Faculty of Engineering - Chemical Engineering Department

Course title: Petroleum Refinery Engineering

Lecture 4:

Fractionation of Crude Oil

Fakhri Hamdullah Ibraheem

fakhri.ibraheem@koyauniversity.org
October - 2021
Crude Oil Specifications or properties:
1. Laboratory tests:
Distillation Curves: In order to determine the most desirable processing sequence to obtain the required products, a
laboratories tests will provide data concerning the distillation and processing of the oil and its fractions. The first step is to
determine distillation curve, in which the crude oil separated into fractions according to its boiling point. There are at
least four types of distillation curves as follows:
a. True-boiling-point (T.B.P): This test enlightens the refiners with all possible information regarding the percentage of
each cut and the possible difficulties beset during treatment operation etc. There are two TBP tests, the 1st one is at
normal pressure and till 275 °C end point and the second one at vacuum 40 mm Hg and till 300 °C end point. This
test is necessary to prevent excessive pot temperature which causes cracking of the crude oil in normal and vacuum
distillation tower. The distillation temperature at 40 mm Hg can by converted to 760 mm Hg by use of chart Figure
1. The gravity mid- percent curve is plotted on the same chart with TBP. The gravity should be plotted on the
average volume percent of the fraction, as the gravity is the average of the gravities from the first to the last drops in
the fractions. For narrow cuts, a straight line relationship can be assumed and the gravity used as that of the mid-
percent of the fraction as shown in figure 2. The same test can be done by ASTM apparatus and get ASTM curve
b. Equilibrium or Flash Vaporization (EFV). The feed material is heated as it flows continuously through a heating
coil. As vapor is formed it kept cohesively with liquid at some temperature and a sudden release of pressure quickly
flashes or separates the vapor from the mixture without any rectification. By successive flash evaporation like this
the stock can be progressively distilled at different increasing temperatures. a curve of percentage vaporized vs.
temperature may be plotted. This test is necessary to inform the operator at which flashing degree (pressure
difference between inlet crude oil and tower ) will get feasible operating conditions as shown in figure 3.
Table 1 and Figure 4, shows samples of normal
fractionation operation conditions that produced
specified cuts related to the tray numbers. The
column operates generally at a pressure greater
than atmospheric pressure. Nearly 50–60% of
the crude oil is vaporized in the flash zone of
the tower. A preflash tower is necessary before
the atmospheric column, if the crude oil
contains higher amounts of lighter products.
The bottom temperature is bounded in the range
of 700-750 °F . This is done to avoid cracking.
The superheated steam required to boil off the
crude bottoms is usually at about 600 °F. The
steam consumption is usually 5–10 lb/bbl of
stripped product.

Table 1: Fractionation related to trays numbers

Fractionation of Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. The crude oil is evaporated and its vapours condense at different temperatures
in the fractionating column. Each fraction contains hydrocarbon molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms and
a similar range of boiling points. Figure 1 summarises the main fractions from crude oil and their uses, and the trends in
properties. Note that the gases leave at the top of the column, the liquids condense in the middle and the solids stay at
the bottom.
Generally the crude oil is fractionated to the following cuts:
1. Small alkanes (1 to 4 carbon atoms): Commonly known
by the names methane, ethane, propane, butane. Its
boiling range = less than 104 ০F / 40 ০C. often
liquefied under pressure to create LPG (liquefied
petroleum gas).
2. Naphtha or Ligroin: Intermediate that will be further
processed to make gasoline, mix of 5 to 9 carbon atom
alkanes. Its’ boiling range = 140 to 212 ০F/ 60 to 100 ০C.
3. Gasoline: Motor fuel, liquid. It is a mix of alkanes and
cycloalkanes (5 to 12 carbon atoms). Its’ boiling range =
104 to 220 ০F / 40 to 105 ০C.
4. Kerosene: Fuel for jet engines and tractors; starting
material for making other products. It is a liquid, mix of
alkanes (10 to 18 carbons) and aromatics. Its’ boiling
range = 220 to 370 ০F / 105 to 200 ০C. Figure 1: Fractionation of Crude Oil
 5. Light Gas oil: It is diesel fuel. This alkanes containing 12 or
more carbon atoms. Its’ boiling range = 370 to 520 ০F / 200
to 270 ০C.
6. Heavy Gas oil: It is a heavy truck and train fuel used for
distillate fuel Liquid. This Alkanes containing 20 or more
carbon atoms. Its’ boiling range 520 to 560 ০F / 270 320 ০C
7. Lubricating oil: It is used for motor oil, grease, other
lubricants liquid. It is a long chain (20 to 50 carbon atoms)
alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics. Its boiling range = 572 to
700 ০F / 300 to 370 ০.
8. Heavy gas or Fuel oil:: It is mazod and used for industrial
fuel and old ship fuel; starting material for making other
products. It is long chain liquid (20 to 70 carbon atoms)
alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics. Its’ boiling range = 700 to
1112 ০F / 370 to 600 ০C.
9. Residuals: It is coke, asphalt, tar, waxes; starting material for
making other products solid. It is a multiple-ringed
compounds with 70 or more carbon atoms. Its’ boiling range
= greater than 1112 ০F / 600 ০C
Each of the previous products named cut and produced in specified
locations in the fractionation tower according to its’ boiling range. Figure 2: Simple Scheme of Fractionation Tower
Operation Principles of Fractionation Tower:
To understand the fractionation process for multi products from crude oil, let us consider a series of flash fractionation starting
from low temperature evaporization to higher one as shown in figure 4. The lowest boiling product is vaporized in tower no. 1.
By reboiler heat at the bottom of tower no. 1, and successively higher and higher boiling materials are removed in the remaining
six towers. The feed is pumped from tower to tower, each tower is cooled by refluxing a part of the overhead product into the top
of the tower, and the bottom of each tower is heated by steam or a hot circulating oil by means of reboilers.

`
Successive fractional condensation is practiced in figure 5. Here an almost completely vaporized stock is cooled in tower no. 1 to
condense the highest boiling product, and successively lower boiling products are condensed in the remaining six towers. The
tower shown in figure 6 employs only three towers, but the total length of the three towers is about the sames as the length of the
seven towers in figure 4 and 5. Obviously, many combinations of these tower arrangement are possible. More material can be
vaporized (at a given temperature) by a single flash vaporization than several flashes, and hence the use of a single multidraw
tower figure 7 is better in this respect that the series arrangement of figure 4 and 5.
The term atmospheric distillation is used
because the unit operates slightly above
atmospheric pressure. Separation is
carried out in a large tower, which
contains a number of trays where
hydrocarbon gases and liquids interact.
The cold treated crude oil from the
storage tank enters first to the preheater
for primary heating to save energy and
avoid thermal shock, then enters the
furnace to increase its temperature to near
boiling point. The crude oil inters
fractionation tower in a lower section
called the flash zone. At a temperature
near the boiling point of crude oil.

Fig 7: Single multidraw tower

Operation Process:

1. Crude oil from the desalter is heated in a train of

heat exchangers up to a temperature of 250°C –
260°C, further by a tube-still heater (also known
as a pipe-still furnace) to a temperature of 350°C–
360°C.
2. Hot crude is then flashed into a distillation
column, which is a tall, multi plated cylindrical
vessel that separates the petroleum fractions
according to the differences in volatility. The
tower is divided into three zones (enriching or
rectification) at the top, and (stripping) at the
bottom section and flashing zone on feeding tray.
3. The feed flows down the column where it is
collected in the reboiler as shown in figure 9 or
use a steam to supply the heat to the tower. Heat
(usually as steam) is supplied to the reboiler to
generate vapors. The ratio of vapor / liquid is very
important to achieve tower heat balance.
Fig 8: PFD of fractionation tower
4. Vapor moves up the column, exits the top, and is cooled in
a condenser. The condensed liquid is stored in a holding
vessel known as the reflux drum. Some of this liquid is
recycled back to the top of the column and this is called
the reflux. The condensed liquid that is removed from the
system is known as the distillate or top product.
The main components of distillation tower are:
1. A vertical shell where separation of liquid components is
done.
2. Column internals e.g. trays / plates which are used to
enhance component separations.
3. A reboiler to provide the necessary vaporization for the
distillation process.
4. A condenser to cool and condense the vapour leaving the
top of the column.
5. A reflux drum to hold the condensed vapour from the top
of the column so that liquid (reflux) can be recycled back
to the column.
The crude oil fractionation towers consist of three sections: Fig 9: PFD of fractionation tower with reboiler
1. Flashing Section where crude oil feed in to the tower.
2. Rectification Section.
3. Stripping Section
Types of trays in fractionation tower

1. Bubble cap trays

A riser is fitted over each hole, and a cap covers the riser. The cap is mounted with a space to allow vapors to rise
through the chimney and be directed downward by the cap, finally discharging through slots in the cap, and bubbling through the
liquid on the tray.
2. Valve trays
Perforations are covered by caps lifted by vapor, which creates a flow area and directs the vapors horizontally into the liquid.
3. Sieve trays
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapors passes straight upward through the liquid on the plate. The
arrangement, number and size of the holes are design parameters.
Each tray has 2 conduits called down-comers: one on each side. Liquid falls by gravity through the down-comers from one tray
to the tray below. A weir ensures there is always some liquid (holdup) on the tray and is designed such that the holdup is at a
suitable height, e.g. such that the bubble caps are covered by liquid. Vapors flows up the column and is forced to pass through the
liquid via the openings on each tray. The area allowed for the passage of vapors on each tray is called the active tray area.
Trays are designed to maximise vapour-liquid contact by considering the liquid distribution and vapour distribution on the tray.
This is because better vapour-liquid contact means better separation at each tray, translating to better column performance. Less
trays will be required to achieve the same degree of separation. Attendant benefits include less energy usage and lower
construction costs.
The below image below show the direction of
vapour and liquid flow across a tray, and across a
column. Each tray has 2 conduits, one on each
side, called DOWNCOMER. Liquid falls through
the downcomers by gravity from one tray to the
one below it.

Fig 10: Bubble Cup Tray

Fig 11: Mass transfer across the tray
Sieve Tray:
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapour passes straight upward through the liquid on the plate. The
arrangement, number and size of the holes are design parameters.

Fig 12: Sieve tray

Valve Tray:
In valve trays, perforations are covered by liftable caps. Vapour flows lifts the caps, thus self creating a flow area for the passage of
vapour. The lifting cap directs the vapour to flow horizontally into the liquid, thus providing better mixing than is possible in sieve
trays.

Valve tray is a steel sheet

on which liftable valves
are mounted. They are
much more efficient than
sieve trays.

Fig 13: Valve tray

Figure 14: shapes of valves over valve tray
Inner profile of
fractionation tower
Control Productivity and Quality of Fractionation Tower:
There are two key factors working together in distillation tower:

1. Temperature gradient.
2. Pressure gradient.

The temperature profile across the fractionation tower distributed from higher temperature at the bottom of the tower then reduced
gradually up to the top of tower. The temperature at the top of the tower should be slightly higher than the boiling point of
overhead product, to control purity of products. The temperature at the bottom of the tower should be slightly lower than the
boiling point of the heavier component. The temperature of the feeding oil should be within the boiling point of the oil and equal to
the temperature of the feed tray which depend on physical position of the feed tray, if it be at lower position means it will be at
higher temperature.

Control products quality is done by controlling temperature distribution along the distillation tower by:

1. Control the temperature of the external reflux. Increasing ER will reduce the temperature at the top of the tower.

2. Control the temperature of the feeding crude oil and the physical position of the feeding rate.

3. Control the amount of heat input to the tower through the boil-up rate.
Power differential pressure is the difference between the pressures at the bottom of the tower from that at the top, this difference
in pressure is due to vapor flow from the bottom to the top of the tower. Increasing flow means high ΔP. Also an increase of input
feed will increase ΔP and tower will not make the desired separation
Control the pressure distribution means control the productivity. The Pressure gradient across distillation tower affected by the
following three factors:
1. The amount of the boil-up rate followed by increasing its (vapor/liquid) ratio.
2. The amount of the feeding rate crude oil.
3. Overhead discharge condenser efficiency and controlling pressure by control valve on the condenser discharge.

Kind of refluxes:
1. External Reflux of cold reflux, is defined as a reflux that is supplied at some temperature below the temp. at the top of the
tower.
2. Internal reflux, is reflux that is admitted to the tower at the same temp as that maintained at the top of the tower (overflow)
from plate to plate.
3. Around reflux: from lower plate to upper one.
Reflux ratio equal to the ratio between the amount of refluxed flow to the overhead product. Increasing refluxes will increase
quality of each cut.
Figure 16: Bazyan Refinery Project

Figure 15: Fractionation tower in Bazyan Refinery

Most atmospheric towers
contain 25–35 trays between
the flash zone and the top
tower. The allowable pressure
drop for trays is approximately
0.1–0.2 psi per tray. Generally
a pressure drop of 5 psi is
allowed between the flash
zone and the top tower.

Figure 4: Normal Fractionation Tower with the different cuts related to specified trays
 Kinds of Oil Fractionation Tower Reflexes:
External Reflux: Vapour moves up the column, exits the top, and is cooled in a condenser. The condensed liquid is
stored in a holding vessel known as the reflux drum. Some of this liquid is recycled back to the top of the column and
this is called the external reflux or cold reflux. The condensed liquid that is removed from the system is known as the
distillate or top product. Thus, there are internal flows of vapour and liquid within the column as well as external flows
of feeds and product streams, into and out of the column as shown in figure 5.
Reflux is provided by condensing the tower overhead
vapors and returning a portion of the liquid to the top of
the tower, and also by pump-around and pumpback
streams lower in the tower. Each of the side streams
products removed from the tower and return to the tower
at a reduced amount and lower temperature which leads
to decreases the amount of external reflux as shown in
figure 5. Each pound of this reflux removes a quantity of
heat equal to its latent heat and the sensible heat required
to raise it temperature from the storage tank temperature
to the temperature at the top of the tower.
Q = m λ + m CpL ∆T

hot reflux because it is always substantially at its boiling

point. Hot reflux capable of removing only the latent
heat because no difference in temperature is involved. Figure 5: External Reflux or Cold Reflux
Q=mλ
Around Reflux: liquid is removed from the lower tower,
cooled by a heat exchanger, and returned to the tower.
Alternatively, a portion of the cooled sidestream may be
returned to the tower. This cold stream condenses more of the
vapors coming from the lower tower section and thereby
increases the reflux below that point as shown in figure 6.
Reflux or over flow from plate to plate in the tower is
essentially to control tower temperature distribution. This
reflux is withdrawn from the tower as a liquid at a high
temperature as a liquid and is returned to the tower after having
been cooled. Q = m CpL ∆T

Side Stripping Columns:

The liquid sidestream withdrawn from the tower will contain
low-boiling components which lower the flashpoint (because
the lighter products pass through the heavier products and are
in equilibrium on every tray). These light ends are stripped
from each sidestream in a separate small stripping tower
containing four to ten trays with steam introduced under the
bottom tray. The steam and stripped light ends are vented
back into the vapor zone of the main column above the
Figure 6: Around Reflux
corresponding side-draw tray as shown in figure 7.
Fractionation Tower Bottom:
Although crude towers do not normally use reboilers, several trays are generally incorporated below the flash zone. Steam is
introduced below the bottom tray to strip any remaining gas oil from the liquid in the flash zone and to produce a high flash-
point bottoms. Moreover, the steam reduces the partial pressure of the hydrocarbons and thus lowers the required
vaporization temperature as shown in figure 8.

Figure 8: Bottom of fractionation tower Figure 7: Side Stripper

 Heat Transfer in Furnace:
The heat transfer if furnace by two methods:
1. Radiation section
2. Convection section.

The most universal classification is based on direction of tubes as well as shape of furnace and mode of application of heat.
In most of the furnaces, the direction of tubes is horizontal as in all box type heaters and vertical in cylindrical stills. Radiant
walls also use horizontal tubes, however tubes can be placed vertically also. The radiant section design is based on Stefan 's
law of radiation: A: area of radiating surface, ft2; b : 1.72x109 Btu/ oF ft2 hr at black body conditions. T: absolute
temperature of the surface °F
Example 1:
A petroleum stock at a rate of 1200 bbl/hr. of sp. gr. 0.8524 is passed through a train of heat exchangers and is allowed to
enter directly the radiant section of box type heater at 220 o C . The heater is designed to burn 3500 kgs per hour of refinery
off gases as fuel. The net heating value of fuel is 47.46x103 Kj per kg. The radiant section contains 150 sq. meters of
projected area of one row of tubes (10.5 cm, 12 m long and spaced at 2 OD).
Find the outlet temperature of the petroleum stock?
Data: α=0.88; Air fuel ratio= 25 ; Average Specific heat of stock=2.268 Kj/Kg °C.
Solution:
Total heat liberated (Q) = m fuel × NHV =47.46 × 103 × 3500 = 1.66 × 108 Kj per hour
Projected area of one tube (L * D)=12x0.105 m2
No. of tubes= 150 / (12 × 0.105)=120 tubes
α A cp=0.88 × 120 × 0.105 × 2 × 12 = 266 m2.
For a satisfactory design, the following schedule of heat distribution:

Design of a furnace radiation section is based on Hottle, Wilson method and radiant heat absorption is given as follows:
Outlet temperature of the stock:
1 bbl = 163.66 liter (bbl means beer barrel)
Q = m Cp ∆t = 0.44 × 1.66 ×108 Kj/kg= 1200 × 163.66 (liters/hr) × 0.8524 (Kg/liter) × 2.268 (Kj/Kg °C.) × ∆t

∆t = 0.7304 ×108 (Kj/hr) / 379673.5 (Kj/hr °C) = 192 °C So the outlet temperature is equal to 192 + 220 = 412 °C

Example 2: Heat Balance of a Fractionating Tower

A heat balance of the simple tower system shown in Fig. 1. below will be computed to determine the amount of heat
that must be removed to keep the tower in thermal balance. The capacity is 1200 barrels per day (2100 gal per hour) of a
12.1 to 12.2 Characterization Factor crude oil. At 576 °F (302 °C) the gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and gas oil are vapor
and the reduced crude oil is a liquid. A sufficient quantity of heat must remove from the vapors to cool them to the
temperature at which they are withdrawn from the tower and to condense the naphtha, kerosene, and gas oil at their
withdrawal temperature.
 Volume 50% Bpt. Mol. Latent Cp Btu/ Latent heat
API Lb. / gal. Gal. / hr. Lb. / hr.
Percent °F wt. heat Btu/lb Lb. F° Btu/lb

Gasoline 26.8 62.8 6.06 563 3415 260 110 120 0.56 Still vapor

Naphtha 5.63 52.8 6.39 118 754 370 155 113 0.55 113

Kerosene 19.8 45.6 6.65 416 2765 460 185 100 0.57 100

Gasoil 10.6 39.4 6.89 222 1 530 585 240 90 0.59 90

Residue 36.97 31.2 7.24 776 5610 0.72

Loss 0.2 96

Crude 100 43.0 6.75 2100 14170

Steam 567 0.5

Sensible heat Btu

Gasoline (vapor)= m. Cp. ∆T 589000

= 3415× 0.56 × (576 – 286)
=

Naphtha (vapor) = 754 × 106000

0.55 × (576 – 335) =

Kerosene (vapor) = 2765 × 261000

0.57 × (576 – 420) =

Gasoil (vapor) = 1530 × 0.59 63000

× (576 – 510) =

Residue (liquid) = 5610 × 276000

0.72 × (576 – 510) =

Total 1295000
Latent Heat:

Gasoline (withdraw as vapor) Still vapor

Naphtha = 754 × 113 = 85100

Kerosene = 2765 × 100 = 276500

Gasoil = 1530 × 90 = 138000

Total Heat to be removed 1865200