graduation from their master.111

In the area of education, the impact of the Igbo is also felt. Igbo teachers are seen in virtually all

private nursery, primary and secondary schools while some of these schools were also

established by Igbo people. Some of the schools owned by the Igbo people include; Great

Leaders, Rock Foundation, Prince and Princess, Rock of Ages among others. According to the

proprietress of Rock foundation;

Wukari is like a home to me, I came here in the early 1990s

and decided to establish the school as my own quota in
developing education in the town and has presently became
a huge success.112

In the same vein, the founder of Great Leaders Academy who is also a lecturer at the Federal

University Wukari established her school to bridge the educational gap in Wukari been an

academia herself and her school has produced many graduates that are doing well in their various

fields of endeavour.113

The impact of the Igbo was also felt in hospitality especially in the sale of alcoholic drinks like

beer, according to a respondent;

I was born and brought up in Wukari, my father

used to sell beer and when I grew up, I joined him
in the beer business. I was still little when the Civil
War broke out, so we left Wukari for the fear of
been killed and returned after the war. During those
times, the beer business was dominated by the
Igbo.114

111
Oral Interview with Uchechi Uzoma, Civil Servant, 53 years, Female, Wukari. 20 th May 2023.
112
Oral Interview with Mary Barry, Proprietress, 50 years, wukari. 25th May 2023.
113
Oral Interview with Chinwuba Uchenna Getrude, Proprietress, 56 years. 25th May 2023.
114
Oral Interview with John Thomas, Businessman, 50 years, Female, Wukari. 20th May 2023.
47
With the introduction of Global System of Mobile Communications (GSM), the business was

quickly dominated by the Igbo in Wukari who own shops where they sell mobile phones and

accessories, most notable among the GSM sellers are Bakassi and Mekachi who both have a

good reputation in selling good phone products and accessories at a reasonable price.115

Oil or Petroleum business is another lucrative venture into by the Igbo people. Some of the

filling stations in Wukari are owned and controlled by the Igbo while some have taken a step

further by combining the business with as plant, for example, Capaduk filling station has two

service stations and a gas plant in Wukari. Other filling stations are Ganaco, Sam Rogers, Solid

Vineyard among others.116

In the baking industry, the Igbo are also prominent, they are fully engaged in the production of

bread even before the establishment of Federal University Wukari which took a cue from the

Igbo by producing bread as well. Some of these bakeries owned by the Igbo are defunct while

others are fully functional. Some of them are; Better Butter Bread (BBB), God’s Own Bread,

Ugo best and many others.117

The study area is an agricultural town where farming activities takes place from year to year

especially the people are avid yam farmers. As a result of this the agro-chemical business strives

in Wukari and this venture is also controlled by the Igbo. According to the son of the owner of

Zee Agro-Allied company, a foremost chemical company in Wukari;

My father came from Nnewi in Anambra state to Wuakri

for NYSC in 1991. Due to his passion for business, he
ventured into agro-chemical business coupled with his
background from Nnewi which is an industrial zone, he

115
Oral Interview with Sandra Onyebuchi, Civil Servant, 43 years Female, Wukari. 21st May 2023.
116
Oral Interview with George Austine, Entrepreneur, 37 years, Male, Wukari. 21 st May 2023.
117
Oral Interview with Cyril Chukwuma, Baker, 33 years, Male, Wukari. 21st May 2023.
48
 started buying chemicals from companies in large
quantities to sell in Wukari.118

There is also a great number of Igbo in the health sector, a lot of them work as doctors, nurses,

technologists, attendants and others in both public and private hospitals in Wukari. In addition,

pharmaceuticals and chemists are majorly owned and controlled by the Igbo, they form the main

distributors of medicines in Wukari. Most prominent among them are New World and Sir Jik

while their contemporaries that run chemist procure medicines from them. It is believed that they

have the capital to invest in the business and also obtaining a license.119

There are a number of supermarkets in Wukari that are essentially owned by the Igbo, prominent

among them are; Bonas supermarket, Matthew supermarket, Chinex supermarket, Chika

supermarket, Little Sunny supermarket and others along old market that were burnt during the

crises. There are also a chain of retail and wholesale shops in the town especially in New Market

where the Igbo also exercise dominance. According to a respondent;

I came from Anambra to Wukari in the 1980’s,

when I settled in, I established a provision shop and
gradually the business expanded to a
120
supermarket.

Another economic venture where the Igbo are prominent is the timber business, although some

Jukun people are also involved in the business but the Igbo hold sway. The Igbo ventured into

the business because it was lucrative whereby timber shops were scattered all over the town

before the bulk of the timber traders under their union decided to relocate to a new place along

Bantaje road where they named ‘Timber Shed’ which is their present place location. 121

118
Oral Interview with Ifeanyi Azuka, 30 years, Male, Wukari. 25th May 2023.
119
Oral Interview with Innocent Ikenna, Chemist Owner, 27 years, Male, Wukari. 25 th May 2023.
120
Oral Interview with Alex Ebutu, Supermarket Owner, 55 years, Wukari. 25th May 2023.
121
Oral Interview with Bright Chukwudi, Timber Merchant, 41years, Male, Wukari. 26th May 2023.
49
 CHAPTER FOUR

CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF IGBO MIGRANTS IN WUKARI

The Igbo are known as one of the most migratory groups in Nigeria due to their itinerant nature

of always on the look-out for economic opportunities in different parts of Nigerian and the world

at large. Their migration pattern was divided into different phase, most significantly, before the

Civil war and after the civil war. The Igbo moved from Northern Nigeria during the Civil War

and returned when the war abated. This chapter explores the impact of the Nigerian Civil War on

the Igbo as well as the myriads of effects of the Wukari various crises on the Igbo as well, the

chapter also examines the prospect for the Igbo in their economic adventure in Wukari.

4.1 The Effect of the Nigerian Civil War on Igbo

The Nigeria Civil War caused Nigeria a great deal of resources in terms of lives, money

expended, and it image on the global scene. The war recorded about 100,000 military casualties

and 500,000 to two million deaths among the civilians due to starvation while an estimated three

million people died as a result of the conflict.122

The Nigeria Civil War which lasted from 1967-1970 had several effects on Nigeria, Wukari in

general and the Igbo people in Wukari specifically. This period marked a period of mass exodus

of the Igbo from their different abodes in Northern Nigeria for the safety of their lives. The Igbo

have settled in Wukari for a long time before Nigeria gained independence in 1960, due to issues

122
D. Adamu, Analyzing the Socio-Psychological Effects of the Nigerian Civil War. KIU Journal of Humanities,
19(2), 162.
50
of their safety, they had to leave Wukari and find their way back to the East. During this period,

the Igbo lost a lot of their properties, some were burnt, looted and out-rightly seized.123

Besides the fact that the Igbo people moved enmasse out of Wukari, this led to the reduction of

their population. Some of the Igbo who had acquired land, houses and business outlets in Wukari

before the outbreak of the Civil War lost their asset. The war also caused massive setback for

economic activities of the Igbo people and the town at large, their business premises were either

destroyed or looted during the war. According to a respondent;

The thought of the war always make me emotional because

some of my friends who came to Wukari from the East
could not share their ordeal. Shops belonging to Igbo
people were destroyed. I was trapped in Wukari and could
not escape if not for my landlord who is also a Jukun
man.124

The mass exodus of the Igbo as a result of the Civil War led to the collapse of several businesses

owned by them. By the end of the war, the Igbo people that came back found their business

premises, houses and asset either destroyed or taken over by people from the town and people

from other regions without any means to reinstate them. Some went back as a result of this

development while some decided to start from the scratch. The triple ‘R’ programme, that is,

reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconciliation of the Gowon led government only aided the

Igbo to move freely across the country without any meaningful impact on their lives and

businesses. According to another respondent on the effect of the Civil War;

I was very young when the civil war began like a

crisis situation that would soon end, at that time, my
123
Oral Interview with Eze Obinna, Trader, 60 years, Male, Wukari. 10th June 2023.
124
Oral Interview with Chukwuma Odinaka, Trader, 65 years, Male, Wukari, !0th June 2023.
51
 father was a beer distributor. When the war started
in Wukari, we packed all our belongings and moved
out of Wukari with the hope that the war would end
in a short while, we returned after the war with the
hope to still meet our properties but could not find
any125.

As a result of the Civil War, a lot of Igbo women were turned into widows and their children

turned into orphans. While some of them left Wukari, they never made it back to their homeland

in the East. Some of the young men and adults were unfortunately forcefully conscripted to fight

in the Biafran army. There was also a rise in sex slavery, exploitation and prostitution among

young women and widows of Igbo origin in order to meet their needs.126

As a result of the civil war, the Igbo faced a number of challenges including exclusion from the

most influential positions in the state and the formal economy. Igbo traders, artisans and business

people have achieved legendary success in the informal economy. Similarly, the conflicts had

resulted in loss of land, economy and political power from Igbos, for that

purpose the Igbos had no option than to migrate to another state looking for more

opportunities.127

There was a general feeling among the Igbo that thy had been deliberately edged out and

replaced in government positions, economic mainstay and asset because their pre-war positions

and assets have been taken over by other Nigerians without any move from the government to

restore them back to their positions or replace their assets. Another blow to the Igbo during as an

125
Oral Interview with Silas Chigozie, Businessman, 66 years, Male, Wukari. 10th May 2023.
126
Oral Interview with Cletus Obi, Civil Servant, 63 years, Male, Wukari. 10th May 2023.
127
S. Fatima, M.D. Bawa, A.A. Isah, M.S. Abdulkadir, and F.M. Kuttu, Socio-Economic and Political
Contributions of Igbo Ethnicity in Sokoto Metropolitan. International Journal of Scientific Research in Humanities,
Legal Studies and International Relations. 2020, vol. 5, no. 1, 74.
52
aftermath of the war was the change in the Nation’s currency so that pre-war currency was no

longer a legal tender, after the war, an equivalent of only N20 was given to the Igbo in exchange

of their currency which was perceived as an attempt to keep the Igbo in the middle or lower class

and the inability to expand their business interest. Furthermore, military personnel who fought on

the side of Biafra were dismissed.128

4.2 The Effect of Wukari Ethno-Religious Crises on Igbo

Wukari has witnessed a number of violent conflicts right from pre-colonial times but things took

a different dimension from the post-colonial period especially from 1991 Tiv-Jukun crisis, and

then the 2013 Ethno-religious crises up to 2016 where the Igbo seem to bear the brunt of any

form of crisis without been directly involved, their means of livelihood easily becomes a target

for looting and destruction in any period of crises. Because of crises in Wukari from the period

of 1960 of Nigeria’s independence, lives and properties of the Igbo have been lost in a myriad of

conflict involving the Jukun, Tiv, Hausa, Fulani and between Christians as well as Muslims.129

The dawn of the various episodes of crises in and around Wukari is as old as any other form of

interaction of the various groups of people inhabiting the Wukari federation which constitutes a

multi-ethnic society. Wukari is undoubtedly the traditional homeland of the Jukun and also

houses other tribes such as the Tiv, Hausa-Fulani who have been co-habiting since the pre-

colonial period alongside other immigrant ethnic groups all living together. This situation

degenerated into violent confrontation between the Jukun and Tiv in 1990-1992, and another

phase of terror in the year 2000-2001 which inadvertently led to massive burning of houses,

128
Adamu, Analyzing the Socio-Psychological Effects…163.
129
Oral Interview with Calista Okechukwu, Public Servaant, 50 years, Female, Wukari. 11 th May 2023.
53
schools, business premises, looting of properties, including killing and maiming of a large

number of people including the Igbo.130

Quite a good number of Igbo residents in the town had to relocate impoverished as a result of

losing a breadwinner or source of livelihood to crises while those who stayed back had to start all

over again. A respondent explained why Igbo businesses were been attacked during the period of

crises;

The Igbo people are always accused of supporting

one party over the other, this is the premise on
which they use to destroy the properties and shops
of our people. They normally perpetuate this act in
the night when the shops have been closed, they
break them from the back, loot them and then set
them on fire.131
There was an episode of crises that occurred between the Tiv and the Jukun from 1990-1992

with devastating effects yet on the Igbo of Wukari;

There had been communal clashes between the Tiv

and Jukun over land and farming activities as well
as between the Christians and Muslims which were
always resolved. But the one of 1990-1992 defiled
logic, some say it is religiously and politically
motivated and became difficult to resolve.132

Comfort Okeke, the spouse to a famous Igbo trader who had been in Wukari since the 1980’s

and had also been instrumental to the influx of other Igbo people to Wukari to tap from

130
V. Lukpata, “Wukari in the Wake of Local Crises” in V. Ukaogo (Ed.), United in Differences, Disunited in
Agreement; Analysis of Peoples, Tradition, Culture and Endless Conflicts amongst the Jukun of Central Nigeria.
Academic Press Limited, Abuja, 2025.
131
Oral Interview with Uchechi Madu, Trader, 60 years, Female, Wukari. 11 May 2023.
132
Oral Interview with Ndubuisi Ike, Trader, 61 years, Male, Wukari. 11th May 2023.
54
economic opportunities. The respondent reiterated that the Igbo were always the ones to suffer

heavy losses whenever there are incidences of crises; the respondent gave an example of the

Tiv/Jukun crises in 1990;

I and my husband have witnessed several crises in

Wukari in the past decade but none of these crises
can be compared to the 1990 because many Igbo
shops and properties including residential houses
were destroyed in the town including our own.133

Furthermore, a respondent analyzed his experience on the various episodes of crises in Wukari;

I first arrived in Wukari in 1980 and had witnessed

more than ten episodes of crises, some of which
made me run back to my native land in the East
with my family for safety and to return when
normalcy is restored. Of the entire crisis I have
witnessed, the lingering crises that started in Wukari
in the year 2013 with various episodes have defiled
imagination, causing me constant trauma because a
lot of my properties worth millions were destroyed
in the crises in Wukari.134
The crises experienced in Wukari took another dimension from 2013-2016 leaving behind

devastation and bloodshed accompanied with the use or more sophisticated weapons from both

parties. The particular episode of crises started on 23 rd February 2013 due to an argument on the

football pitch between two football clubs who claimed they both have the right to use the Mallam

Bello Memorial School field for practice. A young man who lived around the area and

coincidentally a Christian was said to have attempted to mediate between the two parties but was
133
Oral Interview with Comfort Okeke, Businesswoman, 60 years, Female, Wukari. 12th May 2023.
134
Oral Interview with John Okafor, Businessman, 70 years, Male, Wukari. 11th May 2023.
55
unfortunately shot with the gun brought to the field by a Muslim youth and he succumbed to his

wounds when he was taken to the hospital. The news of his death spread like wild fire with both

sides arming themselves to attack or to defend as the case may be.135

On 10th May 2013, another phase of terror was unleashed during the funeral procession of the

third in command to the Aku Uka. Some Muslim youths alleged that the funeral procession was

an obstruction to their Friday Juma’at prayer. The misunderstanding between both parties led to

breakdown of law and order once again which resulted in the death of many people and

destruction of properties,136 especially shops and business premised which is mostly owned and

controlled by the Igbo.

Wukari town was thrown into yet another fracas on Wednesday, 16th April, 2014 which was an

off-shoot of the persisting Fulani incursion into the neighbouring villages. Some youth

reportedly lost their life in one of such attacks which culminated into reprisal attacks on

suspected Fulani within Wukari town where a lot of houses were destroyed and several lives lost

in the process,137 including houses that belonged to the Igbo people.

These series of crises brought about a lot of changes to the town economically, socially and

structurally. The town became sharply divided into two camps, that is, Muslim area and

Christian area. The people who had erstwhile lived, built houses and had business premises in

these areas lost all their belongings and had to relocate to the area that they belong in terms of

the division. The Igbo people on the other hand were accused by both parties of supporting either

the other group of not showing enough support, hence. Their properties were destroyed, their

houses, their shops were looted and burnt and majority of them were living in what is not called

135
A memorandum submitted by the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN), 2014
136
http://www.weeklytrust.com/wukaricrisis:oneviolencetoomany.php.
137
http://www.vanguardngr.com/fulani-jukunclash.html
56
the Muslim area as at this period and had their shops there as well. As a result, they had to run

for their dear lives, some went back to other regions, some went back to the East and never

returned, while those that stayed behind or came back after the crises had to adjust to the new

reality on ground. This sharp division between the Christian and Muslim stunted the

development and growth of the town because it brought about fear in the mind of the people

especially the Igbo to build permanent structures or have a solid investment in Wukari which

might be lost within a moment of crisis.138

It is a known fact that entrepreneurs often secure bank loan to boost their businesses or expand

their investment. Some Igbo traders were not left out in this endeavor, a good number of them

had secured bank loans and could not pay back due to death or destruction of their means of

livelihood, therefore their properties that were used as collateral were seized by the bank leaving

their family impoverished.139

4.3 Prospects of Igbo in Wukari

The Igbo community in Wukari have suffered and endured great loss in terms of lives,

properties, investments and asset as a result of different shades of crisis that the town has

witnessed. It is the duty of the government to ensure the safety of all lives and properties in any

location across the country, therefore, there is a clarion call on the government to ensure the

safety of lives of both the indigenous people and migrants in Wukari. These migrants are

economic drivers and their continued safety would encourage their continued stay which would

advertently ensure the growth and development of Wukari.140

In addition, Government at the national level should as a matter of urgency introduced laws

138
Oral Interview with Emeka Calistus, Entrepreneur, 41 years, Male, Wukari. 12th May 2023.
139
Oral Interview with Emeka Calistus...
140
Oral Interview with Comfort Okeke…
57
based on our constitution that should protect and eliminate the system of indigene-settler which

has been a bane to national development and a source of continuous tension. The government

should emphasize on social control while non-indigenes should be protected irrespective of

whether they are Igbos or not. An enabling environment should be given more priority in terms

of business establishment and other developmental issues. Government should encourage non-

indigenes and assist them with more financial assistance that they could use to improve their

business. Religious leaders and traditional leaders should always emphasize on how to stay with

others. Scholars should educate the indigenes on the importance of peace.141

The State government should pursue collaborative efforts with its development partners to build

bilateral and multinational security networks in Wukari, they should embark on robust patrols

and intelligence gathering within the nooks and crannies of the town and environs. The Igbo

should also endeavor to support this motive so that their lives and properties can be secured by

this security arrangement in the case of conflict or crises.142

141
Bawa et al, Socio-Economic and Political Contributions…77.
142
V.I. Lukpata, A.O. Dada, and T.A. Adihikon, Impact of Ethno-Religious Crises on Socio-Economic Activities in
Wukari Local Government Area, Taraba State, Nigeria. International Journal Peace and Conflict Studies. 2016, vol.
3, no, 2, 7-13.
58
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary

This research focused on The Role of Igbo towards the Economic Growth and Development of

Wukari Town from 1999-2019. The Igbo are well known as economic migrants, they move from

place to place in search of economic and business opportunities. The pattern of their migration

took a new dimension flowing the Nigerian Civil War from 1967-1970 where most parts of

Igboland was bombarded and destroyed and the Igbo left impoverished, thus, the need to move

out to seek greener pastures in different parts of the country including Wukari.

This work is divided into five chapters; chapter one is the general introduction comprising, a

statement of problem, the aim and objectives as well as the scope and limitation of the study. The

chapter also contains the significance and relevance of the research and explored the

methodology employed while using the conceptual clarification sub-section to define and adopt a

working definition for the research, related literatures were also reviewed.

Chapter Two espoused the geography and the location of Wukari. The chapter also considers the

history of origin, migration and settlement of the Jukun people of Wukari with due consideration

of the Igbo people who have inhabited the study area. This chapter also examines the social cum

economic activities that are predominant in the area of study.

Chapter Three captured the role of the Igbo people in the economic growth and development of

Wukari via trade, commerce and business. The chapter also discusses the migration of the Igbo

people into Wukari as well as the socio-economic activities they were engaged in while

emphasizing their role in the economic growth and development of the study area.

59
Chapter Four explored the impact of the Nigerian Civil War on the Igbo as well as the myriads of

effects of the various episodes of crises in Wukari on the Igbo as well, the chapter also examines

the prospect for the Igbo in their economic adventure in Wukari. While chapter five gives the

summary and conclusion of the work.

5.2 Conclusion

This research was an exposition of The Role of Igbo towards the Economic Growth and

Development of Wukari Town from 1999-2019. The migration of the Igbo can be divided onto

three periods; from 1400-1800, the second wave of the Igbo migration was from 1900-1970

while the third wave of Igbo migration was from 1970, immediately after the Nigerian Civil

War. Although, a lot of Igbo people had been residing in different parts of Nigeria before the

Civil War but they had to go back to their homeland in large numbers because their security was

not guaranteed. Most of their properties had either been destroyed or confiscated after the war in

1970.

Their emigration into Wukari had been an addition because most of them are entrepreneurs and

business owners that invested heavily into the economy of the town, it is convenient to say that

the Igbo are the drivers of the economy as a result of their diversity into different sphere of

business and investment. The Igbo has played and continue to play significant role in the

economic growth and development of Wukari, they owned and controlled different industries

such as, spare parts, mechanic work, electronics, gas, petroleum, provision, supermarket,

education, health, agriculture and many more.

However, the sojourn of the Igbo in Wukari has been marred with challenges ranging from the

Nigerian Civil War and the various episodes of Crises in the town and its environs where the

60
properties and investments of the Igbo becomes a target, such as the Ethno-religious crisis

between the Tiv and the Jukn and between the Christians and Muslims in the town. Successful

Igbo business owners have also become a target for kidnappers who demand huge ransom for

their release leading to heavy losses on their part both of lives and investments. The Igbo had

been resolute in overcoming all these myriad of problem and continued to be the economic force

in Wukari and environs till date.

61
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