The middle Cretaceous (110–94 Ma) evolution of Tangza

Basin in the western Tibetan Plateau and implications

for initial topographic growth of northern Lhasa

Xu Han1,2, Jin-Gen Dai1,†, Jie Lin1,2, Shi-Ying Xu1, Bo-Rong Liu1, Ya-Nan Wang1, and Cheng-Shan Wang1,2
1School of Earth Sciences and Resources, Research Center for Tibetan Plateau Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Beijing 100083, China
2State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

ABSTRACT
Reconstruction of Cretaceous geological
evolution of Tibetan Plateau growth is critical
for assessing the effect of India-Asia collision
on the formation of its high elevation. How-
ever, Cretaceous topographic evolution and
geodynamic mechanism in northern Lhasa
remain ambiguous. Here we present results
from sedimentology, zircon U-Pb ages, and
detrital Cr-spinel composition of the Tangza
Formation in the western part of northern
Lhasa. Sedimentary lithofacies document
that orbitolinid foraminifera–limestone beds
were deposited in a shallow-marine setting,
while clastic rocks accumulated in an alluvial
fan during the middle Cretaceous. Zircon
U-Pb ages of interbedded volcanic rocks place
a robust constraint on the initiation of clas-
tic rock deposition at ca. 106 Ma. Sandstones
are enriched lithic fragments with abundant
volcanic grains. U-Pb ages of detrital zir-
con display a prominent age population at
101–130 Ma with a 120 Ma peak. These data
indicate that the clastic rocks were mainly
derived from northern Lhasa, including an
Early Cretaceous magmatic arc. Sedimen-
tary and provenance characteristics are most
consistent with deposition in a local foreland
basin. The activation of south-vergent local
thrusting may be responsible for loading of
the Tangza foreland basin. This thrust fault-
ing may be associated with crustal shorten-
ing induced by the continuous convergence of
Lhasa and Qiangtang since collision initiated
during the Early Cretaceous. The initial uplift
of western and central parts of northern
Lhasa and eastern Gangdese arc occurred
Jin-Gen Dai http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6230-
6801
†Corresponding author: djgtibet@163.com.
at ca. 106 Ma, while the widespread uplift of
northern and central Lhasa probably initi-
ated at ca. 92 Ma. The mid–Late Cretaceous
uplift in Lhasa was significantly earlier than
the early Cenozoic India-Asia collision.
INTRODUCTION
The third pole of the Tibetan Plateau is the
highest and largest plateau on the planet. Cur-
rently, this high and wide plateau poses a physi-
cal obstacle for atmospheric circulation and thus
influences Asian climate (Molnar et al., 2010).
In deep time, the gain of its vast topography is
accompanied by extensive exhumation, which
has led to an increase in chemical weathering
and has had a significant impact on the Ceno-
zoic global cooling (Raymo and Ruddiman,
1992). Therefore, reconstruction of geological
processes of Tibetan Plateau growth is critical
for understanding its prominent boundary con-
ditions for many geological events since at least
the Cretaceous (Wang et al., 2014). However,
there are two opposing views on the manner of
Tibetan Plateau growth: (1) the thickened crust
and the high elevation of the Tibetan Plateau
mainly resulted from the India-Asia collision
(Molnar et al., 1993; Rowley and Currie, 2006);
and (2) the Tibetan Plateau experienced signifi-
cant crustal shortening and thus it established
high topography before the continental collision
between India and Asia (Kapp et al., 2007b;
Lai et al., 2019a; Murphy et al., 1997; Zhang
et al., 2012). As the southern-central part of
the Tibetan Plateau, the structural deformation
and exhumation history, magmatic rocks, and
Cretaceous-Cenozoic strata in the Lhasa terrane
preserve archives of Tibetan Plateau growth his-
tory. Therefore, to test the models above, bet-
ter knowledge of the tectonic and topographic
evolution of the Lhasa terrane during the Creta-
ceous is required.
Previous studies using geochemical and
thermochronological magmatic rock data and
geological mapping have demonstrated that
significant crustal thickening occurred during
the Cretaceous. The presence of adakitic mag-
matism between 94 Ma and 87 Ma suggests
thickening of the crust in central Lhasa up to
50 km (Sun et al., 2015b), while the occurrence
of Early Cretaceous leucogranites indicates that
southern Lhasa has undergone crustal thicken-
ing (Ding and Lai, 2003). Thermal modeling
results from plutonic rocks based on apatite fis-
sion track ages and (U-Th)/He ages mainly in
northern Lhasa indicate that they experienced
rapid to moderate cooling during the Late Cre-
taceous (ca. 85–70 Ma) (Hetzel et al., 2011;
Rohrmann et al., 2012). These results imply that
a stage of rapid exhumation resulted from crustal
thickening. Field geological mapping in cen-
tral–southern Lhasa reveals that the Coqen area
experienced 60% crustal shortening and yielded
a ca. 60–65-km-thick crust by 99 Ma (Murphy
et al., 1997). The India-Asia collision initiated
at 59 ± 1 Ma (Hu et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2016a).
Therefore, the evidence above indicates that the
Lhasa terrane acquired significant topography
during the Neo-Tethyan subduction but prior to
the India-Asia collision. Regionally, this high
Lhasa terrane is termed as “Lhasaplano” (Kapp
et al., 2005). The Lhasaplano during the Creta-
ceous has often been compared to the modern
Andean Plateau in South America (Allégre et al.,
1984; Ding and Lai, 2003). This Andean-style
tectonic evolution of the Lhasa terrane was not
only influenced by the northward subduction of
the Neo-Tethyan ocean in its southern margin;
it was also impacted by the collision of Lhasa
and Qiangtang in northern Lhasa (Kapp et al.,
2007a). However, the above-mentioned study
methods cannot distinguish between which of the
two mechanisms plays a major role. In addition,
the topographic gain should be accompanied by

GSA Bulletin; Month/Month 2020; 0; p. 1–18; https://doi.org/10.1130/B35708.1; 11 figures; 2 tables; 1 supplemental file.

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exhumation, which would result in the erosion
of large amounts of rocks and thus the miss-
ing records of the early history of topographic
changes in the uplifted areas. Fortunately, the
exhumed materials could be deposited in the cor-
responding basin, and thus the sedimentary basin
in the Lhasa terrane recorded its early tectonic
and topographic evolution.
Cretaceous sedimentary basins are wide-
spread in the Lhasa terrane (Zhang et al., 2012)
with Linzhou Basin in the eastern part of south-
ern Lhasa (Leier et al., 2007a); Nima, Selin Co,
and Baingoin Basin in central part of northern
Lhasa (DeCelles et al., 2007; Lai et al., 2019a;
Zhang et al., 2011); and Coqen Basin in the
central part of central Lhasa (Fig. 1A; Sun
et al., 2015a). Previous studies have revealed
that most of the Cretaceous basins above devel-
oped as a regional foreland basin in response
to the Gangdese retroarc thrust system (Leier
et al., 2007a; Zhang et al., 2011) or a local
foreland basin loaded by basement involved
thrusts as in the Laramide Orogeny in western
North America (Sun et al., 2015a). However,
the studies above were mostly located in the
central-eastern Lhasa terrane (Fig. 1A), while
the western Lhasa terrane has received much
less attention. In particular, we do not know
whether Early–middle Cretaceous Gangdese
retroarc foreland basin occurred in the western
part of northern Lhasa.
We address the above questions by investi-
gating Cretaceous strata in the Tangza Basin,
which is in the western part of northern Lhasa
(Figs. 1A and 1B). Recently, Ye et al. (2019)
built a new stratigraphic unit termed the Tangza
Formation on the basis of its stratigraphy, litho-
facies, and sedimentary facies. However, they
are focused on the upper part of this formation,
which impeded our understanding of the initial
topographic evolution of its source area. Here we
report stratigraphic, sedimentological, geochro-
nological, and provenance analyses including
sandstone petrology, conglomerate composition,
detrital zircon U-Pb ages, and detrital Cr-spinel
of the Tangza Formation in order to determine
the timing of surface uplift.
GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND
The Tibetan Plateau consists of several ter-
ranes that comprise the Songpan-Ganzi com-
plex, the Qiangtang terrane, and the Lhasa
terrane from north to south (Fig. 1A; Yin and
Harrison, 2000). The Lhasa terrane is separated
from the Tethyan Himalaya to the south by the
Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ) and from
the Qiangtang terrane to the north by the Ban-
gong-Nujiang Suture Zone (BNSZ, Fig. 1A).
The BNSZ extends at least 1200 km along strike
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Xu Han et al.
and is dominated by Jurassic deep-water turbi-
dites, mélanges, and ophiolite fragments (Yin
and Harrison, 2000; Zhu et al., 2013). The Lhasa
terrane can be divided into the northern, central,
and southern Lhasa subterranes; these are sepa-
rated by the Shiquan River-Nam Tso Mélange
Zone (SNMZ) and Luobadui-Milashan Fault
(LMF), respectively (Fig. 1A; Zhu et al., 2011).
The southern Lhasa terrane mainly comprises
Late Triassic–Cenozoic Gangdese batholiths and
Cenozoic Linzizong volcanic rocks (Chu et al.,
2011; Chu et al., 2006; Ji et al., 2009; Zhu et al.,
2011). The sedimentary strata are limited, and
they are mainly Late Triassic to Cretaceous in
age (Leier et al., 2007a; Zhu et al., 2013). To
the south of the Gangdese arc, Cretaceous deep-
water turbidites were deposited in the Xigaze
forearc basin (An et al., 2014; Dürr, 1996; Orme
et al., 2015; Orme and Laskowski, 2016; Wang
et al., 2012). The central Lhasa terrane is mainly
covered by widespread Carboniferous–Permian
metasedimentary rocks and Late Jurassic–Early
Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary rocks (Zhu
et al., 2010). The northern Lhasa terrane com-
prises Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous marginal
marine and deltaic strata that are interbedded
with widespread volcanic rocks (Zhu et al.,
2013). Recently, geological and geochronologi-
cal studies revealed that a Jurassic–Cretaceous
magmatic arc of Along Co-Yanhu-Daguo-Bain-
goin-Daru Co occurs in the northern Lhasa ter-
rane (Zhu et al., 2016).
Cretaceous strata are widely distributed in the
Lhasa terrane. Generally, the Lower Cretaceous
units consist of mudstone and sandstone with
interbedded volcanic rocks, such as the Duoni
and Qushenla Formations, and limestone such
as the Langshan Formation (Zhang et al., 2004;
Zhu et al., 2013). These units were all depos-
ited in shallow marine environments, and they
are usually unconformably overlain by Upper
Cretaceous units characterized by terrigenous
molasse deposits. These nonmarine clastic units
include the Jingzhushan Formation in northern
Lhasa and the Daxiong Formation in central
Lhasa (Fig. 1A). The Jingzhushan Formation is
cropped out in an east-west–trending belt from
Shiquanhe in the west to Dengqen in the east
(Fig. 1A). These terrestrial strata are diachron-
ous and mainly consist of conglomerate, sand-
stone, and siltstone (Lai et al., 2019a). The Dax-
iong Formation was first termed by Sun et al.
(2015a) and is distributed along an ∼10-km-
wide and ∼700-km-long, east-west–trending
belt in the southern part of central Lhasa from
Coqen to Nam Co (Fig. 1A). It mostly con-
sists of conglomerates (Lai et al., 2019a; Sun
et al., 2015a).
Our study area is located in the northern Geji
area in the western part of northern Lhasa. This
area mainly crops out Cretaceous igneous and
sedimentary rocks (Fig. 1B). Specifically, the
Early Cretaceous sedimentary cover includes
the underlying Duoni Formation with mainly
volcanic rocks and clastic rocks and the over-
lying Langshan Formation with limestone char-
acterized by abundant benthic foraminifera and
bivalves. The Upper Cretaceous Jingzhushan
Formation unconformably overlies the Lang-
shan Formation, while the contact between the
Tangza Formation and the Langshan Forma-
tion is unclear. The Tangza Formation consists
of limestone, mudstone, sandstone, and con-
glomerate, and its depositional age has been
constrained to be 101–94 Ma by foraminifera
fossils and youngest detrital zircon ages (Ye
et al., 2019). Based on the regional occurrences
and comparing the measured sections (Figs. 1D
and 1F; SE-01 and our GJ1601), we find that
section SE-01 in Ye et al. (2019) is located in
the overturned limb, while our newly measured
GJ1601 is cropped out in the central and nor-
mal limb of the anticline. Therefore, we infer
that their measured sections are the upper part
of the Tangza Formation, whereas our sections
are the lower part of this formation. This infer-
ence is confirmed by the fact that our sections
yield older depositional ages than those of the
previous study. The Tangza Formation crops out
at the boundary between the central and north-
ern Lhasa subterranes (Fig. 1B). The Qushenla
Formation is located in the north of the Tangza
Formation. This formation consists mainly of
basalts, andesites, and limestone dated to ca.
Figure 1. (A) Tectonic framework of the
Tibetan Plateau (adapted from Kapp et al.,
2005; Zhu et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2013)
showing the distribution of Cretaceous ter-
restrial strata and localities of collected U-Pb
ages. JSSZ—Jinsha Suture Zone; LSSZ—
Longmu Tso-Shuanghu Suture Zone;
BNSZ—Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone;
SNMZ—Shiquan River-Nam Tso Mélange
Zone; LMF—Luobadui-Milashan Fault;
IYZSZ—Indus-Yarlung Zangbo Suture
Zone; STDS—South Tibetan Detachment
System; TZB—Tangza Basin; CQB—Coqen
Basin; NMB—Nima Basin; XFB—Xigaze
Forearc Basin; SCB—Selin Co Basin;
BGB—Baingoin Basin; LZB—Linzhou
Basin; SGAT—Shiquanhe-Gaize-Amdo
thrust system; GLT—Gugu La thrust. (B)
Geological map of the Geji area showing the
sections studied. (C–E) Satellite image from
Google Earth of the measured sections. (F)
Schematic diagram showing spatial relation-
ship of measured sections from this study
and previous studies (Ye et al., 2019).
 The middle Cretaceous evolution of the Tangza Basin

F B

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TABLE 1. DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF SEDIMENTARY FACIES FOR THE TANGZA FORMATION IN THE WESTERN TIBETAN PLATEAU
Lithofacies code Description Interpretation
Sh Horizontally stratified sandstone. Fine- to coarse-grain size, occasionally with pebbles Planar bed flow, upper flow regime
Sm Massive sandstone. Very fine- to coarse-grained, pebbly Rapid deposition, sediment gravity flow
St Trough cross-stratified sandstone. Medium- to coarse-grain size, occasionally pebbly Dune migration, lower flow regime
Sp Planar cross-stratified sandstone. Fine- to coarse-grain size, occasionally pebbly 2D dunes, lower flow regime
Gco Organized, clast-supported polymictic conglomerates. Cobble and pebbles, normal grading, Traction bedload transported by persistent fluvial stream
weak imbrication
Gcm Pebble to boulder conglomerate, poorly sorted, clast-supported, unstratified, poorly organized Deposition from sheet floods and clast-rich debris flows
Gmm Disorganized, matrix supported polymictic conglomerates. Boulder and pebbles Deposition by cohesive mud-matrix debris flows
Fl Fine laminated. Mudstone to siltstone. Occasionally calcareous Suspension deposits, overbank or abandoned channel
Fm Massive or platy. Mudstone to siltstone. Occasionally calcareous Suspension deposits, overbank or abandoned channel
L Limestone. Shallow sea
Note: Modified from Miall (1985); Uba et al. (2005).

110–130 Ma (Li et al., 2018; Sui et al., 2013),
and it is intruded by Cretaceous plutons (Along
Co batholith, ca. 110–120 Ma, Zhu et al., 2016).
Farther north, the Bangong-Nujiang ophiolites
and associated mélanges are exposed.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
We measured three stratigraphic sections
at different localities in the Tangza Basin
(Figs. 1B–1E). Based on lithofacies associa-
tions and sedimentary structures, our measured
sections can be divided into four members.
The probable depositional environment for
each member is reconstructed according to
sedimentological observations. The detailed
descriptions of lithofacies are shown in Table 1
(Miall, 1985; Uba et al., 2005). The follow-
ing lithological descriptions and depositional
interpretations are standard on the basis of
widely reported literature regarding the flu-
vial and shallow-marine environments (Leier
et al., 2007a).
The first member (Member 1) of the Tangza
Formation is ∼90–250 m thick in different
­measured sections. It is primarily composed of
laminated mudstones, sparry oolitic limestones,
and bioclastic limestones interbedded with
siltstones and fine-grained sandstones (Figs. 2
and 3A). Bioclastic limestones are commonly
0.3–1.5 m thick and mainly consist of orbito-
linids, rudists and bivalves (Figs. 3B and 4A).
The fine-grained sandstones display parallel
stratification (Sh). The ooids and orbitolinids
both reflect a shallow, low-energy environment.
Siltstones and fine-grained sandstones indicate
the increasing terrestrial debris. Based on the
orbitolinids and lithofacies associations, we
interpret this member to have been deposited
on a shallow-marine continental shelf or pro-
delta environments (Baltzer and Purser, 1990;
Fielding et al., 1988).
The second member (Member 2) of the
Tangza Formation is ∼300 m thick. It mainly
consists of gray-red to gray-yellow, medium-
to coarse-grained sandstones interbedded with
laminated siltstones (Figs. 2 and 3C). Parallel-
and planar cross-stratifications are observed in
sandstones (Figs. 3D and 3E), and mudclasts
occasionally appear in limited sandstone beds.
Generally, sandstones display coarsening-
upward sequences. Predominant lithofacies of
sandstones are Sm, Sh, and Sp. The lithofacies
associations with low-angle cross-stratification
sandstones suggest that Member 2 was deposited
in a stream-dominated environment that proba-
bly occurred in the distal alluvial fans (Blair and
McPherson, 1994).
The third member (Member 3) of the Tangza
Formation is ∼50–300 m in thickness. The
lithofacies of this member consist of fine- to
medium-grained sandstones (Sm, Sh, and St),
siltstones (Fl), and red, clast-, or matrix- sup-
ported conglomerates (Gmm, Gcm, and Gco;
Fig. 2). The sandstone beds have parallel- and
trough cross-stratifications. Pebbly sandstone
bearing sandstone, mudstone, and limestone
pebbles is occasionally observed. Conglomer-
ate beds are massive and poorly sorted and lat-
erally extend for tens of meters. The clasts are
angular to sub-rounded and somewhat weakly
imbricated. Their compositions are mainly
limestone and sandstone with minor mud-
stone and quartz debris (Fig. 3F). Some con-
glomerates have erosional basal surfaces and
upward-fining sequences. The most significant
characteristic of this member is the occurrence
of a white to gray dacite layer interbedded
with sandstone (Fig. 2). Dacite displays por-
phyritic texture with quartz and plagioclase
phenocrysts (Fig. 4B). The clast-supported
conglomerates with weak imbricated clasts
(Gco) and pebbly, trough cross-laminated
sandstones are interpreted as generated by
stream-dominated flows with high sediment
concentrations that probably occurred in the
distal alluvial fans (DeCelles et al., 1991).
Disorganized, matrix-supported conglomer-
ates (Gmm) suggest mud-matrix debris flow
deposition in proximal to medial fans (Blair
and McPherson, 1994). The clast supported,
poorly sorted, pebble to boulder conglomer-
ates are interpreted to have been deposited
by sheet floods. The lithofacies associations
of this member are interpreted as a record of
deposition in an alluvial fan setting.
The fourth member (Member 4) of the
Tangza Formation is more than 300 m thick.
This member is observed in the section GJX01
and GJ1701. It is primarily composed of fine-
to medium-grained sandstones, siltstones, and
mudstones (Fig. 2). Individual sandstone beds
with thickness from 0.3 m to 3 m have parallel
bedding (Sh) and very coarse and pebbly clasts.
The sandstone lithofacies associations are inter-
preted as the deposits of laterally migrating
sandy, braided river channels (Bridge and Lunt,
2006; Lunt and Bridge, 2004).
METHODS
Conglomerate and Sandstone Composition
In the stratigraphic measured section, we
quantified conglomerate composition by count-
ing clast types at four locations in the field using
a 10 × 10 cm grid and at least 100 clasts per
site. A total of 10 thin sandstone sections were
selected for petrographic modal analysis. More
than 300 grains were identified and counted
in each sample following the Gazzi-Dickson
method (Dickinson, 1985; Ingersoll et al., 1984).
Zircon U-Pb Dating
Zircons were separated from five sand-
stone samples and one dacite sample from
the measured sections. U-Pb dating analyses
of zircons from sample GJ1601-10, GJ1601-
20, and GJ1601-23 were simultaneously con-
ducted using laser ablation-inductively coupled
plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the
Wuhan SampleSolution Analytical Technology
Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China. Operating conditions
for the laser ablation system and the ICP-MS
instrument and data reduction are the same as
described by Zong et al. (2017). Laser sampling
was performed using a GeolasPro laser ablation
system that consists of a COMPexPro 102 ArF
excimer laser (wavelength of 193 nm and maxi-
mum energy of 200 mJ) and a MicroLas optical
system. An Agilent 7700e ICP-MS instrument
was used to acquire ion signal intensities. The
spot size and frequency of the laser were set

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 The middle Cretaceous evolution of the Tangza Basin

Figure 2. Stratigraphic columns of the measured sections displaying lithofacies, sample locations, and conglomerate
composition.

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 Xu Han et al.

A 85° B

Member 1
Member 2

C D

E F

L
L

Figure 3. Field photographs of the Tangza Formation. (A) Member 1 and Member 2 (GJ1701) are shown; (B) Bioclastic limestone (GJ1701);
(C) Clast-supported conglomerate; L, limestone (GJ1601); (D) Sandstone beds interbedded with siltstone (GJX01); (E) Sandstone with
cross-stratification and parallel stratification (GJ1701); (F) Sandstone with cross-stratification (GJ1701).

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 The middle Cretaceous evolution of the Tangza Basin

A B

Qm

200μm 200μm

C D
Qm
Ls Ls
Qm Qm
Lm

Qp
Lv
Ls
Ls Lv F Lv
Qm

Ls Lv Qp
Ls 200μm
200μm

Figure 4. Petrography of the Tangza Formation is shown. (A) Quartz with melting corrosion structure in dacite (Sample GJ1601-23). (B)
Orbitolina-bearing limestone (Sample GJ1601-02). (C) Lithic sandstone showing abundant sedimentary fragments (Sample GJX01-06). (D)
Lithic sandstone showing abundant volcanic fragments (Sample GJX02-02). Qp—polycrystalline quartz; Qm—monocrystalline quartz;
F—feldspars; Ls—sedimentary lithic fragments; Lv—volcanic rock fragments; Lm—metamorphic lithic fragments.

to 35 µm and 5 Hz, respectively. Zircon U-Pb
analyses from sample GJ1701-01, GJX01-06,
and GJX02-02 were simultaneously conducted
by LA-ICP-MS at the Mineral Laser Microprobe
Analysis Laboratory (Milma Lab), China Uni-
versity of Geosciences, Beijing.
The offline selection and the integration of
background and analyzed signals, time-drift
correction, U-Pb dating, and quantitative cali-
bration for trace element analyses were per-
formed using ICPMSDataCal software (Liu
et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2008). The common Pb
(Vermeesch, 2018). 207Pb/206Pb ages were
used for grains older than 1000 Ma, whereas
206Pb/238U ages were utilized for grains younger
than 1000 Ma.
Chemical Composition of Detrital Cr-Spinel
Detrital Cr-spinel grains were separated from
two sandstone samples from section GJX01
(sample GJX01-06 and GJX02-02). Cr-spinel
grains were selected by hand-picking, mounted
in epoxy, and polished for major element analy-
RESULTS
Conglomerate and Sandstone Composition
A total of 489 conglomerate clasts were
counted at four locations in the measured sec-
tions (Fig. 2; Table S11). Conglomerate clast
components are mainly limestone and sand-
stone, a small amount of quartz, mudstone, and
igneous rocks. No obvious biological debris
1Supplemental Material. Supplementary gravel

correction followed the ComPbCorr#3.18 pro-
cedure (Andersen, 2002). Weighted average
age, concordia diagrams, detrital zircon kernel
density estimate (KDE), and multidimensional
scaling (MDS) were performed using IsoplotR
ses. Cr-spinel compositions were determined by
JEOL JXA-8230 electron microprobe at the Key
Laboratory of Mineralogy and Metallogeny,
Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese
Academy of Sciences.
composition, detrital model composition, zircon
U-Pb data, Cr-spinel composition, and compiled
zircon U-Pb and Cr-spinel composition data. Please
visit https://doi​.org/10.1130/GSAB.S.12975011 to
access the supplemental material, and contact editing​
@geosociety.org with any questions.

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A Qt B Lm C Qp
Craton
Interior

Transition
Continental

Recycled Continental
Dissected Orogen collision
Arc orogen

Transitional Arc

F L Lv Ls Lv Ls
Basement Undissected Arc Arc-related orogen
Uplift
Member 2 Member 3 Member 4 Previous data

D
0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.022

140
E
GJ1601-23

115
130 106.32±0.29 Ma
MSWD=9.56,N=20
Ages(Ma)
Pb/238U

110

100μm 120
206

105

110
100

100

0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

207
Pb/235U

Figure 5. (A, B, and C) Ternary diagrams of sandstone framework compositions from the Tangza Formation are shown. Qt—total quartz;
Qp—polycrystalline quartz; F—feldspar; L—total lithic fragments; Lv—volcanic lithic grains; Ls—sedimentary lithic grains; Lm—meta-
morphic lithic grains. Previous data are from Ye (2019). (D and E) Concordia diagram and weighted mean age of zircon grains from the
dacite sample (GJ1601-23). MSWD—mean square of weighted deviates.

was observed in the limestone clasts. In section Member 2, the volcanic fragments increase from 80 zircon crystals analyzed. Age distri-
GJ1601, limestone clasts account for 44%–50% significantly and are the primary components bution of this sample is relatively dispersed
of the total conglomerate clasts, while sand- (Figs. 5B and 5C). (Fig. 6E). The younger zircons (n = 10) clus-
stone clasts are 32%–34% and quartz clasts vary ter at the range of 101–123 Ma. The older
from 16% to 24%. Limestone clasts (72%) are Zircon U-Pb ages U-Pb ages show populations at 150–170 Ma,
dominant in section GJ1701, whereas sandstone 200–230 Ma, 320–580 Ma, 750–850 Ma, and
clasts are the main component (48%) in the sec- Zircons from the dacite sample (GJ1601-23, 1800–1900 Ma. The proportion of Early Cre-
tion GJX01. Member 3 of section GJ1601) predominantly taceous ages is ∼14.9%.
All sandstone samples are poorly sorted display euhedral, long-prismatic shape, and Sample GJ1601-20 (Member 3 of section
and sub-angular to sub-rounded, and they typical magmatic oscillatory zoning (Fig. 5D). GJ1601) yielded 81 usable ages from 85 zircon
are richened in the lithic grains with an aver- Twenty analyzed zircon grains plot on the con- grains, and 45.7% of them are Early Cretaceous
age modal composition of Q:F:L = 40:12:48 cordia line and yield a weighted mean age of in age. There are 37 ages that cluster between
(Fig. 5A; Table S2; see footnote 1). Sandstone 106.32 ± 0.29 Ma (Figs. 5D and 5E; Table S3; 100 Ma and 125 Ma. Other older U-Pb ages
samples from Member 2 have average modal see footnote 1). cluster at the 150–160 Ma, 500–650 Ma, and
compositions of Qt:F:L = 43:13:44 and Lm: A total of 425 detrital zircons from five 700–850 Ma age ranges (Fig. 6D).
Lv: Ls = 10:35:55 (Figs. 5A and 5B; Table sandstones were analyzed by LA-ICP-MS, and Seventy-seven concordant ages were obtained
S2). Among the lithic fragments, the sedi- 406 grains yielded concordant and valid ages from 80 grains of sample GJX01-06 (Member 2
mentary fragments are dominant (Figs. 5B (Figs. 6 and S1; Table S3). Here we describe of section GJX01). The youngest group (n = 18)
and 5C). Samples from Member 3 and 4 show the age distribution of each sample (Fig. 6) is clustered between 111 Ma and 130 Ma, and
somehow different sandstone modal frame- and compare them to plutonic (Fig. 7) and the older U-Pb ages display relatively obvious
work grains, and they have compositions of sedimentary rocks (Fig. 8) of potential sources. populations at 150–170 Ma, 1800–1900 Ma, and
Qt:F:L = 38:12:50 and Lm: Lv: Ls = 14:61:25 Zircon grains from sample GJ1601-10 (Mem- 2350–2500 Ma (Fig. 6C). The Early Cretaceous
(Figs. 5A and 5B; Table S2). Compared with ber 2 of section GJ1601) yielded 74 valid ages ages account for 24.7% of the total.

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 The middle Cretaceous evolution of the Tangza Basin

100

80
A 45
n=85 (99%)
30
60 GJ1701-01
n=86
40 15

20 0
50 100 150 200 250 300

0
90
B
40 n=78 (89%)
GJX02-02
60
n=88
20

30
0
50 100 150 200 250 300

0
10
20 C n=33 (43%)

Relative Probability
GJX01-06 5
15
Number

n=77
10
0
50 100 150 200 250 300
5

0
45
D 20
n=45 (56%)
30 GJ1601-20

n=81 10

15
0
50 100 150 200 250 300

0
4
12
E n=25 (34%)

GJ1601-10
8 2
n=74

4 0
50 100 150 200 250 300

F Our data n=266 (66%)

200
n=406 120

80

100 40

50 100 150 200 250 300

G Data from 60
120 Ye et al., 2019 n=176 (49%)
n=362 40

80
20

40 50 100 150 200 250 300

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Zircon U-Pb Age (Ma)

Figure 6. Relative U-Pb age probabilities for detrital zircons from the sandstones of the Tangza Formation
are shown.

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 Xu Han et al.

Geji
A 200
n=439 (57%)
Tangza Fm.
n= 768 100

50 100 150 200 250 300

250

100
0
Cretaceous
B terrestrial strata 500 n=1413 (61%)

1200 n= 2317 300

50 100 150 200 250 300

600

0
Southern
C Qiangtang 200

300 n=638
n=267 100

200
50 100 150 200 250 300

Relative Probability
100
Number

0
Northern
D Lhasa 120

300 n=337 80
n=237
40

200
50 100 150 200 250 300

100

E Central
150
200 Lhasa
n=564 100
n=315

50 100 150 200 250 300

100

Southern
F Lhasa
120

n=782 80
400
40

50 100 150 200 250 300

200

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Zircon U-Pb Age (Ma)

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 The middle Cretaceous evolution of the Tangza Basin

Figure 7. Comparisons of probability den- 120

sity diagrams of detrital zircon ages from A Southern Qiangtang 50
(Mesozoic) n=303 (19%)
the Tangza Formation (this study and Ye n=1596 25

et al., 2019), Cretaceous terrestrial strata 60

(Lai et al., 2019a; Leier et al., 2007b; Li 50 100 150 200 250 300

et al., 2017b; Sun et al., 2015a; Wang et al.,

2017), and igneous zircon age populations 0
from different potential source areas are B Southern Qiangtang
30 (Plaeozoic)
shown. Black lines represent zircon U-Pb
n=302
data from the western Tibetan Plateau (80°–
83°E) (Cao et al., 2016; Hu et al., 2016b; Li 15
et al., 2014; Li et al., 2018; Sui et al., 2013;
Wang et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2009; Zhu
et al., 2011), while gray dashed lines repre- 0

sent all of the compiled data (the above data C BNSZ 40 n=368 (13%)
and Chapman and Kapp, 2017). n=2739
200 20

50 100 150 200 250 300

100
Sample GJX02-02 (Member 3 of section
GJX01) yielded 88 usable ages, while sample
GJ1701-01 (Member 4 of section GJ1701) pro- Northern Lhasa
duced 86 valid ages. Both samples have a pre-
D (Mesozoic)
30
n=182 (31%)

Relative Probability
120 n=582
Number

dominant age population between 105 Ma and 15

130 Ma with a unimodal peak at ca. 120 Ma 50 100 150 200 250 300
60
(Figs. 6A and 6B). The proportions of Early
Cretaceous ages for the two samples above are
83.0% and 95.3%, respectively.
All zircons from these samples have a com- 35 E Northern Lhasa
(Paleozoic)
mon age population between 101 Ma and n=279
130 Ma (Fig. 6). Samples collected from the 20
lower part (GJ1601-10 and GJX01-06 of Mem-
ber 2) show similar zircon U-Pb age ranges with
additional peaks at 150–170 Ma, 750–1000 Ma,
and 1800–1900 Ma, whereas samples from the 40 F Central Lhasa
upper part (GJ1601-20, GJX02-02, and GJ1701- (Mesozoic)
01 of Members 3 and 4) display a single peak n=398
at ca. 110 Ma (GJ1601-20) and ca. 120 Ma 20
(GJX02-02 and GJ1701-01). Therefore, the pro-
portions of Early Cretaceous ages increase from
the bottom of the measured section upward.
G Central Lhasa
60
Chemical Composition of Detrital Cr-Spinel (Paleozoic)
n=662
40
A total of 80 detrital Cr-spinel grains from
samples GJX01-06 and GJX02-02 were ana- 20

lyzed (Table S4; see footnote 1). About 80%

of these detrital grains have a TiO2 content of
Geji
less than 0.2%, which is suggestive of their Tangza Fm.
H
200
n=442 (57%)
peridotite origin. Their Al2O3, Cr2O3 contents n= 773 100

and Cr# values [Cr# = Cr/ (Cr + Al)] range

250 50 100 150 200 250 300
from 7.2 wt% to 37.0 wt%, from 28.6 wt% to
61.8 wt%, and from 0.34 wt% to 0.85 wt%, 100
respectively. Clearly, geochemical composi- 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
tions of detrital Cr-spinels show a wide and Zircon U-Pb Age (Ma)
dispersed range (Fig. 9A). About 50% of detri-
tal spinels match those of spinels from suprasu- Figure 8. Comparisons of probability density diagrams of detrital zircon ages from the
bduction zone peridotite, while 41% of detrital Tangza Formation (this study and Ye et al., 2019) and detrital zircon U-Pb age populations
spinels match the overlapping part of suprasu- from different potential source areas are shown (Fan et al., 2017; Gehrels et al., 2011; Leier
bduction zone peridotite and mid-oceanic ridge et al., 2007b; Li et al., 2017a; Li et al., 2017b; Ma et al., 2017). BNSZ—Bangong-Nujiang
peridotite. Suture Zone; Fm.—formation.

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 Xu Han et al.

A B

Figure 9. (A) TiO2-Al2O3 plot (Kamenetsky, 2001) of Cr-spinels from the Tangza Formation and adjacent ophiolites is shown (Zhang,
2007). CFB—continental flood basalt; OIB—oceanic island basalt; MORB—mid-ocean ridge basalt; MORP—mid-ocean ridge peridotite;
SSZP—supra-subduction-zone peridotite. (B) Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) plot for Cretaceous terrestrial strata (Lai et al., 2019a; Sun
et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017). Solid and dashed lines in the MDS plot point from each sample to its closest neighbor and second closest
neighbor respectively (Vermeesch, 2018). DX Fm.—Daxiong Formation; JZS Fm.—Jingzhushan Formation.

DISCUSSION
Depositional Age of the Tangza Formation
and Comparison with Coeval Cretaceous
Strata in Lhasa
The depositional age of the Tangza Formation
has been constrained to be Cenomanian stage
(101–94 Ma) on the basis of foraminifera fossils
from the limestone member (Ye et al., 2019). We
also obtained orbitolina fossils in Member 1 of
limestone (Fig. 4B), such as Mesorbitolina sp.,
Mesorbitolina spp., and Mesorbitolina aperta.
These fossils indicate that the basal limestone
beds were deposited during late Aptian–Albian
time. The observations above confirm that our
measured stratigraphic sections are located in the
lower part of the Tangza Formation as compared
with those of the previous study (Ye et al., 2019).
However, the depositional age of the clastic sec-
tion overlying the limestone in our measured
sections is poorly constrained, although Ye et al.
(2019) reported an age of 101 Ma by using the
youngest single grain (YSG) detrital U-Pb age
from each sample to represent the depositional
time. As pointed out by Dickinson and Gehrels
(2009), the YSG age may be misleading because
any single measure may be unreproducible. Gen-
erally, the mean age YC1σ (2+) of the youngest
group with at least two grains that overlap in age
at 1σ can provide the maximum depositional age
(MDA) of associated strata. This method is useful
for the clastic strata lacking preserved fossils and
especially valid for sedimentary rocks since their
provenance is from coeval magmatic rocks. The
YC1σ (2+) ages of our five sandstone samples
are 115.11 ± 0.47 Ma (Member 2, GJ1601-10,
n = 9), 105.97 ± 0.3 Ma (Member 3, GJ1601-20,
n = 13),118.92 ± 0.4 Ma (Member 2, GJX01-06,
n = 13), 113.52 ± 0.33 Ma (Member 3, GJX02-
02, n = 13), 111.94 ± 0.27 Ma (Member 4,
GJ1701-01, n = 13) (Table 2), respectively.

TABLE 2. SUMMARIZED CHARACTERISTICS OF DETRITAL ZIRCON U-PB AGES OF SANDSTONES

FROM THE TANGZA FORMATION IN THE WESTERN TIBETAN PLATEAU
Measured Sample Analyzed Percentage of Maximum YDZ† YSG† YPP† YC1σ (2+)† YC2σ (3+)†
section number numbers of Cretaceous ages depositional (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma)
zircon grains age* (Ma)
GJ1601 GJ1601-10 74 14.9% (11 out of 74) 115.1 101.04 + 4.1–4.5 101 ± 2 113 115.11 ± 0.47 (n = 9) 114.37 ± 0.46 (n = 10)
GJ1601 GJ1601-20 81 45.7% (37 out of 81) 106.0 100.88 + 1.8–2.2 101 ± 1 112 105.97 ± 0.3 (n = 13) 108.73 ± 0.23 (n = 24)
GJX01 GJX01-06 77 24.7% (19 out of 77) 118.9 111.13 + 2–2.4 111 ± 1 119 118.92 ± 0.4 Ma(n = 13) 120.12 ± 0.34 (n = 17)
GJX01 GJX02-02 88 83.0% (73 out of 88) 113.5 110.17 + 1.4–2.5 110.2 ± 0.9 121 113.52 ± 0.33 Ma(n = 13) 116.19 ± 0.25 (n = 24)
GJ1701 GJ1701-01 86 95.3% (82 out of 86) 111.9 107.81 + 1.3–1.9 108.1 ± 0.8 120 111.94 ± 0.27 Ma(n = 13) 114.51 ± 0.21 (n = 24)
SE-02 16JL31 82 13.4% (11 out of 82) 118.2 100.33 + 6.3–5.8 100.7 ± 2.77 117 118.19 ± 0.78 (n = 9) 116.9 ± 0.75 (n = 10)
SE-03 17TZ02 85 32.9% (28 out of 85) 110.3 106.46 + 2.1–3.1 106.8 ± 1.39 113 110.33 ± 0.51 (n = 13) 113.39 ± 0.38 (n = 24)
SE-01 17TZ08 75 26.7% (20 out of 75) 111.3 101.67 + 4.8–7.1 101.4 ± 3.02 109 111.28 ± 0.51 (n = 14) 111.89 ± 0.49 (n = 17)
SE-02 16JL03 60 85% (51 out of 60) 107.1 99.667 + 3.7–10 101 ± 5 115 107.05 ± 0.48 (n = 13) 108.44 ± 0.38 (n = 24)
SE-02 16JL27 60 16.7% (10 out of 60) 115.2 108.13 + 3.4–4.7 108 ± 2 117 115.22 ± 0.73 (n = 8) 117.81 ± 0.67 (n = 10)
Note: *Maximum depositional age is determined by YC1σ (2+).
†YDZ—Age calculated by the “Youngest Detrital Zircon” routine of Isoplot (Ludwig, 2008); YSG—Youngest single detrital zircon age with 1σ uncertainty; YPP—Youngest

graphical detrital zircon age peak on an age-probability plot or age-distribution curve; YC1σ (2+)—Weighted mean age (±1σ incorporating both internal analytical error
and external systematic error) of youngest cluster of two or more grain ages overlapping in age at 1σ; YC2σ (3+)—Weighted mean age (±1σ incorporating both internal
analytical error and external systematic error) of youngest cluster of three or more grain ages overlapping in age at 2σ (Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009).

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 The middle Cretaceous evolution of the Tangza Basin
These YC1σ (2+) ages indicate that the MDA of
the Tangza Formation may be ca. 106 Ma. Simi-
larly, five previously reported sandstone samples
have YC1σ (2+) mean ages of 118.19 ± 0.78 Ma
(16JL31, n = 9), 110.33 ± 0.51 Ma (17TZ02,
n = 13), 111.28 ± 0.51 Ma (17TZ08,
n = 14), 107.05 ± 0.48 Ma (16JL03, n = 13),
115.22 ± 0.73 Ma (16JL27, n = 8), respectively
(Ye et al., 2019). The more robust constraint is
from the age of interbedded dacite layer. Sample
GJ1601-23 from Member 3 has a weighted mean
age of 106.32 ± 0.29 Ma (n = 20; Figs. 5D and
5E), reflecting the depositional age of the upper
part of the Tangza Formation in our measured
sections. Based on the consistent zircon U-Pb
ages of dacite and MDAs from sandstones, we
infer that the Tangza Formation in our measured
sections was most likely deposited between ca.
110 Ma and ca. 96 Ma and the clastic part initi-
ated at ca. 106 Ma. Considering the previously
constrained 101–92 Ma age for the upper part of
the Tangza Formation (Ye et al., 2019), the depo-
sitional age for the entire formation may range
from 110 Ma to 94 Ma, but the upper limestone
bed may be 96 Ma to 94 Ma (Ye et al., 2019).
The Tangza Formation’s depositional age and
strata associations are strikingly similar to those
of the Takena Formation in the Linzhou, Maqu,
and Nam Co Basin of eastern Lhasa (Fig. 1A;
Leier et al., 2007a). The Takena Formation is
composed of the basal limestone member and
overlying terrestrial clastic rock member. Fossil
assemblages indicate the limestone was depos-
ited during Aptian–Albian time (BouDagher-
Fadel et al., 2015), whereas the nonmarine
clastic rock was most likely formed during
105–90 Ma (Leier et al., 2007a). The Lang-
shan Formation in central and northern Lhasa
mainly consists of orbitolinid foraminifera–
rich limestones that were deposited in a shal-
low marine setting during late Aptian–Ceno-
manian (119–94 Ma) (BouDagher-Fadel et al.,
2015; Sun et al., 2015a). The Damxung Con-
glomerate, which is partially overlapped with
the Takena Formation in the Nam Co Basin in
eastern Lhasa, mainly includes red conglomer-
ates, sandstones, mudstones with minor tuffs,
and limestones. Its depositional age was ca.
111 Ma as constrained by the interbedded tuff
layer zircon U-Pb age (Wang et al., 2017). The
volcaniclastic and lower red bed units in the
southern Nima Basin consist of disorganized
gray conglomerates and reddish medium- to
coarse-grained sandstones interbedded with red
and gray fine-grained sandstones, respectively
(DeCelles et al., 2007). The two units above
were dated to ca. 106 Ma and ca. 99 Ma by a
volcaniclastic sandstone bed and a tuff layer
(Kapp et al., 2007a). The Daxiong Formation
consists of conglomerate, coarse sandstone, and
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siltstone. Its maximum depositional age was ca.
96 Ma according to the youngest underlying
Langshan Formation and the youngest detrital
zircon peaks, while its accumulation ended at
ca. 91 Ma as constrained by the uppermost tuff
sample zircon ages (Sun et al., 2015a). The Jing-
zhushan Formation in the Nima and Baingoin
Basin (Fig. 1A) was proposed to be deposited at
ca. 92 Ma, which was mainly constrained by the
interbedded tuff bed (Lai et al., 2019a).
In summary, most of the Lhasa terrane was
in a shallow marine setting during Aptian–Early
Albian as recorded by the lower part of lime-
stones in the Takena and Tangza Formations
and the Langshan Formation. The Tangza and
Linzhou, Maqu, and Nima Basins began to
receive terrestrial clastic sediments ca.106 Ma,
whereas the Coqen, Selin Co, and Baingoin
Basins continued to receive shallow marine
limestone deposits (Fig. 10). The transition for
all of the Cretaceous basins from shallow marine
to continental deposition should be ca. 92 Ma
(Fig. 10).
Provenance of the Tangza Formation
and Implications for the Initial Uplift of
Northern Lhasa
Conglomerate clast and sandstone composi-
tions are critical for provenance interpretation.
Limestone and sandstone are the major clast
components in the lower part of the Tangza For-
mation, while the percentage of limestone rap-
idly decreases and that of igneous rock markedly
increases in the upper part (Fig. 2). Given the
enriched foraminifera fossils of the Langshan
Formation (BouDagher-Fadel et al., 2015) in the
south, the lack of biological debris in the lime-
stone clasts suggests that they may be derived
from the Qushenla Formation in the north (Li
et al., 2018). Lithic fragments are dominant in
the sandstone of the Tangza Formation. The per-
centages of volcanic grains evidently increase
from the lower to the upper part (Figs. 5B and
5C). These characteristics of sandstone composi-
tion are consistent with sandstones derived from
an arc-related, recycled source.
In addition, detrital zircon U-Pb ages have
been widely used to trace the source of sedimen-
tary rock (An et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2020; Orme
et al., 2015). In order to constrain the provenance
of the Tangza Formation, previously published
magmatic and detrital zircon U-Pb ages from
potential source regions were compiled. A total
of 2321 magmatic zircons (Cao et al., 2016;
Chapman and Kapp, 2017; Hu et al., 2016b; Li
et al., 2014; Li et al., 2018; Sui et al., 2013; Wang
et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2011;
Tables S5 and S6; see footnote 1) and 9238 detri-
tal zircons (Fan et al., 2017; Gehrels et al., 2011;
Lai et al., 2019a; Leier et al., 2007b; Li et al.,
2017a; Li et al., 2017b; Ma et al., 2017; Sun
et al., 2015a; Wang et al., 2017; Ye et al., 2019;
Tables S7 and S8; see footnote 1) were collected
for comparison. Considering that our study area
is located in the western Tibetan Plateau, in
Figure 7 we present all of the magmatic zircon
U-Pb ages from one potential source area in gray
dashed lines and zircon U-Pb ages from its corre-
sponding western part (80°–83°E) in black lines.
In the southern Qiangtang, detrital zircon U-Pb
ages of the Paleozoic strata display age peaks of
ca. 550 Ma, ca. 950 Ma, and ca. 2500 Ma (Geh-
rels et al., 2011; Ma et al., 2017), while those of
the Mesozoic strata cluster at 170–180 Ma, 210–
290 Ma, 700–1000 Ma, 1800–1950 Ma, and
2400–2500 Ma (Figs. 8A and 8B; Gehrels et al.,
2011). All of the zircon U-Pb ages of magmatic
rocks are characterized by peaks at 120 Ma and
160 Ma, whereas those of its western part are
clustered at 150–170 Ma (Fig. 7C; Chapman and
Kapp, 2017; Li et al., 2014).
In the Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone, only the
sedimentary rocks that are older than the Tangza
Formation have been complied, and they show
major age peaks at 150–300 Ma, 400–500 Ma,
1800–1900 Ma, and 2400–2550 Ma (Fig. 8C; Li
et al., 2017a; Li et al., 2017b).
In the northern Lhasa terrane, detrital zir-
con U-Pb ages of Paleozoic strata display age
peaks of 500–600 Ma, 900–1000 Ma, and
1100–1250 Ma (Gehrels et al., 2011; Leier et al.,
2007b), while those of Mesozoic strata cluster
at 100–130 Ma and 500–600 Ma (Figs. 8D and
8E; Fan et al., 2017; Gehrels et al., 2011; Leier
et al., 2007b). All of the zircon U-Pb ages of
magmatic rocks are characterized by peaks at
ca. 110 Ma, whereas its western part is domi-
nated by the same ca. 110 Ma peaks (Fig. 7D;
Hu et al., 2016b; Li et al., 2018; Sui et al., 2013;
Wang et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2011). In central
Lhasa, detrital zircon U-Pb ages of Paleozoic
strata display age peaks of 500–550 Ma, 900–
1000 Ma, and 1550–1700 Ma (Fan et al., 2017;
Gehrels et al., 2011), while those of Mesozoic
strata cluster at 450–550 Ma, 850–1100 Ma,
and 1600–1700 Ma (Figs. 8F and 8G; Fan et al.,
2017). All of the zircon U-Pb ages of magmatic
rocks are characterized by peaks at ca. 20 Ma,
ca. 90 Ma, and ca. 120 Ma, whereas those of
its western part are clustered at 140–160 Ma
(Fig. 7E; Cao et al., 2016; Chapman and Kapp,
2017; Zhu et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2011). In
southern Lhasa, all of the zircon U-Pb ages of
magmatic rocks are characterized by peaks at
ca. 50 Ma, ca. 90 Ma, and ca. 180 Ma (Fig. 7F;
Chapman and Kapp, 2017).
Our detrital zircon U-Pb age results display
characteristics consistent with previously pub-
lished detrital zircon U-Pb ages of the Tangza
13
 Xu Han et al.

Southern Lhasa Central Lhasa Northern Lhasa

Epoch Age
Xigaze Forearc Northern
(Ma) Linzhou Basin Coqen Basin Selin Co Basin Nima Basin Tangza Basin
Basin Baingoin Basin
Padana Fm.

No strata
Cam.
Delta

83.6
San. No strata No strata No strata No strata No strata
86.3

Con.

89.8

Alluvial fan
Fluvial

JZS Fm.
Tuff Tuff Tuff Tuff
92 Ma 92 Ma 92 Ma 92 Ma
Tur.
Late Cretaceous

Braider river-Alluvial fan

Braider river-Alluvial fan

Braider river-Alluvial fan

Braider river-Alluvial fan

Daxiong Fm.

Jingzhushan Fm.

Jingzhushan Fm.
Jingzhushan Fm.
93.9
Ngamring Fm.

ca.
94 Ma

Shelf-Alluvial fan
Marine

Tangza Fm.
Takena Fm.

ca.
Slope-Shelf

Cen. 96 Ma
Fluvial

Langshan Fm.
shallow marine
shallow marine

100
shallow marine
Langshan Fm.

Langshan Fm.

Alluvial fan-
Cretaceous

fluvial river
Lower
Tuff Tuff
Alb. 106 Ma 106 Ma
Early Cretaceous

Tuff
Shallow Marine

113 110 Ma

Shelf-fluvial
Chongdui Fm.

Duoni Fm.

Duoni Fm.
Shelf-fluvial

Shelf-fluvial
Shelf-fluvial

Duoni Fm.

Duba Fm.
No strata
Apt.

Interbedded
Conglomerate Sandstone Shale Tuff
sandstone and shale

Interbedded Interbedded
Siltstone Limestone
conglomerate and sandstone sandstone and siltstone

Figure 10. Stratigraphic and facies comparisons are shown for Cretaceous strata in the Xigaze Forearc Basin (An et al., 2014), Linzhou
Basin (Leier et al., 2007a), Coqen Basin (Sun et al., 2015a), Selin Co Basin (Zhang et al., 2011), Nima Basin (Kapp et al., 2007a; Lai et al.,
2019a), Northern Baingoin Basin (Lai et al., 2019b), and Tangza Basin (Ye et al., 2019). Apt.—Aptian; Alb.—Albian; Cen.—Cenomanian;
Tur.—Turonian; Con.—Coniacian; San.—Santonian; Cam.—Campanian.

Formation (Figs. 6F and 6G; Ye et al., 2019). rable to those of the magmatic rocks in southern the southward subduction of the Bangong Ocean
Our five samples and previously published five Qiangtang and central Lhasa as well as those of (Zhu et al., 2016). The magmatic arc origin for
samples from the Tangza Formation show a pre- detrital zircons of the Mesozoic strata in south- the Tangza Formation is confirmed by the high
dominant age population at 101–130 Ma with a ern Qiangtang and the BNSZ (Figs. 8A and 8C). percentage of volcanic clasts in the sandstone
peak at 120 Ma (more than 50% ages) and sub- Age peaks of 1800–1900 Ma and 2400–2500 Ma (Fig. 5). Geochronological and geochemical data
ordinate peaks at 150–170 Ma, 1800–1900 Ma, correlate with sedimentary zircons from south- reveal a Jurassic (170–150 Ma) continental arc
and 2400–2500 Ma (Figs. 6F, 6G, and 7A). The ern Qiangtang and the BNSZ (Figs. 8A and 8C). extending ca. 1100 km along southern Qiangtang
youngest and dominant peak of 120 Ma is con- The similarity of the U-Pb age distributions of (Zhu et al., 2016). The relatively minor Jurassic
sistent with the detrital zircon U-Pb age distribu- our samples and previously published samples peak of the Tangza Formation suggests that the
tion in the northern Lhasa terrane (Fig. 8D). This originating from northern Lhasa (Fig. 9B) also contribution from southern Qiangtang is limited.
peak matches well with that of the magmatic supports the inference above. The presence of Cr-spinel in the sandstone indi-
rocks in southern Qiangtang and northern Lhasa Therefore, the clastic rocks in the Tangza For- cates detritus from the Bangong-Nujiang suture
(gray dashed line in Fig. 7). However, only mag- mation were dominantly sourced from northern zone to the north or the Shiquan River-Nam
matic rocks from the western part of northern Lhasa to the north. This inference is consistent Tso mélange zone to the south (Fig. 9A; Table
Lhasa still have the peak of ca. 120 Ma after with idea that the Along Co-Yanhu-Daguo- S9; see footnote 1). Also, considering its main
excluding zircons from other parts (black line in Baingoin-Daru Co Early Cretaceous magmatic source area from the northern Lhasa terrane in
Fig. 7). Age peaks of 150–170 Ma are compa- arc in the northern Lhasa terrane resulted from the north, we propose that the detrital Cr-spinels

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by Chengdu University of Technology user
 The middle Cretaceous evolution of the Tangza Basin

should be mainly derived from the Bangong-
Nujiang suture zone, which is supported by the
somehow overlapped fields between detrital and
ophiolite spinels in the Bangong-Nujiang suture
zone (Fig. 9A).
The initial timing for the clastic rock depo-
sition in the Tangza Formation is ca. 106 Ma,
indicating that its source regions, mainly north-
ern Lhasa in the north, had experienced inten-
sive exhumation at that time. The increasing
proportions of Early Cretaceous ages from the
bottom to the upper part of the measured sec-
tion probably suggest the unroofing processes
of northern Lhasa. The sedimentary cover and
volcanic rock eroded first, providing wider
ranges of detrital zircon U-Pb ages in the lower
part of the Tangza Formation (Figs. 6C and 6E);
and then the exhumation of plutonic rocks in the
magmatic arc resulted in the significant 120 Ma
age peaks for samples from the upper part of the
Tangza Formation (Figs. 6A, 6B, and 6D). To
our knowledge, this is the first robust evidence
for the initial uplift of northern Lhasa during the
Mesozoic.
Middle Cretaceous Basin Evolution in
Lhasa and Geodynamical Implications
As mentioned before, Cretaceous basins are
widely developed in the Lhasa terrane. In the
eastern part of southern Lhasa, the Takena For-
mation is composed of the lower marine lime-
stone member and the upper clastic red bed
member that mainly cropped out in the Linzhou
Basin (Leier et al., 2007a). The underlying orbi-
tolinid foraminifera limestone bed was depos-
ited in a shallow marine setting during Aptian–
Albian time, while the overlying clastic bed
was deposited by the fluvial system during ca.
105–90 Ma. Provenance analysis of sandstone
composition (dominated by plagioclase and vol-
canic grains), paleocurrent (northwest direction),
and detrital zircon U-Pb age (major age peak at
100–160 Ma) suggests that the clastic rock was
sourced from the Gangdese volcanic arc during
the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethyan
ocean (Leier et al., 2007a, 2007b). Based on the
sedimentary and stratigraphic evidence, Leier
et al. (2007a) proposed that the Takena Forma-
tion was deposited in a retroarc foreland basin
setting. However, the lower limestone member
and upper clastic member of the Takena Forma-
tion is divided into the Takena and the Shexing
Formations by Wang et al. (2020), respectively.
Back stripping analysis based on stratigraphic
data indicates accelerating tectonic subsidence
during deposition of the Takena Formation and
the lower–middle members of the Shexing For-
mation (ca. 125–108 Ma) followed by steady
subsidence during deposition of the upper mem-
ber of the Shexing Formation (108–96 Ma)
(Wang et al., 2020). They interpreted these
subsidence histories to reveal regional tectonic
extension followed by thermal subsidence and
the regional compression initiated during the
uppermost Shexing Formation (ca. 96 Ma; Wang
et al., 2020). More studies are needed to test the
two different tectonic evolution models of the
Linzhou Basin. But it seems that the compres-
sion might occur as early as deposition of the
upper Sexing Formation, since the Gangdese arc
volcanic detritus began to be transported to the
Linzhou Basin until its deposition (108–96 Ma).
In this regard, the development of foreland basin
might occur during the mid-Cretaceous. Prior
to this, north Lhasa was the main source of the
Linzhou Basin (Wang et al., 2020).
The retroarc foreland basin was also proposed
to have developed in the central part of northern
Lhasa (Zhang et al., 2011). The thick Cretaceous
sequences (>3 km) in the Selin Co Basin con-
sist of the Eshaerbu, the Duoni, the Langshan,
and the Jingzhushan Formations from bottom to
top (Fig. 1A; Zhang et al., 2011). The upward
coarsening clastic sequences of the Eshaerbu
and Duoni Formations were deposited in the
submarine fan and delta environment during
130–125 Ma, whereas the orbitolinid foramin-
ifera limestones of the Langshan Formation
were formed in the carbonate platform during
125–105 Ma, and finally conglomerates of the
Jingzhushan Formation were generated in an
alluvial fan environment during 105–90 Ma. All
of the clastic rocks displayed a dominant popu-
lation detrital zircon U-Pb age at 125–140 Ma,
consistent with their origins from the Gangdese
magmatic arc to the south. Therefore, the Selin
Co Basin is proposed as a Gangdese retroarc
foreland basin that occupied northern Lhasa dur-
ing 130–90 Ma (Zhang et al., 2011).
Unlike the retroarc foreland basin model for
the central part of northern Lhasa, a peripheral
foreland basin model has been proposed recently
for the Baingoin Basin (Fig. 1A; Lai et al.,
2019b). Clastic rocks of the Duba Formation in
the northern Baingoin Basin were deposited in
various sedimentary environments including the
shallow shelf and delta deposits in the lower–
middle members and the fluvial sedimentation
in the upper member (Lai et al., 2019b). MDAs
from detrital zircons and interbedded tuff ages
suggest that the Duba Formation was deposited
during 122–110 Ma. The southward to south-
westward paleocurrent, in combination with
geochemical compositions of detrital Cr-spinel
and detrital zircon U-Pb ages and Hf isotopic
data, suggests that the Duba Formation was
derived from the Bangong-Nujiang suture zone
and the southern Qiangtang terrane in the north.
The north-derived provenance and the rapid pro-
gradation of a fluvio-deltaic system indicate that
the northern Baingoin Basin was a peripheral
foreland basin generated through overthrusting
of the Qiangtang terrane (Lai et al., 2019b).
In addition to the retroarc and peripheral
foreland basin models, a regional foreland
basin model has been proposed on the basis of
sedimentary and structural studies in the Nima
Basin (DeCelles et al., 2007; Kapp et al., 2007a).
The middle–Late Cretaceous (ca. 106–97 Ma)
­volcaniclastic, lower red bed and middle vol-
canic units in the southern Nima Basin were
deposited in the vent-proximal pyroclastic flow,
volcanogenic alluvial fan, and sedimentary clast-
rich alluvial fan. They are dominated by lithic
and vitric volcanic grains and display south-
ward paleoflow direction, suggesting that they
were sourced from the magmatic arc area in the
north (DeCelles et al., 2007). In the Nima Basin
region, the north-dipping thrust systems includ-
ing the Muggar thrust, the Puzuo thrust, and the
Queri-Malai thrust were established in response
to the continued convergence of the Lhasa and
Qiangtang terranes. Geochronological dating
and geological mapping results reveal that these
thrusts were active at least in two stages: the
Puzuo thrust at ca. 110 Ma and the Queri-Malai
thrust at ca. 99–97 Ma (Kapp et al., 2007a).
Therefore, the Nima Basin was a regional fore-
land basin during the middle to Late Cretaceous
(DeCelles et al., 2007).
As discussed above, our provenance analysis
reveals that the Tangza Formation was mainly
derived from northern Lhasa in the north. The
abundant limestone clasts in the conglomerates
(Fig. 2) and a large part of the volcanic frag-
ments in the sandstones (Fig. 5) indicate they
may be of a proximal origin. The northern source
region of the Tangza Formation is difficult to
reconcile with the hypothesized occurrence of
a Gangdese retroarc foreland basin related to
the Neo-Tethyan northward subduction in the
western part of northern Lhasa during the Cre-
taceous. Rather, the development of the Tangza
Basin may be related to a local foreland basin.
The transition from shallow-marine limestone to
alluvial fan clastic rock of the Tangza Formation
indicates that the activation of the western part of
northern Lhasa yielded the foredeep zone in the
Tangza Basin at ca. 106 Ma. Regionally, north-
dipping thrusts developed in the BNSZ and
northern Lhasa, and they are collectively termed
the Shiquanhe-Gaize-Amdo thrust system
(SGAT) (Kapp et al., 2005; Yin and Harrison,
2000). As mentioned above, the early stage of
north-dipping thrust was initiated at ca. 110 Ma
in the Nima Basin region (Kapp et al., 2007a).
Locally, the activation of south-vergent thrust-
ing of the SGAT may be responsible for ­loading
of the Tangza local foreland basin (Fig. 1B).

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 130, no. XX/XX 15

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by Chengdu University of Technology user

~106 Ma
n Gaize
ea
in
as
Oc
cB
n
ya
ar
th
re
Te
Fo
o-
ze
Ne
ga
GRT
Xi
e
zon
Lhasa
tion
Linzhou retroarc
duc
foreland basin
sub
Linzhou
Figure 11. Simplified Early Cretaceous paleogeography map shows the Lhasa terrane at ca.
106 Ma. BNS—Bangong-Nujiang suture, SGAT—Shiquanhe-Gaize-Amdo thrust system;
GRT—Gangdese retroarc thrust.
This thrust faulting may be associated with the
crustal shortening caused by the continuous con-
vergence of Lhasa and Qiangtang since collision
initiated at the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 11). The
Lhasa-Qiangtang collision possibly occurred at
ca. 140–130 Ma through arc-arc (on the northern
and southern margin of Lhasa and Qiangtang ter-
ranes, respectively) “soft” collision (Zhu et al.,
2016), although no consensus has been reached
on the timing. Minor provenances from the
BNSZ and southern Qiangtang also imply that
the suturing process was completed during depo-
sition of the Tangza Formation. The activation
of SGAT uplifted the northern Lhasa terrane,
the BNSZ, and the southern Qiangtang terrane.
After this stage, the Tangza Basin received far
fewer terrigenous materials probably due to tec-
tonic quiescence and climatic changes; the orbi-
tolinid foraminifera–bearing limestone occurred
again during ca. 96–94 Ma (Ye et al., 2019).
The Tangza Formation was finally covered by
the Jingzhushan Formation around 94 Ma, and
another foredeep was produced owing to the
reactivation of the SGAT in northern Lhasa. The
basin evolution of the Tangza Basin was simi-
lar to that of the regional foreland Nima Basin
(DeCelles et al., 2007). But the foreland devel-
oped here may be local because of the poorly
exposed Tangza Formation equivalents in the
northern Lhasa terrane (Fig. 1A).
The local foreland basin also occurred in the
central part of central Lhasa. Sandstone modal
framework composition (ca. 70% volcanic frag-
ments) and limestone clast in the conglomerate
of the Daxiong Formation reflect a magmatic
16
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by Chengdu University of Technology user
Xu Han et al.
Geji N
Tangza
foreland basin
ane
SGAT
terr
ang
Coqen
ngt
SGAT
Qia
Nima
Selin Co
Damxung
S
BN
arc provenance in short transport distances (Lai
et al., 2019a; Sun et al., 2015a). Detrital zircon
U-Pb ages of the Daxiong Formation show an
age population concentrated at ca. 110 Ma. Their
Hf isotopic compositions are characterized by
low 176Hf/177Hf isotopic ratios and negative εHf(t)
values. The comparison of zircon U-Pb ages
and Hf isotopes reveals similarity with the cen-
tral–northern Lhasa terrane (Sun et al., 2015a).
Combined with the northward paleocurrent and
proximal depositional characteristics, they sug-
gest that the central and northern Lhasa terrane
is the source area of the Daxiong Formation. The
basin accounting for deposition of the Daxiong
Formation was possibly a local foreland basin
because the Gugu La thrust bounded the north-
ern margin of the basin and was active at that
time. Similarly, basins of the Jingzhushan For-
mation in the northern Lhasa terrane underwent
the same evolution. These observations sug-
gest that the initial uplift and exhumation of the
northern–central Lhasa terrane occurred at the
deposition of the Daxiong and the Jingzhushan
Formations, i.e., 92 Ma (Lai et al., 2019a). This
stage of regional thrust faulting and correspond-
ing exhumation probably was generated by Neo-
Tethyan oceanic slab subduction and/or conver-
gence of Lhasa and Qiangtang.
CONCLUSION
The Tangza Formation in the western part
of northern Lhasa is mainly comprised of the
underlying shallow marine limestone and the
overlying alluvial fan clastic rock in our mea-
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 130, no. XX/XX
sured sections. The clastic rocks consist of mas-
sive and poorly sorted conglomerate, medium-
to coarse-grained sandstones interbedded with
laminated siltstones, and mudstones. Orbitolina
foraminifera fossils indicate that the basal lime-
stone beds were deposited during late Aptian–
Albian time. Zircon U-Pb ages of dacite and
MDAs from sandstones suggest that the initial
deposition of the clastic rocks in our measured
sections most likely occurred at ca. 106 Ma. The
Tangza Formation may have been deposited dur-
ing the mid-Cretaceous (110–94 Ma) as also
suggested by a previous study. Sandstones are
poorly sorted and sub-angular to sub-rounded
and enriched with lithic grains with many vol-
canic fragments. Detrital zircon U-Pb ages of
the sandstones are characterized by a prominent
age population at 101–130 Ma with a peak at
120 Ma and subordinate peaks at 150–170 Ma,
1800–1900 Ma, and 2400–2500 Ma. The above
observations indicate that the clastic rocks were
mainly derived from the northern Lhasa Early
Cretaceous magmatic arc in the north. The
Tangza Basin may be a local foreland basin that
was loaded by a south-vergent local thrust in the
north. The continuous convergence of Lhasa and
Qiangtang may mainly account for the crustal
shortening that induced the initial uplift of the
western part of northern Lhasa.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Han-Ao Li, Peng Wang, Xiao-Long Jia, and Qi
Wang are gratefully acknowledged for their help in
the fieldwork and lab analyses. This study was sup-
ported by National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No. 41872105), National Key Research and
Development Program of China (2016YFC0600305),
111 project (B18048), and China Geological Survey
(DD20160027). This is China University of Geo-
sciences, Beijing, petrogeochemical contribution
PGC-201557.
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Science Editor: Brad S. Singer
Associate Editor: Xixi Zhao
Manuscript Received 29 March 2020
Revised Manuscript Received 1 August 2020
Manuscript Accepted 8 September 2020
Printed in the USA