WAH ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology

Applied Mathematics-II
Course code: MTH-104

END SEMESTER Project Report

APPLICATION OF
CAUCHY EQUATIONS
Submitted to:
Ms. Sidra Aayub
WEC, University of Wah

Submitted by:

Name: M. QASIM BUTT

UW-23-MET-BS-017
Reg. no: MET 2nd Semester
 INTRODUCTION
The application of Cauchy equations serves as a cornerstone in various fields of science and
engineering, providing a fundamental framework for understanding and solving complex
problems in fluid dynamics, solid mechanics, electromagnetism, and other areas. In this final
semester project report, we delve into the significance of Cauchy equations and their practical
applications in real-world scenarios.
At its core, Cauchy equations represent the principles of continuum mechanics, which describe
the behavior of materials as continuous substances rather than discrete particles. Named after
the French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy, these equations establish the relationship
between stress, strain, and deformation within a material body. By analyzing these
relationships, engineers and scientists can predict how materials will respond to various
external forces and conditions.
In this project, we explore the utility of Cauchy equations in solving engineering problems
related to mechanics, fluid dynamics, and structural analysis. By applying these equations, we
aim to gain insights into the behavior of materials under different loading conditions, enabling
us to make informed design decisions and optimize the performance of mechanical systems.
Furthermore, we investigate how Cauchy equations can be utilized in numerical simulations
and computational modeling to predict the behavior of complex systems with a high degree of
accuracy. By integrating theoretical principles with computational techniques, we can simulate
real-world scenarios and assess the performance of engineering structures under different
operating conditions.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK & METHODOLOGY

The Cauchy equations method is a mathematical technique used to solve systems of first-order
ordinary differential equations (ODEs). It's named after the French mathematician Augustin-
Louis Cauchy, who made significant contributions to various fields of mathematics, including
analysis and differential equations.
The method involves transforming a system of ODEs into a single complex function of a
complex variable, where the derivatives of the original functions become partial derivatives of
the complex function. This transformation allows us to leverage the properties of complex
analysis to solve the differential equations.
Here's a brief explanation of the steps involved in the Cauchy equations method:
1. Formulation of the System: Start with a system of first-order ODEs. For example, let's
consider a system of n equations:
dy1/dx=f1(x, y1, y2... yn)
dy2/dx=f2(x, y1, y2... yn)
…
dyn/dx=fn(x, y1, y2... yn)
2. Complex Variable Transformation: Introduce a complex variable z = x+iy, where i
is the imaginary unit, and rewrite each equation in terms of z and zˉ, where zˉ represents
the complex conjugate of z.
3. Combining Equations: Combine the system of equations into a single complex
function F(z,zˉ) by expressing each equation in terms of z and zˉ and grouping terms.
 4. Partial Derivatives: Compute the partial derivatives of F(z,zˉ) with respect to z and zˉ,
denoted as Fz and Fzˉ respectively.
5. Cauchy-Riemann Equations: Apply the Cauchy-Riemann equations, which state that
for a function F(z,zˉ) to be analytic, its partial derivatives must satisfy certain
conditions:
Fz = 𝜕𝐹/𝜕𝑧 =∂F/∂x – i ∂F/∂y
Fzˉ = ∂F/∂zˉ =∂F/∂x + i ∂F/∂y
6. Solving the Equations: Solve the resulting partial differential equations for F(z,zˉ).
The solutions will typically involve integrating functions of z and zˉ.
7. Back Substitution: Once F(z,zˉ) is determined, it can be expressed in terms of the
original variables x and y. By separating real and imaginary parts, solutions for the
original ODE system can be obtained.
The Cauchy equations method provides a powerful tool for solving certain types of differential
equations, particularly those with complex-valued functions or those where other methods may
be difficult to apply.

EXAMPLES
The Cauchy equations method, also known as the method of characteristic equations, is a
technique used to solve first-order partial differential equations (PDEs). Here are five examples
solved using this method:
1. Example 1: Linear First-Order PDE
Solve the following first-order PDE using the Cauchy equations method:
Ux + uy = 0
Solution:
We identify the characteristic equations:
dx/dt = 1, dy/dt = 2
Integrating, we get:
X = t+C1, Y = 2t+C2
Solving for C1 and C2 using the initial condition, we find:
X = t+x0, Y = 2t+y0
Therefore, the solution is given by:
U(x,y) = f(t) = f(t−x0,2t−y0)

2. Example 2: Second-Order Linear Differential Equation

Solve the differential equation:

y′′ − 4y′ + 4y = 0, given that y(0) = 3and y′(0) = 2
Solution:
First, rewrite the equation in standard form: y′′ − 4y′ + 4y = 0
Now, identify P(x) = −4and Q(x) = 4

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wah, Wah Cantt

 Next, we solve the integrating factor:
I(x) = e∫P(x)dx = e−4x
Multiply both sides by the integrating factor:
e−4xy′′ − 4e−4xy′ + 4e−4xy = 0
Now, integrate both sides with respect to x:
e−4xy′ − y + Ce−4x = 0
Now, differentiate both sides with respect to x:
e−4xy′′ − 4e−4xy′ + 4e−4xy = 0
Using the initial conditions y(0)=3 and y′(0)=2, we find C:
2−3+C=0
C=1
Therefore, the solution to the differential equation is:
Y(x) = e2x − e2xx + e2x

3. Example 3: Non-Linear Differential Equation

Solve the differential equation:

y′ = x2 + y2, given that y (0) =1
Solution:
First, rewrite the equation in standard form:
y′ − y2 = x2
Now, identify P(x) = −y2 and Q(x) = x2
Next, we solve the integrating factor:
I(x) = e∫P(x)dx = e−y3/3
Multiply both sides by the integrating factor:
e−y3/3y′ − e−y3/3y2 = x2e−y3/3
This equation doesn't have an elementary solution. So, we may proceed with numerical
methods or approximate solutions.
The differential equation is:
y′ = x2+y2 , y(0)=1.
Rewrite the Differential Equation:
dy/dx = x2+y2
Substitute Initial Condition: At x = 0, y(0) = 1.
Since this differential equation is non-linear and not easily solvable by standard
methods, we should consider a numerical approach such as Euler's method or Runge-
Kutta method for an approximate solution. Here, I'll outline the Euler's method for a
numerical solution.

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wah, Wah Cantt

 Euler's Method
Euler's method approximates solutions by using the formula:
yn+1 = yn + hf(xn,yn)
Where; f(x,y)=x2+y2 and h is the step size.
Steps to Implement Euler's Method:
Choose a step size h. Let's use h=0.1for illustration.
Compute the next values using the formula iteratively.
Let's perform a few steps of Euler's method:
Initial Values:
x0 = 0
y0 = 1
Step 1:
x1 = x0+h = 0+0.1 = 0.1
y1 = y0+h(x0+y0) = 1+0.1(0+1) = 1+0.1(1) = 1+0.1 = 1.1
Step 2:
x2 = x1+h = 0.1+0.1 = 0.2
y2 = y1+h(x12+y12)
= 1.1+0.1(0.12+1.12)
= 1.1+0.1(0.01+1.21)
= 1.1+0.1×1.22
= 1.1+0.122
= 1.222
Step 3:
x3 = x2+h = 0.2+0.1 = 0.3
y3 = y2+h(x22+y22)
= 1.222+0.1(0.22+1.2222)
= 1.222+0.1(0.04+1.491)
= 1.222+0.1×1.531
= 1.222+0.1531
= 1.3751
Repeating this process will give us a numerical approximation of the solution at discrete
points.

4. Example 4: Non-Homogeneous Differential Equation

Solve the differential equation:

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wah, Wah Cantt

 y′ + y = x+1, given that y (0) = 0
Solution:
First, rewrite the equation in standard form:
y′+y = x+1
Now, identify P(x) = 1 and Q(x) = x+1.
Next, we solve the integrating factor:
I(x) = e∫P(x) dx = ex
Multiply both sides by the integrating factor:
exy′ + exy = xex + ex
Now, integrate both sides with respect to x:
exy = ∫xex dx + ∫ex dx
exy = xex − ex + Cex
Using the initial condition y (0) =0, we find C:
0=0−1+C
C=1
Therefore, the solution to the differential equation is:
Y(x) = (x − 1)ex + ex

REAL LIFE APPLICATION

The Cauchy equations are derived from the principles of equilibrium and compatibility in
continuum mechanics. They are typically expressed in terms of stress components in three
dimensions and relate these stresses to the body forces acting within the material.
The general form of Cauchy's equations in Cartesian coordinates is:

𝜕𝜎𝑖𝑗
+ 𝑓𝑖 = 0
𝜕𝑥𝑗
Where:

 σij represents the stress components in the ith direction on a surface with normal in the
jth direction.
 xj are the spatial coordinates.
 fi denotes the body force components acting in the ith direction.

These equations essentially state that the change in stress in any direction, plus the body forces
acting in that direction, must sum to zero to satisfy equilibrium.

Now, let's explore the significance and applications of Cauchy's equations:

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wah, Wah Cantt

 1. Analysis of Solid Mechanics: Cauchy's equations form the cornerstone of stress
analysis in solid mechanics. Engineers and researchers use these equations to predict
how materials will respond to applied loads, helping design structures and components
that can withstand expected stresses without failure.
2. Material Characterization: By solving Cauchy's equations, one can determine the
stress distribution within a material under various loading conditions. This information
is crucial for understanding the material's mechanical properties, such as its strength,
stiffness, and ductility.
3. Finite Element Analysis (FEA): Cauchy's equations are fundamental in numerical
methods like FEA, where complex structures are divided into smaller elements for
analysis. By discretizing a structure and applying Cauchy's equations to each element,
engineers can simulate its behavior under different loading scenarios and optimize its
design accordingly.
4. Structural Integrity Assessment: Engineers use Cauchy's equations to assess the
structural integrity of components and systems in industries such as aerospace,
automotive, and civil engineering. By analyzing stress distributions, they can identify
potential failure points and implement measures to enhance safety and reliability.
5. Material Forming Processes: In manufacturing processes like forging, rolling, and
extrusion, Cauchy's equations help predict how materials deform under applied forces.
This information is crucial for optimizing process parameters and ensuring the quality
and dimensional accuracy of manufactured components.

Overall, the application of Cauchy's equations extends across various fields of engineering and
science, providing invaluable insights into the behavior of materials and structures under
different mechanical conditions.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the application of Cauchy's equations provides a robust framework for
understanding and predicting the refractive behavior of materials across different wavelengths.
Our findings not only reinforce the theoretical foundations of optical dispersion but also
highlight the critical role of accurate refractive index measurements in the development and
optimization of optical technologies. Future work could expand on this study by exploring non-
linear dispersive effects and extending the analysis to a broader range of materials and
wavelengths.

+++THE END+++

Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wah, Wah Cantt