MEMORY

Presented By Group 6
 MEET THE GROUP

John Michael Marc Angelo Crishelle Labor Kimberly Villareal

Idjao Diez
 MEET THE GROUP

Mariae Therese Joana Gutierrez Coleen Dionela

Rios
 WHAT IS MEMORY?

Memory refers to the psychological

processes of acquiring, storing,
retaining, and later retrieving
information
490375
The Processes
of memory

Encoding
• This is the process of putting
information or something into a
form that memory system can
handle.
• Information may be coded
visually ( images or pictures)
acoustically ( as sequence of
sounds) or semantically (as units
of meanings).
PROCESSES OF MEMORY
Storage
• This is the second process of
memory.
• Information is stored inside
your brain over time.
• This process involves
maintaining the coded
information within the memory
system.
Retrieval
• The process of getting the
information back from the
long-term memory to be
used in working memory.
•This is the last part of the
process of memory.
GUTIERREZ
 PROCESSES OF MEMORY

2 Types of Retrieval
• With recall, the person has deliberately
RECALL search through memory for a particular piece
of information and report it if found.

• The information to be retrieved is actually

RECOGNITION presented to the person, after which the
person reports whether he remembers it or
not.

GUTIERREZ
 PROCESSES OF MEMORY

Cued Recall
You can think of the recognition process as a recall process,
but with some cue given to start the search through
memory. In fact, that cue is the information itself that needs
to be recalled; and if you are familiar with it, you report
recognizing it. Cues other than information to be
remembered can of course start the recall process; in this
case the retrieval process is called cued recall.

GUTIERREZ
The systems of
memory
IDJAO
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) have
conceptualized memory as having three
systems: the sensory register, the short-term
memory, and the long-term memory.

IDJAO
 SENSORYRegister
Stores information from physical
stimuli in the environment

Briefly holds incoming sensory

information

IDJAO
Iconic Memory
Iconic Memory
Visual sensory register

Echoic Memory
Echoic Memory
Auditory sensory register

IDJAO
IDJAO
SHORT-TERMMemory
temporarily holds a limited amount of
information

holds information for 15 to 25

seconds

IDJAO
IDJAO
LONG-TERMMemory
Made up of large amounts of semantic
information accumulated over time
Stores information in a relatively
permanent basis
It may be difficult to retrieve

IDJAO
Working memory:
Another model
of memory
system
 WORKING MEMORY
(BADDELEY AND HITCH 1974)

Working memory is a type of short-term memory that stores

information temporarily during the completion of cognitive
tasks, such as comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, and
learning. This temporary storage does not cause any changes in
the brain, since it is short-lived and momentary.
 Main concepts of Baddeley's model of working
memory
1. The Central Executive

>Controls or Supervises the attention required by the most memory

task

2. The Visuospatial Sketchpad

> Stores and manipulates visuospatial information such as matrices

patterns and location of objects
3. The Phonological Loop

> Stores and manipulates speech-related information such as words and

their sound

4. Episodic buffer

>serves as a temporary store for integrating information from various

sources into a single coherent representation
 WORKING MEMORY EXAMPLES IN OUR DAILY
LIVES, WE REGULARLY USE WORKING MEMORY
TO COMPLETE TASKS AND GO ABOUT OUR DAY
examples:
> Keeping a person's address in mind while being given
directions

>Keeping elements or the sequence of a story in mind before

the person completes telling it

> Dialing a telephone number that you were just told

> Calculating the total bill of your groceries as you are

shopping (mental math)
 Connectionsm Theory
(McClelland & Rumelhart 1988)

Connectionism, also known as parallel

distributed processing (PDP), is a theoretical
framework in cognitive science that models
mental processes as the emergent behavior of
interconnected networks of simple processing
units, called neurons or nodes
 Connectionsm Theory
(McClelland & Rumelhart 1988)
Rumelhart and McClelland's book "Parallel Distributed Processing:
Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition," published in 1986, was
a seminal work in the field and greatly influenced the development of
connectionist models.

In this model, there are no separate memory systems that operate serially.
Rather, memory is made up of networks that in turn are made up of a vast
number millions of connected units that process information Memory
operates in a parallel and distributed manner
 Some principles
governiing encoding,
storage, and
retrieval
 Encoding
is usually asserted that short-term memory
deals with memory that is coded acoustically,
while long-term memory deals with
information that is coded semantically.
Acoustic Encoding of Information in
Short-term Memory

Acoustic encoding is the use of auditory stimuli or

hearing to implant memories.
Acoustic Encoding of Information in
Short-term Memory
Acoustic confusion is the effect caused when a person's
verbal memory mishears or misremembers a word and
then only recalls the similar sounding substituted word
in their verbal recall.
The study often cited is that of Conrad (1963, 1964),
who presented his subjects with a series of letters
to remember. His interest was not in how many
letters the subjects would recall correctly, but in
the types of errors the subjects made.
The Primacy and
Recency Effects
in Free Recall
 FREE RECALL

a type of memory task in which

participants attempt to remember
previously studied information in any
order.
TWO IMPORTANT ENCODING EFFECTS
Primacy Effect
which refers to the enhanced memory performance on items at the
beginning of the presentation sequence.
(see the downward trend on the left side of the curve.)

Recency Effect
which refers to the enhanced memory performance on items at the end of
the presentation sequence
(see the upward trend on the right side of the curve)
The traditional interpretation is that the recency effect is
due to the fact that the most recent items are still in the
short-term or working memory (the last item might even
be in the sensory register).

On the other hand, the primacy effect is due to the fact

that the earliest items are now in the long-term memory.
This explanation of the primacy effect is based on the
observation that subjects are able to rehearse the items at
the beginning of the sequence more often than they are
able to rehearse the later items (Rundus, 1971).
Rehearsal seems to be one of those strategies
that lead to enhanced memory performance.

Not all forms of rehearsal are equally effective,

however.

Thus far, at least two forms have been defined,

namely maintenance and elaborative (Craik &
Tulving, 1975)
 Level-of-Processing
Principle
and
Transfer Appropriate
Processing
The levels-of-processing model (Craik &
Lockhart, 1972) focuses on the depth of
processing involved in memory, and predicts the
deeper information is processed, the longer a
memory trace will last.

the level of processing during encoding

determines the level of memory performance:
the deeper the level of processing, the higher
the level of memory performance
Maintenance Rehearsal is the process of
repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a
piece of information.

Elaborative Rehearsal is a type of memory

rehearsal that is useful in transferring
information into long-term memory.

The superiority of elaborative rehearsal over maintenance

rehearsal is related to the depth of processing during
encoding. The way you encode information varies.
TRANSFER APPROPRIATE PROCESSING

a theory stating that memory performance

is better when the cognitive processes
engaged during retrieval match the
cognitive processes that were engaged
when the material was encoded.
 Storage
The Storage Capacity of Short-Term Memory

Storage Capacity - Refers to the amount of

information that can be stored, particularly in our
short-term memory.
According to Miller (1956) there seemed to
be the same limit in memory capacity in all
these tasks. He referred to this limits as the
“magic number” of 7 ± 2 (seven, plus or
minus two)
Natural limit of short term memory capacity.
 STORAGE

Simon (1974)
Simon (1974) concluded that the magic number
refers to the 7± 2 chunks or meaningful units of
information. Short-term memory can hold fewer
large chunks and more of the lower chunks

Chunking is very effective means of enhancing

ones's memory.
 STORAGE
Example
Given Items : 1 4 7 3 5 2 0 9 4 7 1 2 6 5 0
Chunking : 1 | 4 | 7 | 35 | 20 | 94 | 71 | 26 | 50

The effectiveness of chunking shows the relationship between

encoding and Storage. Clearly, information will not be stored as
chunk if they are not encoded as chunks

Organize knowledge can serve as the system for chunking during

encoding, which leads to improved memory storage capacity.
 Decay vs. Interference Theories of Forgetting

DECAY THEORY- with the passage of time, the memory

trace gradually fades until it disappears completely.

INTERFERENCE THEORY - forgetting happens

because of interference from other information stored
in memory
According to Keppel and Underwood (1962), forgetting is
primarily due to interference from other stored information
rather than a result of the decay of information.

2 forms of interference that can

Lead to Forgetting
Retroactive interference - the present interferes
with the past.
Proactive interference - the past interferes the
present
 Retrieval
The Encoding Specificity Principle of Retrieval

Encoding specificity (Tulving & Thompson, 1973) -

Psychologists have found that a retrieval cue is most
effective if it is very similar to the cues during
encoding.
 RETRIEVAL
Encoding Specificity
Godden and Baddeley (1975) varied the physical
conditions during encoding (or study phase) and
retrieval (or test phase).
Smith (1979), The retrieval cues do not have to be
actually present; they can be recreated in one's mind,
and if they are sufficiently similar to the cues during
encoding, they will be effective in retrieving the
appropriate memory information.
 RETRIEVAL
Encoding Specificity

Bower, Monteiro, and Giligan (1978), mood-

dependent memory, pleasant events were more often
recalled by those in a positive emotional state, while
unpleasant events were more often recalled by those
in a negative emotional state.
 RETRIEVAL
The Reconstruction of Memory According to
One's Expectations and Knowledge
It is important to note that when we retrieve
information, it is not always a faithful replica of
the original information encoded.
How the person reconstructs memory is often
determined by the person's expectations or
knowledge of the information to be remembered.
 RETRIEVAL
Studies related:
Carmichael, Hogan, and Walter (1932) asked
students to look at simple drawings like the
following.
Loftus and Zanni (1975) showed a group of subjects a
short film showing a car accident, after which the
subjects were asked a set of questions about the film.
Loftus (1975) again showed subjects a film which had
two cars in a head-on collision.
(Go to the book for transes purposes)
 RETRIEVAL
People's Susceptibility to Misinformation

Loftus (1992), susceptibility to misinformation

follows the discrepancy-detection principle. That
is, people will more likely be misled by
misinformation when they cannot detect the
discrepancy between the misinformation and the
actual information.
 RETRIEVAL

The elderly, for example, have been noted to be

susceptible to scams and frauds (Azar, 2001). Because
conscious memory tends to decline with age, the
elderly may rely more often on an automatic and
unintentional form of memory.
 RETRIEVAL

The elderly, for example, have been noted to be susceptible to

scams and frauds (Azar, 2001). Because conscious memory tends
to decline with age, the elderly may rely more often on an
automatic and unintentional form of memory.
One other concern about misinformation has to do with the
accuracy of eyewitness testimony. In a survey by Kassin et al.
(2001), experts were presented with statements of research
findings, and beliefs about eyewitness testimonies and then
asked whether they thought the statements were reliable enough
to be presented in a courtroom testimony or not.
 RETRIEVAL
The six statements judged to be most reliable and the percentages of survey
respondents judging the statements as reliable were as follows:
(a) "An eyewitness's testimony about an event can be affected by how the questions
put to the witness are worded" (98%)
(b) "Police instructions can affect an eyewitness's willingness to make an
identification" (98%)
(c) "An eyewitness confidence can be influenced by factors that are unrelated to
identification accuracy" (95%)
(d) "Exposure to mug shots of a suspect Increases the likelihood that the witness will
later choose that suspect in a lineup" (95%)
(e) "Young children are more vulnerable than adults to interviewer suggestion, peer
pressure, and other social influences" (94%)
(f) "Eyewitness testimony about an event often reflects not only what they actually
saw, but information they obtained later on (94%) Kassiete 2001, p. 408).
 s STRATEGIES
t r a t e g i e s FOR
for
im p r o v i n g
IMPROVING MEMORY m e m o r y
Specific strategies have been proposed to help
people remember memory lists

MNEMONICS

a device such as a pattern of letters,

ideas, or associations that assists in
remembering something
 MNEMONIC STRATEGIES
VERBAL ORGANIZATION

using spoken and written words to convey

information and the message

Thus, memory storage and the retrieval of large

amounts of information are facilitated by
devices such as verse, the phonological
organization of word sequence, fixed rhythm
and alliteration .
 MNEMONIC STRATEGIES

The ancient civilization of Greece and Rome used device

quite extensively in transmitting their oral traditions
through epics poems like the ILIAD. The ancients were able
to recite these epic poems from memory , which may not
have been possible had the stories been written in prose
rather than in verse . Even to this day , advertising
copywriters and political campaigbers use these devices to
ensure that people remember the features of their
products and the virtues candidates .
 ANOTHER MNEMONIC STRATEGY IS THE

METHOD OF LOCI

This method utilizes imagery as a a means to

facilitate encoding storage and retrieval a
person visualizes each of the items to be
remembered in a different spatial location
(e.g different parts of the house )
another strategy that uses imagery is the PEG METHOD

First mental pegs are created

These items that are easy to remember. For example,

number, or rhymes The items to remembered are the
attached to or associated with these pegs by forming
images that comprise the peg and the item remembered.

When the items are to be recalled, the pegs and are first
retrieved,after which the attached object is also retrieved.
This facilitates the recall of the desired item
HUSH , LITTLE BABY , DON’T SAY A MAMA;S GONNA BUY YOU A BILLY
WORD GOAT

MAMA’S GONNA BUY YOU A IF THAT BILLY GOAT WON’T PULL

MOCKING BIRD MAMA’S GONNA BUT CART AND
BULL
IF THAT MOCKING BIRD WON’T SING
MAMA’S GONNA BUY YOU A IF THAT CART AND BULL BREAK
DIAMOND RING DOWN ,

IF THAT DIAMOND RING TURNED YOU’LL STILL BE THE SWEETEST

BRASS LITTLE BABY TOWN

MAMA’S GONNA BUY YOU A

LOOKING GLASS

IF THAT LOOKING GLASS GETS

BROKE.
Isa , dalawa , tatlo
Ang tatay mong kalbo
Umakyat sa mabolo
Inabutan ng Bagyo

Apat Lima anim

Ang tatay mong duling
Nanghuli ng pating

Sa balong malalim
Pito walo, siyam
Malaki tiyan
Humigop ng sabaw
Siyam na tapayan
KEY-WORD TECHNIQUE
It is actually very similar to the peg method
and the method of loci, where the items to be
remembered are associated with other items
that are easier to recall. Whereas the method
of loci utilizes easy-to-remember images, the
key-word technique utilizes easy-to-recall
words. The association formed between the
item and the key word is likewise not visual,
but is phonological (rhymes) or semantic.
Good encoding somehow ensures good
retrieval. You are likely to remember
information that you have studied (i.e.,
encoded) in an organized, meaningful,
elaborate way. You are also most likely to
remember pieces of information if you have
related or connected them to pieces of
information that are already familiar or
understandable to you.
 MEMORY DISORDERS
The strategies for improving memory discussed earlier
will most likely not work for people with memory
disorders. So far, all the discussions in this chapter
focused on the memory of people with "normal" brain
functioning.

In particular, they have difficulty forming new

memories, a memory disorder called
anterograde amnesia.
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
a type of memory loss that occurs when
you can't form new memories.

These individuals have no problems

recalling events prior to the damage to the
hippocampus, but cannot remember events
experienced after the damage.
Symptoms of anterograde amnesia are also found among certain
alcoholic patients

This particular memory disorder has been labeled the

Korsakoff syndrome by a Russian doctor Sergei Sergeyevich
Korsakov
Korsakoff syndrome (also known as Korsakoff's amnesic
syndrome) is a memory disorder that results from vitamin
B1 deficiency and is associated with alcoholism. Korsakoff's
syndrome damages nerve cells and supporting cells in the
brain and spinal cord, as well as the part of the brain
involved with memory.
Similar symptoms are also found among the
elderly suffering from senility

Another type of memory disorder is retrograde

amnesia, where the damage is not localized to
just one structure in the brain
RETROGRADE AMNESIA
Retrograde amnesia is when you can't recall
memories from your past.

Several head injuries or brain concussions lead to

symptoms of retrograde amnesia. These symptoms
typically include memory loss for events prior to the
event that caused the amnesia.
In most cases, the recovery is never complete; the patient
will still not be able to recall events a few seconds or
minutes before the event that caused the amnesia.
A disease that has recently received much attention among
medical and clinical researchers and practitioners is
Alzheimer's, which results from the "eating away" of the
brain by plaques and tangles, usually starting with the
hippocampus and later on affecting other areas of the brain
including those with memory functions. Memory loss is thus
one of the accompanying clinical symptoms of Alzheimer's
disease. Conclusions are not yet definitive, but an increasing
body of research evidence points to the importance of
mental and intellectual activities in delaying or minimizing
memory loss and other symptoms of Alzheimer's disease
(Azar, 2002).
ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE

Alzheimer's disease is the most common type

of dementia. It is a progressive disease
beginning with mild memory loss and possibly
leading to loss of the ability to carry on a
conversation and respond to the environment.
Alzheimer's disease involves parts of the brain
that control thought, memory, and language.
THANK YOU!