Chemical Bonds

Valence Electron- are the electrons occupying the highest energy level in an atom. Also called outermost electrons.
These electrons are being pulled or removed from a neutral atom depending on its ionization energy. It can also be affected by
electronegativity. Atoms react with one another to form chemical bonds to attain stability.
- These are the electrons involved in chemical bonding, not those closest to the nucleus.
- Elements in Group 8A or 18 have 8 valence electrons. Thus, they are called noble gases. They are stable and do not need to react with
other atoms to satisfy the octet rule.
- Group 1 has 0ne valence electrons - Group 15 has five valence electrons
- Group 2 has two valence electrons - Group 17 has seven valence electrons.
- They need to react with other atoms to attains 8 valence electrons. They undergo chemical reaction producing a new substance.
- Atoms bond by gaining, losing or sharing their electrons.

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

Ionization. It is the minimum energy needed to pull or remove the most loosely bound electrons. The lower it is the easy removal or
electrons.
Chemical bonding. The force or energy that holds atoms or ions together.
Flourine is the most electronegative while
francium is one of the least
electronegative

Flourine has the highest tendency to

form anions.

Octet rule
Stability refers to the strength to stand or resistance to chemical change or physical disintegration. It involves the possession of eight (8)
electrons in its outermost energy level or valence electrons. Atoms of all elements, therefore, to become stable, need to have 8 valence
electrons. This is known as the octet rule which was proposed by Gilbert Newton Lewis, an American Chemist.

Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS)

• Proposed by Gilbert N. Lewis, it is used to emphasize the atom’s valence electrons. It is a shorthand method that consists of a
symbol of the element surrounded by dots. The symbol represents the nucleus of the atom; while the dots represent the valence
electrons of the atom.

IONIC BONDING
- Involves complete transfer of valence electrons(s) between atoms, metal and nonmetal.
- It generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become Positive(Cations), whereas the nonmetal
accepts those electrons to become Negative(Anions).
- Metals at the left side of the periodic table ( such as Alkali and alkaline earth metals) have low ionization energies and form cations.
- It’s the electrons that change the charge in atoms during ion formation.
- Nonmetals at the right side of the periodic table, before the noble gases(such as halogens), have high electronegativities for additional
electrons and form anions.
Examples:
1. Metallic element sodium transfers an electron to a non-metallic element like fluorine.
2. Calcium has two valence electrons while oxygen has six. Calcium donates 2 electrons to an oxygen atoms and an ionic bond Is formed.
3. Potassium is a metallic element that loses its electron if it tends to bond with other elements.
4. Magnesium loses its 2 valence electrons in electron transfer, it will become isoelectronic with neon.

IONIC COMPOUND
When these metals and nonmetals chemically combine, an ionic structure is formed which is known as ionic compound is formed. These
electrostatic attraction that holds together the oppositely charged ions, the cations and anions, in the solid compound is referred to as Ionic
Bond. Ionic compounds have regular structures, called giant ionic lattices. In a giant lattice, there are strong electrostatic forces of
attraction acting in all directions between the oppositely charged ions. When the Electronegativity difference of the two involved elements is
greater than 1.9, complete transfer of electrons/s is possible. The transfer of electron/s is generally from metals to nonmetals.
Example:
1. Sodium + Fluorine = Sodium Fluoride Na + F = Na F
Electronegativity Numbers: Na= 0.90, F=4.0
Get the difference, thus, 4.0 - 0.90 = 3.1
The computed electronegativity difference is 3.1 which is higher than 1.9 so it is an ionic bond.

2. Potassium + Bromine = Potassium Bromide

Electronegativity Numbers: K= 0.8, Br = 2.8 3. Calcium + Oxygen = Calcium Oxide
2.8 – 0.8 = 2.0 Electronegativity Numbers: Ca= 1.0, O = 3.5
Electronegativity Difference = Ionic Bond Electronegativity Difference = _______
Properties of Ionic Compounds
Properties Description
1.Melting Point They have very high melting points and Boiling points Example: table salt melts at 801 0C and
boils at 14130C. It needs high or large amount of energy to break the ionic bonds.
2.Electrical Conductivity -The compounds are conductors of electricity in their molten or liquid state and in aqueous
solution but not in solid state
-Substances like salts, bases and acids like muriatic acid when dissolved in water dissociate to
form ions and thus conduct electricity.
3. Hardness -Ionic Compounds are hard and brittle
4.Polarity -Highly polar
5.Solubility -very soluble in water but not in inorganic or non-polar solvents
6.Flammability - usually nonflammable
7.Physical State -More on crystalline form or solid form in room temperature

Examples of Ionic Compounds and their uses:

Name of Compound Formula Uses
1.Sodium Fluoride NaF -Cleaning agent; ingredient in the petroleum industry
2.Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 -Use to make glass, iron or steel; component of cement
3.Sodium Chloride NaCl -Used for food preservatives and seasoning
- Table Salt
4. Lithium Iodide LiI -Used in rechargeable batteries that can last longer than other kinds of
batteries.
5. Calcium Phosphates CaPO4 - Makes the bones strong

COVALENT COMPOUND
- Involves sharing of electron pair (combination of two nonmetals)
-They are held together by covalent bond which is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms. Pairs of unshared electrons are known
as lone pairs or nonbonding pairs.
- In covalent bonding, a pair of shared electrons is equal to one(1) bond. Note that after the sharing of electrons, each of the atoms in the
compound attains a stable configuration and a covalent compound is formed. Such compound could exist as independent units called
Molecules that does not carry a charge.

Two Types of Covalent Bond:

A. Polar Covalent- is formed when the electronegativity difference is within the range of 0.5 to 1.9
Examples:
1. Aluminum + Chlorine= Aluminum Chloride
Electronegativity Values: Al= 1.5 , Cl= 3.0
Electronegativity Difference: 3.0-1.5 = 1.5, these two elements will
form a polar Covalent bond since it is within the range of 0.5-1.9.
2.Hydrogen + oxygen= Water
Electronegativity Values: H=2.1 , O=3.5
Electronegativity Difference: 3.5-2.1=1.4 , these two elements will
form a polar covalent bond
B. Non-polar Covalent Bond- is formed when the electronegativity difference is within the range of 0 to 0.4
Examples
1.Carbon + Hydrogen= Methane (CH4) Electronegativity Values: C=2.5 , H=2.1
Electronegativity Difference: 2.5-2.1=0.4 , these two elements will form a non- polar covalent bond.

For diatomic elements(elements that exist in two atoms when they are not paired with other atoms-Br2,,I2, O2, N2, F2, H2, Cl2)
they will form a non-polar covalent bond because their electronegativities will be deducted from the same number resulting to a 0
electronegativity.
Example: 2.Bromine- Br2
Electronegativity of Bromine(Br2)=2.8
Electronegativity Difference: 2.8-2.8= 0 , this results to a non-polar covalent bond.

The number of bonding is shown by using symbol dash line (-). One dash line represents one pair of electrons shared between two atoms,
two for double bonds, three for triple bonds and four for quadruple. The higher the number of bonds, the stronger the bond and greater
energy is needed to break the bond.
Example:
Carbon + oxygen = Carbon Dioxide 3.5 - 2.5= 1.0

Electronegativities will tell you that it is a polar covalent bond, but you do not know how many bonds it will have. To compute how many
bonds exist , you are guided by the following steps:
1. Get the total available valence electrons in a compound.
For CO2
Carbon atom has 4 valence electrons = 4 + 12 (2 Oxygen Atoms) = 16
Oxygen atom has 6 valence electrons
 Total available Valence Electrons (TAVE) = 16
2. Compute for the Octet Rule requirement that each atom should have 8 valence electrons to become stable.
(1 C Atom x 8) + ( 2 O Atom x 8) = 8+16= 24
3. Subtract Octet rule requirement from TAVE, then divide the difference by 2 because a pair of shared electron is equal to 1 bond.
24-16 = 8 = 4 bonds
2 2
Properties of Covalent Compounds:
Properties Description
1.Melting Point - Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling point
2.ElectricalConductivity -cannot conduct electricity
3. Hardness -Softer and flexible except for Diamonds (hardest
4.Polarity -lower polarity
5.Solubility -not readily soluble in water
6.Flammability -flammable
7.Physical State Exist in Gaseous state, solid, and liquid

Some Examples of Covalent Compounds and their Uses

Compound Formula Use
1.Methane CH4 -mainly as fuel
2. Iodine I2 Small amount is added to table salt to prevent iodine deficiency in humans, which can
hinder growth.
2.Carbon Dioxide CO2 -As a raw material for Photosynthesis
-for cooling ice cream, fire extinguisher, soft drinks manufacture
3.Nitrous Oxide N2O Anesthetic
4. Ammonia NH3 -Used in the manufacture of nitric Acid and fertilizers
- used as coolant in refrigerators
5.Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 -Commonly known as “Agua” for disinfecting wounds
METALLIC BONDING
Exists in metals through the attraction between the freely moving valence electrons and the positively charged metal atom. The valence
electrons of these metal atoms are usually called “sea of electrons”.
• Example: bronze = copper + tin
brass = copper + zinc (brass is an ideal material for doorknobs)