From extension to tectonic inversion: Mid-Cretaceous onset of

Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block and

early topographic growth of Tibet

Jian-Gang Wang1,†, Xiumian Hu2, Eduardo Garzanti3, Marcelle K. BouDagher-Fadel4, Zhi-Chao Liu5, Juan Li2,
and Fu-Yuan Wu1
1State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing
100029, China
2State Key Laboratory of Mineral Deposits Research, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing

210023, China
3Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Università di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
4Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
5School of Earth Science and Geological Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China

ABSTRACT
Recent studies have indicated that an An-
dean-type orogen (Lhasaplano) developed
on the Lhasa block in the Cretaceous dur-
ing northward subduction of Neo-Tethyan
oceanic lithosphere. When and how uplift
of the Lhasaplano began, however, has re-
mained controversial. This article integrates
­stratigraphic, sedimentological, tectonic, and
provenance data from the latest marine to
nonmarine strata in the Linzhou Basin to pin-
point the early topographic growth in south-
ern Tibet. The Takena Formation mainly
consists of lagoonal carbonates and mud-
­ It may be typical of the early stage growth of
stones yielding foraminiferal assemblages
of Early Aptian age (ca. 123–119.5 Ma). The
conformably overlying lower member of the
Shexing Formation, mainly deposited in flu-
vial environments, was fed by volcanic and
sedimentary rock fragments from the north
Lhasa terrane. Clasts of the Gangdese arc to
the south firstly appeared in the middle mem-
ber and became dominant in the upper mem-
ber of the Shexing Formation. By contrast,
coarse grained, braided river facies occur in
the uppermost part of the Shexing Forma-
tion, where detritus was mostly recycled from
Paleozoic strata of north Lhasa, with minor
volcaniclastic contribution from the Gang-
dese arc. Basin analysis indicates accelerating
subsidence and sedimentation rates during
deposition of Takena to middle Shexing strata
(ca. 125–108 Ma), followed by steady sub-
sidence during deposition of upper Shexing
†wangjiangang@mail.iggcas.ac.cn.
strata (ca. 108–96 Ma). Given this regional
tectonic and sedimentary evidence, such an
evolution is interpreted to reflect tectonic ex-
tension followed by thermal subsidence. Basin
inversion and regional compression initiated
during deposition of the uppermost Shex-
ing strata (ca. 96 Ma), as indicated by active
thrust faults and widespread accumulation of
syntectonic conglomerates in the western part
of the Lhasa block. This event marked the be-
ginning of the Andean-type orogeny in south-
ern Tibet. Such a paleotectonic evolution,
from extension to tectonic inversion, is also
documented in the Andes mountain range.
Andean-type active continental margins.
INTRODUCTION
The Tibetan Plateau, the “roof” of planet Earth,
has an area of ∼2.5 × 106 km2 and an average el-
evation above 5000 m. The uplift of the plateau
led to the onset and strengthening of the Asian
monsoon (e.g., An et al., 2001), and its erosion has
significantly influenced global climate and oce-
anic geochemistry (e.g., Raymo and Ruddiman,
1992; Richter et al., 1992). The Tibetan Plateau
is widely believed to be essentially a late Ceno-
zoic feature produced by the India–Asian colli-
sion (e.g., Harrison et al., 1992; Molnar, 2005),
but increasing evidence indicates that the core
of the plateau had undergone s­ ignificant crustal
shortening, uplift, and exhumation not only dur-
ing the early stage of the India–Asia collision
in the Paleogene but earlier in the Cretaceous
(e.g., Murphy et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2003; Kapp
et al., 2005, 2007; Leier et al., 2007a; Volkmer
et al., 2007; Hetzel et al., 2011; Rohrmann et al.,
2012; Sun et al., 2015a). A “proto Tibetan Pla-
teau” model has thus been proposed (Wang et al.,
2008), according to which the modern plateau
resulted from areal and vertical expansion around
an original core through the Cenozoic (E.Q. Wang
et al., 2012; Jiang et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2017).
The Tibetan Plateau consists of several east–
west elongated tectonic domains, including the
Songpan–Ganze terrane and the Qiangtang and
Lhasa blocks, which were accreted progressively
to the southern margin of Eurasia during the Me-
sozoic (Fig. 1A; Chang and Zheng, 1973; Allé-
gre et al., 1984; Dewey et al., 1988). The Lhasa
block was amalgamated to the south Asian mar-
gin well before the India–Asia collision (Yin and
Harrison, 2000). Structural analyses have shown
that ∼60% of crustal shortening on the Lhasa
block took place during the Cretaceous (e.g.,
Murphy et al., 1997; Kapp et al., 2007; Volkmer
et al., 2007). As a result, the topography may
have already reached elevations of up to 4 km
in the Paleogene (DeCelles et al., 2007; Ding
et al., 2014; Ingalls et al., 2017), and a high-
elevation “Lhasaplano,” a fundamental constitu-
ent of the proto Tibetan Plateau, may have been
established well before the India–Asian collision
(Kapp et al., 2007; Lai et al., 2019).
The Cretaceous contractional deformation
of the Lhasaplano began after the deposition of
widespread Aptian–Albian marine limestones
(BouDagher-Fadel et al., 2017) and was sealed
by the flat-lying Linzizong volcanic succession
in the Paleocene (Ding et al., 2014; Zhu et al.,
2015). Initial topographic growth is documented
by deposition of alluvial fan sandstones and con-
glomerates at Early Albian to Early Cenomanian

GSA Bulletin; Month/Month 2020; 0; p. 1–23; https://doi.org/10.1130/B35314.1; 14 figures; Data Repository item 2020084.

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Figure 1. (A) Simplified tectonic map of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau showing major tectonic domains. Suture zones and faults:
ALT—Altyn Tagh fault; BNS—Bangong–Nujiang suture; IYZS—Indus–Yarlung–Zangbo suture; JF—Jiali fault; JS—Jinshajiang suture;
KF—Kunlun fault; KLF—Karakoram fault. (B) Simplified geological map of the Lhasa block (after Kapp et al., 2005). LMF—Luobadui–
Milashan fault; SNMZ—Shiquan River–Nam Tso mélange zone.

times (ca. 111–92 Ma; Sun et al., 2015a; Wang
et al., 2017a; Lai et al., 2019), but the geody-
namic process has remained poorly constrained.
As part of our ongoing research program on
the Cretaceous paleogeography of the Tibetan
Plateau, this study addresses the spatial and
temporal evolution of the Lhasaplano through
careful analysis of the continuous sedimentary
record of the Linzhou Basin. The Linzhou Ba-
sin lies immediately north of the Gangdese arc,
which developed on the south margin of the
Lhasa block (Fig. 1B). Its Cretaceous succession
records a marine–nonmarine transition, from
shallow marine carbonates (Takena Formation)
to subaerial clastic red beds (Shexing Forma-
tion) (Figs. 2 and 3; Leier et al., 2007a, b). This
change was previously interpreted either as part
of the evolution of a peripheral foreland basin
related to the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision (Leeder
et al., 1988), of an extensional back arc basin
a­ ssociated with Neo-Tethyan subduction (Zhang,
2000), or more recently, of the retroarc basin of
the Gangdese magmatic arc (Leier et al., 2007a).
In this study, we examined the Creta-
ceous strata of the Linzhou Basin by combin-
ing ­stratigraphic logging, sedimentary facies
analysis, and stratigraphic correlation based
on biostratigraphy and detrital zircon U–Pb
chronostratigraphy. Supported by such a robust
stratigraphic and sedimentological data set, the
subsidence history of the Linzhou Basin was
reconstructed using a back-stripping approach
(Allen and Allen, 2005). The source of clastic
sediments was traced by paleocurrent analysis,
sandstone petrography, and detrital zircon U–Pb
age and Hf isotope fingerprints. This integrated
information helped us to infer the tectonic setting
of the Cretaceous Linzhou Basin and to evaluate
the paleogeographic and tectonic implications
for the growth of the Cretaceous Lhasaplano.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Lhasa block is bounded by the Yarlung
Zangbo suture zone and the Himalayan orogen in
the south and by the Bangong–Nujiang suture and
the Qiangtang block in the north (Fig. 1A; Allégre
et al., 1984; Yin and Harrison, 2000). The tim-
ing of the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision was loosely
constrained as Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
(Marcoux et al., 1987; Dewey et al., 1988; Kapp
et al., 2005; Ma et al., 2017), whereas the onset
of the India–Lhasa collision is dated precisely as
middle Paleocene by the first arrival of Asia-de-
rived volcanic detritus onto the distal edge of the
Indian continental margin (Garzanti et al., 1987;
DeCelles et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2015).
The Lhasa block can be subdivided into south
Lhasa and north Lhasa terranes by the eclog-
ite- and blueschist-bearing metamorphic belt
exposed along the Luobadui–Milashan fault

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A the central and northern Lhasa subterranes of
B Cretaceous sedimentary basins formed in sev-
Figure 2. (A) Geological map of the study area (after the Chinese 1:250,000 Lhasa geological
map). (B) Geological map of the Linzhou Basin (after He et al., 2007) showing locations of
measured sections.
(Yang et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2009) (Fig. 1B).
The south Lhasa terrane, including the Gangdese
arc, comprises Mesozoic–Paleogene granitoids
and volcanic rocks generated by northward sub-
duction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic lithosphere
(e.g., Wen et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2009). Zircon
crystals from the Gangdese arc are character-
ized by extremely depleted Hf isotopes, indicat-
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Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block
ing magmatic derivation from a juvenile source
(Ji et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2011a). Sedimentary
rocks of south Lhasa are only patchily preserved
because of uplift and erosion following Neo-
Tethyan subduction and India–Asia collision,
and include Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous
carbonates and shallow-marine to nonmarine
clastic rocks (Leier et al., 2007a, 2007b).
The north Lhasa terrane, which includes
Zhu et al. (2011a), also documents long-term
­Mesozoic–Cenozoic magmatism mainly repre-
sented by granitoids and felsic volcanic rocks
(Pan et al., 2004). Magmatism may have been
fed by either northward subduction of Neotethy-
an oceanic lithosphere or by the inferred south-
ward subduction and break-off of Bangong-Nu-
jiang oceanic lithosphere (e.g., Kapp et al., 2005;
Zhu et al., 2011a). Igneous zircons from north
Lhasa commonly yield enriched Hf isotopes,
indicating magma generation from re-melting
of old continental crust (Chu et al., 2006; Chiu
et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2011a). Geochronologi-
cal studies have revealed a magmatic flare up at
113 ± 5 Ma in north Lhasa (Zhu et al., 2011a;
Hou et al., 2015) with significant magma contri-
bution from a juvenile source (Chen et al., 2014).
In contrast with south Lhasa, pre-Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks are widely exposed in north
Lhasa, including Carboniferous quartz-rich
sandstones, Permian limestones, and Jurassic
clastic rocks (Yin et al., 1988). U–Pb age spectra
of detrital zircons from the Paleozoic sedimen-
tary rocks show clear Gondwanan affinity, with
a notable earliest Paleozoic peak at ca. 540 Ma
and a wide Proterozoic cluster between 950 Ma
and 1300 Ma (Leier et al., 2007c).
eral regions across the Lhasa block (Fig. 1B). To
the south of the Gangdese arc, the Xigaze Forearc
Basin includes a condensed upper Aptian basal
interval of radiolarian chert stratigraphically over-
lying the Xigaze ophiolite, and was rapidly filled
since the Albian by turbidites followed by deltaic
and fluvial sediments (C.S. Wang et al., 2012;
Orme et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017b). North of
the Gangdese arc, Cretaceous strata are exposed
in distinct areas, which were given different lo-
cal names such as Gaize, Coqen, Nima, Selin
Co, Damxung, and Linzhou Basins. All of these
sedimentary basins were built on the Lower Cre-
taceous volcanic rocks and were filled by Orbito-
linid-bearing limestones and fluvial/alluvial clas-
tic rocks (Zhang et al., 2004; Leier et al., 2007a;
Zhang et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2015a, 2017).
Geology of the Linzhou Basin
The east-west–elongated Linzhou Basin lies in
the Maqu–Penbo areas north of Lhasa City and
straddles the tectonic boundary between south and
north Lhasa (Fig. 2A). The basin is confined by
the Gangdese batholith in the south and by a series
of north-dipping thrust faults in the north, expos-
ing north Lhasa Paleozoic strata in their hanging
wall (He et al., 2007; Kapp et al., 2007). The
nature of the basement of the Linzhou Basin has
not been clarified. The oldest unit exposed along
3
 Jian-Gang Wang et al.

Figure 3. A composite column of Cretaceous strata in the Linzhou Basin showing stratigraphic range of measured sections. Black
dots indicate samples for detrital zircon U–Pb analysis; shown for each are the youngest single grain age (YSG) and the YC1σ(2+)
age [mean average of the youngest cluster: n ≥ 2 of grain ages that overlap in age at 1σ; Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009]. Stratigraphic
scheme of Leier et al. (2007a) is shown for comparison.

the southern flank of the basin is the ­Middle–Up-
per Jurassic (ca. 182–168 Ma; Liu et al., 2018)
volcanic rocks of the Yeba Formation. Upper
Jurassic–Cretaceous sedimentary fills comprise
carbonates and clastic rocks deposited in shal-
low marine to fluvial environments (Leeder et al.,
1988; Yin et al., 1988; Tibetan Bureau of Geology
and Mineral Resources, 1993; Leier et al., 2007a)
(Fig. 2A). The sedimentary strata have experi-
enced strong north–south contractional deforma-
tion, which formed a series of westerly plunging
synforms and antiforms (Fig. 2B; He et al., 2007).
The mildly deformed Linzizong volcanic rocks
(ca. 60–52 Ma) overlie the sedimentary succes-
sion by a regional unconformity (Ji et al., 2009;
Lee et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2015).
STRATIGRAPHY AND
SEDIMENTOLOGY
The Cretaceous succession studied includes
the top of the Chumulong Formation, the Takena
Formation, and the Shexing Formation (Fig. 3).
In some previous literature, the Takena and Shex-
ing Formations have been considered as two dis-
tinct Penbo and Lhunzhub members belonging
to the Takena Formation (e.g., Yin et al., 1988;
Leier et al., 2007a). Because their lithologies are
markedly different and easily distinguished in the
field, they are best considered as different forma-
tions, following Wang et al. (1983) and a strati-
graphic division widely used in Chinese literature
and geological maps. The Shexing Formation is
subdivided here into four lithostratigraphic units,
provisionally named as lower, middle, upper, and
uppermost members. Our study, based on facies
interpretation and correlation of nine measured
stratigraphic sections (P1–P7 in the Penbo area
and M1–M2 in the Maqu area; Figs. 2, 4, and 5)
expands on previous sedimentological analysis
by Leier et al. (2007a, 2007b). A comparison
with lithofacies associations defined by Leier
et al. (2007a) is shown in Figure 3.
Top of the Chumulong Formation
The ∼500-m-thick Chumulong Formation
(<143 Ma) consists of mudstone, quartzose
sandstone, and subordinate quartzite–pebble
conglomerate beds that were deposited in shal-
low marine and fluvial environments (Leier
et al., 2007b). At the top of the unit, sandstone,
siltstone, mudstone, and sandy limestone docu-
ment an ∼150-m-thick upward fining sequence
(Fig. 4, Section P1). Sandstones are thin to thick
bedded, fine grained, and well sorted, with cal-
careous cement increasing up-section. Planar
or trough cross stratification and oscillatory or
unidirectional current ripples are common. Ei-
ther massive or laminated mudstones increase
upward, and they change from greenish gray to
black and organic rich. In the topmost Chumu-
long Formation, sandstone beds are commonly
capped by sandy limestone layers dominated by
either bivalves or orbitolinids with rare echi-
noids. Bioturbation is common.
Facies Interpretation
The well-sorted sandstones with cross
­stratification or parallel lamination occurring
in the lower part were deposited in an ­upper
­shoreface environment (Walker and Plint, 1992).

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 Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block

Figure 4. Stratigraphic logs of the uppermost Chumulong, Takena, and Shexing Formations. Sedimentary structures, fossils,
sample locations, paleocurrent directions, and positions of the field photo are shown.

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 Jian-Gang Wang et al.

Figure 4. (Continued)

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 Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block

Figure 5. Panorama of measured sections.

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 Jian-Gang Wang et al.

A 260 I Q Pl
H
Lo we r Sh ex in g Pl
Q Q
Pl
Lv
Lv
I
Q Lv

G F
H

F
Ta k e n a F m
~120 m height

E D
E

C
C B
Q
Q Q Q

B Q
Lv

Chumulong Fm Lv
Q

Section P2 Q

Figure 6. (A) Panorama of section P2. Strata of the Takena Formation are in conformable contact with both underlying Chumulong and
overlying Shexing Formations. Microphotographs from B to I illustrate facies changes from base to top of the Takena Formation; (B) cal-
careous sandstone; (C) sandy oolitic grainstone; (D, E) orbitolinid wackestone/packstone; (F) bivalve grainstone; (G) oolitic grainstone; (H)
grainstone; (I) calcareous sandstone. Q—quartz; Pl—plagioclase; Lv—volcanic lithics. All scale bars = 200 µm.

The strongly bioturbated, organic rich mudstones
with intercalated very fine to fine grained calcare-
ous sandstones and sandy limestones of the ­upper
part were instead deposited in lower shoreface to
the transition zone between shoreface and inner
shelf (Johnson and Baldwin, 1996).
Takena Formation
The Chumulong Formation gradually passes
into the Takena Formation with an increase of
carbonates at the expense of terrigenous detritus.
The boundary was set at the top of the youngest
sandstone bed (Figs. 4, 6A, and 6B, Sections P2
and P3). The basal interval of the Takena Forma-
tion consists of ∼50-m-thick black mudstones,
either laminated or displaying common horizon-
tal to sub-horizontal burrows, interbedded with
tabular sandy limestones (Fig. 6A). Dark brown,
medium to thick bedded (20–80 cm) marly lime-
stones contain ooids, bioclasts (bivalves, orbi-
tolinids, echinoderms), and intraclasts. Quartz
grains are common (Fig. 6C).
The ∼70-m-thick, overlying gray limestone
(Fig. 6A) is characterized by 3–5-m-thick up-
ward coarsening cycles with marlstone at the
base and wackestone/packstone at the top. Fos-
sils are mostly orbitolinids, with a few echinods,
ostracods, and gastropods (Figs. 6D and 6E).
Silt-sized terrigenous grains are rare.
Above, ∼50-m-thick gray greenish lami-
nated or bioturbated mudstones containing silt
laminae are interbedded with sparitic limestone
containing ooids, bivalves, or intraclasts in dif-
ferent beds (Figs. 6F–6H). Quartz and vol-
canic rock fragments commonly occur in the
limestones.
The upper Takena Formation (∼50 m in Sec-
tion P2 and up to 100 m in Section P3) mainly

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consists of mudrocks, changing upward in color
from greenish to mottled and finally purplish red
at the top. Intercalated with fine grained greenish
mudrocks are coarse siltstones, very fine grained
sandstones, and a few marly limestones includ-
ing weakly recrystallized bivalves (Fig. 6I).
Sandstone layers may contain disarticulated
bivalves, subvertical and subhorizontal burrows,
graded bedding, and oscillatory or unidirectional
current ripples. Rare marly limestones contain
recrystallized bivalves. Massive red mudrocks at
the top of this unit contain abundant carbonate
nodules (Fig. 7A).
Facies Interpretation
The black laminated mudrock interval at the
base of the Takena Formation was deposited in
a relatively quiet inner shelf, shallow marine
environment (Walker and Plint, 1992; Johnson
and Baldwin, 1996). Sand grains and carbon-
ate allochems were episodically transported
during high-energy storm events (Duke, 1990).
Sporadic and low-diversity faunas in the orbi-
tolinid-bearing marlstones, wackestones, and
packstones of the middle Takena Formation in-
dicate a muddy lagoonal environment (Leeder
et al., 1988). Marlstone-packstone cycles record
repeated flooding and shoaling (Leier et al.,
2007a), with packstones representing winnowed
shoal deposits (Read, 1985; Hottinger, 1997).
The upper Takena Formation documents a grad-
ual transition to a subaerial floodplain (massive
carbonate nodule-bearing red mudstone; Leier
et al., 2007a).
The top of the Chumulong Formation and the
Takena Formation document a transgressive-
regressive cycle, passing from shoreface to in-
ner shelf and then through carbonate lagoon to
coastal plain.
Lower Member of the Shexing Formation
The Shexing Formation conformably over-
lies the Takena Formation with an abrupt strati-
graphic boundary that is marked by the sudden
appearance of massive sandstone (Figs. 4, 5, and
6A, Sections P2 and P3). The lower member,
∼900 m thick and strongly affected by fold and
fault deformation in its upper part (Leier et al.,
2007a), documents an upward fining sequence.
In the lower part, sandstones are commonly
1–2 m thick, medium grained, with basal scour
surfaces commonly mantled by intraformational
conglomerates made of reworked mudclasts and
carbonate nodules. At the bottom of the succes-
sion, amalgamated beds may be stacked to form
8–10-m-thick intervals. Trough and planar cross
stratifications are common in sandstone beds
(Figs. 7B and 7C). Intercalated red mudrocks
are rich in carbonate nodules (caliche).
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Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block
In the upper part, sandstones are thin to thick
bedded (0.1–1 m), laterally discontinuous, fine
grained, and commonly overlie mildly erosive
bases. Trough cross stratification, parallel lami-
nation and locally ripples occur. Upward fining
sequences are common. Red mudrocks overly-
ing sandstone beds contain carbonate nodules
and commonly grade upward into green mu-
drocks with subvertical burrows (Figs. 4 and 5,
Section P4).
Facies Interpretation
Sandstones in the lower part of this member
were deposited in relatively deep and stable flu-
vial channels (Allen, 1964; Miall, 1996). Red
mudrocks with carbonate nodules document
caliche paleosols formed in semi-arid climate
on relatively well-drained floodplains (Leier
et al., 2007a). The upper part of this member
was deposited on a fluvial flood plain environ-
ment (Smith and Smith, 1980). Laterally discon-
tinuous sandstones were deposited in relatively
shallow migrating channels, whereas mudrocks
represent overbank sediments and bioturbated
greenish mudrocks indicate subaqueous de-
position in swamps or interfluvial ponds (Mi-
all, 1996).
Middle Member of the Shexing Formation
This ∼950-m-thick unit mostly consists of
red cohesive mudrock and siltstone with minor
sandstone, marl, and limestone (Figs. 4 and 5,
Sections P5 and M1). Carbonate nodules only
appear in the middle part of the member where
very fine to fine grained and medium to thick
bedded (10–50 cm) sandstones become more
common. Sedimentary structures include unidi-
rectional current ripples and small trough cross
stratification (Fig. 7D). Thin to thick bedded
limestones as well as massive gray silty marls
occur in the basal and upper parts of this mem-
ber (Figs. 7E and 7F). Limestones are commonly
recrystallized or dolomitized and contain mostly
ostracods (Fig. 8A); a few bivalves and orbitolin-
ids were observed in the Maqu area (Fig. 4, base
of Section M1).
Facies Interpretation
This member was deposited on a coastal
plain (Leier et al., 2007a). The low sand-
stone/mudrock ratio suggests relatively sta-
ble river channels (Törnqvist, 1993). Very
fine to fine grained sandstone beds with uni-
directional current ripples are interpreted as
crevasse splay deposits. Marls and ostracod-
bearing limestones with oligotypic faunas
indicate lacustrine or restricted lagoonal set-
tings (Wright and B ­ urchette, 1996), whereas
a shallow m ­ arine e­ nvironment is suggested
by more abundant limestones and fossils (bi-
valves and orbitolinids) in the Maqu area. A
stack of green sandstone beds in section M1
(∼500–535 m interval) contains oscillatory
current ripples, indicating wave action.
Upper Member of the Shexing Formation
This unit, mostly consisting of massive sand-
stone with intercalated red mudrock, conform-
ably overlies the middle member with a sharp
stratigraphic contact (Figs. 4 and 5, Sections P6,
P7, and M2). Total thickness is ∼2 km, but its
middle part is covered in both the Penbo and
Maqu areas. Sandstone beds are mostly 1–3 m
thick, but several beds could be amalgamated to
form 6–8-m-thick intervals. Sandstones are com-
monly medium grained and contain cross strati-
fication. Intraformational pebbles of reworked
mudrock, sandstone, or carbonate nodules that
are commonly mantle basal scour surfaces or oc-
cur within laminae in sandstone beds (Fig. 7H).
Scour surfaces may also separate stacked sand-
stone packages. Carbonate nodules are uncom-
mon in massive interlayered mudrocks. The
sandstone/mudrock ratio generally exceeds 2:1,
but some stratigraphic intervals are dominated
by mudrocks with intercalated 10–30-cm-thick,
fine grained, rippled sandstones (Figs. 7G and
7I). Gray silty marls (Fig. 5, section M2) and
bioclastic limestones (Figs. 7J and 8B) were ob-
served at the top of this member.
Facies Interpretation
This unit was mainly deposited in a fluvial
environment (Leier et al., 2007a) with stacked
massive sandstones, fine grained rippled sand-
stones, and red mudrocks representing, respec-
tively, fluvial channels, levees or crevasse splays,
and floodplain sediments (Miall, 1978, 1996).
Marl and limestone indicate episodic marine
deposition. Occurrence of marls and limestones
indicates that the coastal plain was episodically
influenced by marine encroachment.
Uppermost Member of the Shexing
Formation
This unit, over 150 m thick and uncon-
formably overlain by the Linzizong volcanic
­succession (Figs. 4 and 5, Sections P7 and M2),
is distinguished by the lack of red mudrock.
Mostly thick bedded (0.5 to ∼10 m) and coarse
grained to pebbly sandstones display faint
trough lamination (Fig. 7K). Thin bedded, fine
grained, plane-parallel–laminated or rippled
red sandstone and siltstone are rare. Angular to
sub-rounded and poorly sorted pebbles include
red mudrock or siltstone, quartzose sandstone,
quartzite, and volcanic rocks (Fig. 7L).
9
 Jian-Gang Wang et al.

A B C
SW

Upper Takena, section P3 Lower Shexing, section P3 Lower Shexing, section P4

D E F
Marl

Middle Shexing, section M1 Middle Shexing, section P5 Middle Shexing, P5 section

G H I

Upper Shexing, section P6 Upper Shexing, section M2 Upper Shexing , section P7

J K Mud- & siltstone

L
Micritic limestone

Andesite

Quartz
sandstone

Upper Shexing, section M2 Uppermost Shexing, section P7 Upper Shexing , section M2

Figure 7. Sedimentary features of Lower Cretaceous strata in the Linzhou Basin. Stratigraphic position of each photo is shown beside the
stratigraphic logs in Figure 4. (A) Calcareous nodules in red mudstone; (B) planar cross stratification; (C) trough cross stratification; (D)
unidirectional current ripples; (E) gray marl interlayers within red mudstones; (F) ostracod-bearing limestone interlayers; (G) wave ripple
marks; (H) intraformational gravel at the base of cross-stratified sandstone bed; (I) climbing ripples; (J) micritic limestone interlayer; (K)
faint trough cross stratification; (L) pebbly conglomerate.

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 Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block

alidina sp., Praechrysalidina infracretacea,

A B
Praeorbitolina cormyi, Praeorbitolina wien-
andsi, Praechrysalidina sp., Pseudochoffatella
cf. cuvillieri, Pseudocyclammina sp. A, and
Textularia sp. The presence of Palorbitolina
lenticularis and Pseudochoffatella cf. cuvill-
ieri throughout the limestone interval indicates
an Early Aptian age (BouDagher-Fadel, 2008;
Simmons et al., 2000). The appearance of Prae-
orbitolina wienandsi, Praeorbitolina cormyi,
and Mesorbitolina lotzei in the upper Takena
200um 200um Formation suggests a latest Early Aptian age
13LZ37 , Middle Shexing, section P5 13MQ12 , Upper Shexing, section M2 (Schröeder et al., 2010; Fig. 3 in BouDagher-
Fadel et al., 2017), as supported by the sporadic
C Pl D occurrence (e.g., sample 13LZ18) of planktonic
Lv Lm
foraminifera such as Blefuscuiana gorbachikae
Q and Hedbergella sp. According to BouDagher-
Lv Lv
Q Fadel (2015), the stratigraphic range could be
Q correlated to Planktonic Foraminiferal Zona-
Lv
Pl
Lm tion Aptian 1–2 (ca. 123–119.5 Ma; Gradstein
Q
et al., 2012).
Q Q Detrital-Zircon Chronostratigraphy
Qp Lm
Pl 200um 50um Further age constraints on the depositional
13LZ06 , Lower Shexing, section P2 13MQ05 , Middle Shexing, section M1 age of the Shexing Formation are provided
by the youngest U–Pb ages of detrital zircons
E F from sandstone beds (Fig. 3; Table DR1).1 Two
Lv
Lv Q Q Qp samples from the base of the Shexing Forma-
Ls Ls
tion yielded YC1σ(2+) ages—weighted mean
Pl age of youngest cluster of two or more grain
Pl ages overlapping at 1σ (Dickinson and Gehrels,
Lv Qp Lv 2009)—of 119 ± 2 Ma (n = 11, 13LZ06, sec-
Q tion P2) and 116 ± 2 Ma (n = 8, 14LZ01, sec-
Lv Pl tion P3). One sample from the top of the lower
Q member yielded a YC1σ(2+) age of 112 ± 3 Ma
Pl Ls (n = 5, PENBO1, Leier et al., 2007a). Samples
100um Lv Q 200um from the top of the middle member (13LZ38,
13LZ55 , Upper Shexing, section P6 13MQ20 , Uppermost Shexing, section M2 section P5) and the lower part of the upper
member (13LZ29, section P5; 14MQ-A, section
Figure 8. Photomicrograph of carbonates and sandstones from the Shexing Formation. (A) M1; 13LZ49 and 13LZ55, section P6) yielded
ostracod-bearing micritic grainstone from the middle member; (B) weakly recrystallized almost identical YC1σ(2+) ages of 109–107 Ma.
bioclastic grainstone from the upper member; (C–F) Sandstones from the lower, middle, up- One sample from the top of the upper member
per, and uppermost members of the Shexing Formation, respectively. Q—monocrystalline yielded a YC1σ(2+) age of 96 ± 2 Ma (n = 18,
quartz; Qp—polycrystalline quartz; Pl—plagioclase; Lm—metamorphic rock fragments; 13MQ15, section M2).
Ls—sedimentary rock fragments; Lv—volcanic rock fragments. Stratigraphic position of Because of ongoing magmatic activity in the
each sample is shown beside the stratigraphic logs in Figure 4. study area, as confirmed by a significant amount
of fresh volcanic lithics in sandstone beds and
detrital zircon YC1σ(2+) ages becoming younger
Facies Interpretation AGE CONSTRAINTS up section, indicating detrital influx from pene-
Very high sandstone/mudrock ratio and contemporaneous volcanic rocks (see Prov-
cross stratified, coarse grained sandstones sug- Biostratigraphy enance section below), the youngest detrital zir-
gest a braided river environment. Thick-bedded con age of these samples should be quite close to
sandstones were deposited in main channels, Benthic foraminifera from the orbitolinid- their depositional age. Detrital zircon YC1σ(2+)
whereas thin bedded, fine grained red sand- bearing limestones in the middle Takena Forma- ages from the base of the Shexing Formation
stones and siltstones may document channel tion include Buccicrenata sp. A, Buccicrenata
filling during waning flow. Lack of mudrock hedbergi, Daxia minima, Dentalina sp., Len-
1GSA Data Repository item 2020084, including
indicates deposition in proximal settings and/ ticulina sp., Mayncina sp., Mayncina bulgarica,
Tables DR1–DR5 and Figure DR1, is available at
or in confined braided channels (Miall, 1978; Mesorbitolina sp., Mesorbitolina lotzei, small
http://www.geosociety.org/datarepository/2020 or by
Bridge, 1993). miliolids, Palorbitolina lenticularis, Praechrys- request to editing@geosociety.org.

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by China University of Geosciences Beijing user

are fully ­consistent with biostratigraphy of the
conformably underlying Takena Formation. Age
constraints are less robust for the uppermost
member of the Shexing Formation because of ex-
tensive recycling (see Provenance section below).
However, considering a stratigraphic thickness of
<200 m (sections P7 and M2), rapid deposition
in braided rivers, and age constraints from the
underlying strata (ca. 96 Ma), deposition of the
uppermost member should be dated at no later
than 90 Ma (Leier et al., 2007a).
Cao et al. (2017) recently suggested that the
Shexing Formation may have reached even into
the latest Cretaceous (75–68 Ma); however, this
was based on dating of basaltic interlayers that
our field analysis revealed to represent mafic sills
displaying clear chilled margins and locally cut-
ting across sandstone beds (Fig. DR1). The age
of these sills, therefore, only provides a mini-
mum age constraint on the deposition of the in-
truded strata. Another minimum age constraint is
provided by the age of Linzizong volcanic rocks
(ca. 60–52 Ma; Zhu et al., 2015) that unconform-
ably overlie the Shexing Formation.
SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS
The Cretaceous subsidence history of the
Linzhou Basin was reconstructed following the
method illustrated by Allen and Allen (2005)
based on stratigraphic data both newly obtained
in this study and compiled from Leier et al.
(2007a, 2007b; Table DR2). Each stratigraphic
unit was de-compacted, then recompacted dur-
ing progressive burial, and finally back stripped
to remove the effect of sediment load assuming
local compensation and Airy isostatic correction.
Initial porosity, exponents describing the loss of
porosity with burial, and sediment densities were
taken from comparable lithologies listed in Allen
and Allen (2005).
Corrections for paleobathymetry/paleoeleva-
tion and eustasy were performed based on field
facies analysis and the Cretaceous long-term eu-
static curve of Haq (2014). Because most strata
in the Linzhou Basin were deposited near sea
level, correction for paleobathymetry has no sig-
nificant impact on the tectonic subsidence curve.
A possible exception is the uppermost Shexing
Formation, which might have been deposited in a
basin elevated above sea level. Although ­average
sea level is held to have risen by ∼130 m during
the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 9), eustatic influence
could nevertheless be considered as minor in the
face of the very high subsidence rates.
Total tectonic subsidence amounted to ∼2 km
in the Linzhou Basin during the Early Creta-
ceous (Fig. 9). Subsidence rates increased sig-
nificantly from ∼40 m/Ma for the Chumulong
Formation to ∼350 m/Ma from the base of the
12
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Jian-Gang Wang et al.
Chumulong Takena
Fm Fm
Sedimentation rate (m/my)
300
Tectonic
200
subsidence
100
0 2500
Sea level (m)
200
100
0
140 135 130 125
Takena Formation to the middle member of
the Shexing Formation. The subsidence rate
decreased to ∼170 m/Ma during deposition of
the upper member of the Shexing Formation.
Because of poor age constraints, subsidence
rates could not be determined for the uppermost
member of the Shexing Formation, which may
document basin inversion and tectonic uplift (see
Discussion section below).
PROVENANCE ANALYSIS
Methods
The source of siliciclastic sediments was
traced by combining paleocurrent, petrographic,
and detrital zircon U–Pb and Hf isotope finger-
prints. Paleoflow directions were collected from
ripple marks and planar or trough cross stratifica-
tion. The orientation of trough cross laminations
was measured following method I of DeCelles
et al. (1983). Sandstones were analyzed by count-
ing 420 points per sample under the microscope
following the Gazzi–Dickinson method (Inger-
soll et al., 1984) and classified by their main
components (QFL) exceeding 10% (e.g., in a
litho-quartzose sandstone Q > L > 10% > F;
Garzanti, 2019).
Heavy minerals were separated from sand-
stone samples using a combination of elutriation,
dense liquids, and magnetic techniques. Zircon
grains were handpicked randomly, mounted in
epoxy resin, and finally polished to produce a
smooth, flat surface. Cathodo-luminescence
­images were obtained to reveal the internal
­structure of zircon grains. U–Pb dating and Hf
isotope analyses were carried out at the State
Key Laboratory of Lithosphere Evolution, Insti-
tute of Geology of Geophysics, Chinese Acad-
emy of Sciences. All analytical results are given
in the Data Repository tables (Tables DR3–DR5,
see footnote 1).
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 130, no. XX/XX
Shexing Fm
L. M. U. Um.
0
Te c t o n i c s u b s i d e n c e ( m )
500
Figure 9. Tectonic subsidence
1000 and sedimentation rate in
the Lower Cretaceous of the
1500 Linzhou Basin. The data set
used for calculations is pro-
2000
Sedimentation rate vided in Table DR2 (see foot-
note 1); method after Allen and
Allen (2005). The long-term eu-
static curve is from Haq (2014).
Sea level
120 115 110 105 100 95
Age (Ma)
Detrital zircon U–Pb dating was performed on
an Agilent 7500a Q inductively coupled plasma–
mass spectrometer (ICP–MS) equipped with a
193 nm excimer laser ablation system using a
spot diameter of 44 µm. Details of instrumental
conditions and data acquisition are described in
Xie et al. (2008). The raw count rates for 206Pb,
207Pb, 208Pb, 232Th, and 238U were collected for
age determination. 207Pb/206Pb, 206Pb/238U, and
207Pb/235U (235U = 238U / 137.88) ratios were cor-
rected using the external standard zircon 91500
(Wiedenbeck et al., 1995). The fractionation cor-
rection and results were calculated using GLIT-
TER 4.0 (GEMOC, Macquarie University; Grif-
fin et al., 2008). Common Pb corrections were
performed according to Andersen (2002). Zircon
age interpretations are based on 206Pb/238U ages
for zircon grains younger than 1000 Ma and
based on 207Pb/206Pb ages for grains older than
1000 Ma. Single grains younger than 200 Ma
with > 20% discordance and older than 200 Ma
with > 10% discordance were discarded.
Detrital zircon Hf isotopes were analyzed
using a Neptune Multi-Collector ICP–MS
equipped with a 193 nm excimer laser ablation
system, following Wu et al. (2006). Analyses
were performed with a spot diameter of 60 µm
and overlapped the spot used for age dating.
Average 176Hf/177Hf ratios of standard zircons
GJ-1 and Mud Tank of 0.282012 ± 22 (2SD)
and 0.282503 ± 22 (2SD) were obtained that
are consistent with reported values (Morel et al.,
2008; Woodhead and Hergt, 2005). A depleted
mantle model with 176Hf/177Hf = 0.28325 and
176Lu/177Hf = 0.0384 (Griffin et al., 2000) and
chondrite values of 176Hf/177Hf = 0.282772
and 176Lu/177Hf = 0.0332 (BlichertToft and
Albarède, 1997) were adopted to calculate the
εHf(t) value and the crustal model age (TDM C
) of
detrital zircons. We assumed an average conti-
nental crustal 176Lu/177Hf ratio of 0.015 for the
protolith of the host magma (Griffin et al., 2002)

Q Uppermost
90 90
50
10
50
F L
and used a decay constant of 176Lu–176Hf of
1.867 × 10−11yr−1 (Söderlund et al., 2004).
Paleocurrents
Southeastward to southwestward paleocurrent
directions from the lower member of the Shex-
ing Formation indicate a source area in the north
(Fig. 4). A few paleocurrent indicators from the
middle member of the Shexing Formation sug-
gest southwestward to westward sediment trans-
port (Fig. 4). Measurements from the upper
member of the Shexing Formation instead show
various but mostly northwestward to southwest-
ward paleocurrents (Fig. 4). Mainly westward
to southwestward paleoflow characterizes the
uppermost member of the Shexing Formation
(Fig. 4). Our results indicate that paleocurrents
changed their main direction during deposition of
the Shexing Formation, which may explain why
either northward or southward transport has been
previously proposed (Leeder et al., 1988; Leier
et al., 2007a), possibly based on measurements
from different outcrops.
Sandstone Petrography
Sandstones from the lower member of the
Shexing Formation are quartzo-lithic or litho-
quartzose volcaniclastic, with an average de-
trital mode Q:F:L = 51:8:41 (Figs. 8C and 10).
Angular to subrounded and mostly monocrys-
talline quartz grains range widely from 28%
to 94% of framework grains. Lithic fragments,
representing 4% to 73% of framework grains,
are mainly felsitic volcanic with sporadic low-
rank metapelitic types. Feldspars are minor and
mostly represented by plagioclase.
The middle member of the Shexing Formation
consists of fine grained, litho-quartzose sand-
stones (Q:F:L = 61:4:35; Figs. 8D and 10). In ad-
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Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block
Lm
Shexing Upper
Fm Middle
75 75
Lower
50 50
25
10
50
Lv
dition to monocrystalline quartz and felsic volca-
nic lithics, phyllite and slate fragments constitute
12% to 57% of total lithics. Feldspars are rare.
Sandstones from the upper member of the
Shexing Formation range from feldspatho-
quartzo-lithic volcaniclastic to feldspatho-litho-
quartzose (Q:F:L = 39:18:43; Figs. 8E and 10).
In contrast with the underlying members, volca-
nic rock fragments are mainly andesitic, whereas
felsic volcanic detritus and low-rank metamor-
phic rock fragments are rare (Fig. 8E). Feldspar
grains increase notably in abundance, and almost
all of them are plagioclase.
Sandstones from the uppermost member
of the Shexing Formation are litho-quartzose
(Q:F:L = 60:3:37; Figs. 8F and 10) with sub-
rounded to rounded quartz grains and mostly silt-
stone to very low-rank metasedimentary lithics.
Volcanic rock fragments and feldspars are rare.
Detrital Zircon Age and Isotope
Fingerprints
Age spectra of detrital zircons from the lower
member of the Shexing Formation (samples
13LZ06 and 14LZ01) display a major Early Cre-
taceous cluster between 115 Ma and 145 Ma and
older ages ranging widely from ca. 0.2 Ga to 3
Ga (Fig. 11). Early Cretaceous zircons, repre-
senting ∼40% of total analyzed grains, yielded
εHf(t) values from –15 to + 3, corresponding to
C
crustal model ages (TDM ) between 2.1 Ga and
1.0 Ga. Older zircons show clusters at ca. 500–
700 Ma, 900–1300 Ma, and 1600–1900Ma, with
εHf(t) values ranging widely from –30 to + 10
C
and TDM model ages between 3.5 Ga and 1.0 Ga.
Detrital zircons from the middle member of
the Shexing Formation are fine grained and hard
to analyze. U–Pb age and Hf isotope signatures
of 47 zircon grains (13LZ38) are like those from
the lower member except for four Mesozoic zir-
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 130, no. XX/XX
Figure 10. Detrital composition
of sandstones from the Shexing
Formation (classification and
compositional fields are after
Garzanti, 2019). Arrows in the
50 Lm–Lv–Ls diagram outline
the compositional trend up sec-
tion. Q—quartz; F—feldspar;
25 L—lithic fragments; Lm—
metamorphic; Lv—volcanic;
Ls—sedimentary.
Ls
con grains (221–106 Ma) that yielded positive
εHf(t) values around + 10 (Fig. 11).
Detrital zircons from the upper member of
the Shexing Formation (14MQ-A, 13LZ29,
13LZ49, and 13LZ55) yielded a significant age
cluster between 100 Ma and 200 Ma (∼40%
to 55% of total analyses). The εHf(t) values of
Mesozoic grains are mostly positive, rang-
ing from + 5 to + 15, with corresponding TDM C
model ages between 1.0 Ga and 0.1 Ga. A few
Mesozoic grains yielded negative εHf(t) values
C
between ca. –15 and –4 and TDM model ages
from 2.1 Ga to 1.4 Ga. The proportion of Creta-
ceous zircons increases up section, and sample
13MQ15 from the top of the upper member dis-
plays a most prominent age peak at ca. 100 Ma.
Pre-Mesozoic zircon grains show age and Hf
isotope signatures similar to those of underlying
strata (Fig. 11).
Detrital zircons from the uppermost member
of the Shexing Formation are mostly (>80%)
pre-Mesozoic. They display a major cluster at
ca. 500–600 Ma and additional clusters at 1000–
1300 Ma, 1600–1900Ma, and 2400–2500 Ma.
Mesozoic ages are scattered between 100 Ma
and ca. 250 Ma with either positive or negative
εHf(t) values (Fig. 11).
Provenance Interpretation
Abundant fresh, felsic to andesitic volcanicla-
stic detritus in the Shexing Formation ­indicates
sediment influx from newly erupted volcanic
rocks most likely located either in north or
south Lhasa. Because igneous rocks in differ-
ent magmatic domains of the Lhasa block have
different isotopic features (Zhu et al., 2011a;
Hou et al., 2015), the volcanic source can be
identified reliably by the Hf isotope signature
of detrital ­zircons. Whereas zircons in south
Lhasa (­ Gangdese arc) magmatic rocks are
13
 Jian-Gang Wang et al.

Figure 11. U–Pb age spectra and age versus εHf(t) plot of detrital zircons in sandstones of the Shexing Formation. Fields for
igneous rocks in the Gangdese arc and north Lhasa are shown for comparison (data summarized by Hou et al., 2015). Note
that the scale on the X axis is different for ages less than and greater than 250 Ma. N indicates the number of dates used for
plotting.

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by China University of Geosciences Beijing user

c­ haracterized by positive εHf(t) values indicat-
ing a juvenile source (Chu et al., 2006; Ji et al.,
2009), zircons in north Lhasa magmatic rocks
predominantly yield negative εHf(t) values,
suggesting melting of older crust (Chiu et al.,
2009; Zhu et al., 2011a) (Fig. 11). Late Juras-
sic to Early Cretaceous zircon grains with nega-
tive to slightly positive εHf(t) values from the
lower member of the Shexing Formation point
to provenance from north Lhasa (Fig. 11). Con-
temporaneous volcanic rocks, i.e., those of the
Zenong Group, were interpreted as the volcanic
source (Fig. 1B; Zhu et al., 2011a). Commonly
rounded quartz grains and sedimentary to low-
rank metasedimentary rock fragments were also
most likely derived from north Lhasa, because
the Gangdese arc to the south is virtually free
of basement rocks and sedimentary to low-grade
metasedimentary cover strata. U–Pb age and Hf
isotope signatures of early Mesozoic to Precam-
brian detrital zircons compare well with those in
lower Mesozoic to Paleozoic metasedimentary
strata of north Lhasa (Leier et al., 2007c; Pul-
len et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2011b; Wang et al.,
2016), and a northerly provenance is confirmed
140 – 124 Ma: Chumulong Fm
A north Lhasa
N
Linzhou
south Lhasa
30 km
forearc extension
108–96 Ma: Upper Shexing
D E
north Lhasa
Linzhou
Gangdese arc
Xigaze forearc basin
(turbidites)
Figure 12. Schematic diagrams show sedimentary and provenance evolution of the Cretaceous Linzhou Basin. Broad arrows indicate
transport direction of sediments. Detailed explanation is given in text (see “Sedimentary and Provenance Evolution of the Linzhou Basin”
section).
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 130, no. XX/XX
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Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block
by southeastward to southwestward paleocurrent
directions.
Provenance features are broadly similar in the
middle member of the Shexing Formation, thus
still indicating sediment supply from north Lha-
sa. Increasing relative abundance of metamorphic
lithics (Fig. 10) suggests deepening of erosion in
basement rocks. A few Mesozoic detrital zircon
grains with positive εHf(t) values were possibly
derived from the Gangdese arc to the south.
Mesozoic zircon grains with strongly posi-
tive εHf(t) values increase markedly in the upper
member of the Shexing Formation (Fig. 11), doc-
umenting the first indisputable supply from the
Gangdese arc. By contrast, detritus from north
Lhasa decreased significantly in abundance. This
provenance change is confirmed by the notable
increase in plagioclase and by mostly andesitic
rock fragments, in contrast with mostly felsic
volcanic lithics and scarcity of feldspar that char-
acterize the lower and middle members (Fig. 8).
In the uppermost member of the Shexing For-
mation, abundant quartz grains, metasedimen-
tary rock fragments, and pre-Mesozoic detrital
zircons suggest extensive recycling of Paleozoic
124–119 Ma: Takena Fm
B C
north Lhasa
Linzhou
south Lhasa
starved forearc
(chert)
96–90 Ma: Uppermost Shexing
north Lhasa
Linzhou
Gangdese arc
Xigaze forearc basin
(turbidites)
strata widely exposed in north Lhasa (Fig. 1B).
Volcanic rock fragments and Mesozoic zircons,
derived from either north or south Lhasa, are
scarce in these sandstones.
In summary, clastic rocks of the Shexing For-
mation deposited in the Linzhou Basin docu-
ment major provenance changes. The lower
member was entirely fed from north Lhasa, but
supply from the Gangdese arc increased up sec-
tion through the middle member and became
dominant in the upper member. By contrast,
clasts from the north Lhasa, comprised mainly
of recycled detritus, returned to be dominant in
sediments of the uppermost member.
DISCUSSION
Sedimentary and Provenance Evolution of
the Linzhou Basin
Stratigraphic, sedimentological, geochro-
nological, and provenance data presented in
this study allow a detailed reconstruction of
the Cretaceous depositional history of the
Linzhou Basin (Fig. 12). During deposition of
119–108 Ma: Lower – Middle Shexing
north Lhasa
Linzhou
Gangdese arc
starved forearc
(chert and siliceous shale)
Sands Carbonates
North Lhasa volcanoes
Gangdese volcanoes
Thrust
Inferred normal fault
Subduction zone
Sea depth Elevation
15
 Jian-Gang Wang et al.

the Chumulong Formation (?140–124 Ma), an
east-west–trending clastic coastline developed.
Well sorted litho-quartzose sediments were de-
rived from north Lhasa (Fig. 12A) (Leier et al.,
2007b). At this time, the Gangdese forearc base-
ment, represented by the Xigaze ophiolite, was
generated by forearc spreading and mafic mag-
matism (Dai et al., 2013; Maffione et al., 2015;
Liu et al., 2016), whereas an elevated magmatic
arc fed by Neotethyan subduction has yet to
form (Wang et al., 2017b).
The transgression starting with the topmost
Chumulong Formation led to a decrease of silici-
clastic supply and progressive marine encroach-
ment until orbitolinid limestones of the middle
Takena Formation were deposited (Fig. 12B).
Subsequent regression began with influx of
terrigenous silt and culminated with marginal
marine to floodplain mudrocks at the top of the
Takena Formation (ca. 119 Ma).
The base of the Shexing Formation is marked
by the sudden appearance of massive sandstones
that are mainly deposited in fluvial environ-
ments and show an upward fining trend through
the lower and middle members. Felsic volcanic
rock fragments and plagioclase were derived
from the penecontemporaneous volcanic rocks
of the Zenong Group in north Lhasa, as indi-
cated by paleocurrent directions and U–Pb age
and Hf isotope signatures of detrital zircons.
Quartz, sedimentary/metasedimentary lithics,
and ­pre-Mesozoic zircon grains were chiefly re-
cycled from the (meta)sedimentary basement. It
is worth noting that arrival of volcanic detritus in
the Linzhou Basin coincided with the magmatic
flare up recorded in north Lhasa (113 ± 5 Ma;
Zhu et al., 2011a; Hou et al., 2015). The upward
fining sequence may have resulted from erosion
and progressively reduced topography of source
areas after the climax of explosive magmatism.
The Gangdese arc to the south of the Linzhou
Basin could have been locally emerged and
eroded, as indicated by initial deposition of tur-
bidites in the Xigaze Forearc Basin (Dai et al.,
2015; Orme and Laskowski, 2016; Wang et al.,
2017b), although only limited sediments from
the Gangdese arc reached the Linzhou Basin at
this stage (Fig. 12C).
Volcanic detritus from the Gangdese arc be-
gan to be massively transported to the Linzhou
Basin during deposition of the upper member
of the Shexing Formation (108–96 Ma). Sand-
stone increased markedly, and mainly westward
paleocurrent directions point to the formation of
an axial river system receiving detritus from both
north Lhasa and the Gangdese arc in the south
(Fig. 12D). The competence of braided rivers
increased during deposition of the uppermost
member of the Shexing Formation, where flood-
plain mudrocks are lacking (Fig. 12E). Exhuma-
tion of basement rocks in north Lhasa is indicated
by the abundance of recycled detritus including
pre-Mesozoic zircon grains. By ca. 90 Ma, the
Linzhou Basin was eventually inverted and in-
volved in north–south shortening, uplift, and ero-
sion before final burial by the Linzizong Forma-
tion volcanic succession in the Paleocene.
Regional Correlation of Cretaceous Strata
in the Lhasa Block
Before discussing the paleogeographic and
paleogeodynamic setting of the Lhasa block, we
need to consider stratigraphic and provenance
data from the Cretaceous successions deposited
in other major sedimentary basins (Fig. 13).
South of the Gangdese arc, shortly after mag-
matic emplacement of the Xigaze forearc ophio-
lite bracketed between ca. 131 Ma and 124 Ma,
tuffaceous chert and abyssal siliceous mudstones
documented the starved initial stage of forearc
basin sedimentation (Wang et al., 2017b). The
interbedded tuff layers, which yielded ages pro-
gressively younging up section from 119 Ma to
113 Ma, contain volcanic material derived from
both the Gangdese arc and north Lhasa. Deposi-
tion of volcaniclastic turbidites fed almost en-
tirely by the newly formed Gangdese arc began
at 113–110 Ma (Wang et al., 2017b). A sharp
provenance change took place at ca. 88 Ma,
marked by the influx of pre-Cretaceous zircons
and Cretaceous zircons with negative εHf(t) val-
ues derived from north Lhasa (An et al., 2014;

Figure 13. Stratigraphy and facies comparison among principal Cretaceous basins on the Lhasa block. Sources of stratigraphic data: Gaize
(Dong Co) from Sun et al. (2017); Selin Co Basin from Zhang et al. (2011); Coqen Basin from Sun et al. (2015a); Xigaze Forearc Basin from
An et al. (2014) and Wang et al. (2017a); Damxung Basin from Wang et al. (2017b).

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by China University of Geosciences Beijing user

Orme and Laskowski, 2016). A shoaling se-
quence starting with the uppermost Santonian
culminated with filling of the forearc basin by
shelfal, deltaic, and eventually fluvial strata
in the Campanian (C.S. Wang et al., 2012; An
et al., 2014).
In the Damxung area to the north of the
Linzhou Basin, nonmarine red beds fed from
nearby sources were deposited unconformably
above the Lower Cretaceous volcanic rocks or
Paleozoic metasedimentary basement of north
Lhasa. Deposition of the Damxung Conglomer-
ate, dated at ca. 111 Ma by zircons from inter-
bedded tuffs, began near sea level as documented
by limestone beds at the base of the sequence
and continued in mainly braided river to alluvial
fan environments, pointing to significant uplift
of north Lhasa (Wang et al., 2017a).
In the Bangoin, Gaize, and Coqen Basins in
the western part of the north Lhasa terrane, Low-
er Cretaceous fluvial to shallow marine volcani-
clastic rocks (Duoni Formation, ca. 123–115 Ma;
Sun et al., 2017) overlie the lowermost Creta-
ceous Zenong volcanic rocks. Detritus in the Du-
oni Formation was mainly derived locally from
Zenong volcanic rocks and Paleozoic metasedi-
mentary rocks exposed as the central Lhasa high-
land. The Duoni Formation was overlain in turn
by the Orbitolina- and rudist-bearing limestone
of the Langshan Formation lasting until the Early
Cenomanian (BouDagher-Fadel et al., 2017). Fi-
nally, the basins were sealed by continental con-
glomerates of the Jingzhushan (Bangoin, Gaize)
or Daxiong Formations (Coqen) (Zhang et al.,
2011; Sun et al., 2015a; Lai et al., 2019).
Tectonic Setting of the Linzhou Basin
The Early Cretaceous paleogeography of
southern Tibet was controlled by collision of
the Qiangtang and Lhasa blocks and/or by
northward subduction of Neo-Tethyan oceanic
lithosphere beneath the Lhasa terrane (e.g.,
Murphy et al., 1997; Kapp et al., 2007). Three
different paleotectonic scenarios have been
envisaged (Leier et al., 2007a). In the first sce-
nario, a peripheral foreland basin developed in
response to the Late Jurassic–earliest Cretaceous
Lhasa–Qiangtang collision (Leeder et al., 1988;
Murphy et al., 1997), with terrigenous detritus
mainly derived from the Qiangtang block and/
or Bangong–Nujiang suture zone in the north.
In the second scenario, a retroarc basin formed
in response to Neo-Tethyan oceanic subduction
(Leier et al., 2007a; Kapp et al., 2007), with ter-
rigenous detritus derived from the Gangdese
arc in the south. In the third scenario, which is
postulated to explain the regional transgression
with widespread limestone deposition in the
mid-Cretaceous, an extensional back arc basin
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by China University of Geosciences Beijing user
Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block
opened during rollback of the subducting Neo-
Tethyan slab (Zhang, 2000; Zhang et al., 2004).
Subsidence analysis reveals that the Linzhou
Basin was affected by rapid tectonic subsidence
and high sedimentation rates during deposi-
tion of the Takena Formation and the lower and
middle members of the Shexing Formation (ca.
124–108 Ma; Fig. 9). Although such an evolu-
tion may occur in both contractional and exten-
sional settings, deposition in a retroarc basin
is ruled out because these sediments were not
fed from the Gangdese arc. A peripheral fore-
land basin setting is also unlikely because sedi-
ments were derived mostly from north Lhasa.
No evidence shows detrital input from the Lha-
sa–Qiangtang collision zone or the Qiangtang
block, which is the upper plate of the proposed
foreland basin. Detritus derived from the under-
thrusting plate may be dominant only in the back
bulge depozone of a foreland basin (DeCelles
and Giles, 1996), but the >4 km thickness of
Cretaceous strata accumulated in the Linzhou
Basin is incompatible with a back bulge setting
(where sedimentary successions are commonly
100–200 m thick; DeCelles and Giles, 1996). Fi-
nally, magmatism is not expected to develop on
the lower plate of a continental subduction zone.
A back arc extensional setting is instead
­compatible with subsidence, sedimentary, and
provenance features of the Linzhou Basin succes-
sion. The tectonic subsidence curve is concave
upward, documenting an initial phase of rapid
subsidence followed by reduced rates (Fig. 9).
In rift basins, locally confined rapid subsidence
caused by lithospheric stretching is followed
commonly by slower regional sagging during
post-extension lithospheric cooling (Watts and
Ryan, 1976; Steckler and Watts, 1978; Xie and
Heller, 2009). Gradual paleo water deepening
documented by the Takena Formation was inter-
rupted by an influx of volcaniclastic sediments
at the base of the Shexing Formation. Penecon-
temporaneous eruption of dacites and basalts in
the north Lhasa source region has been tenta-
tively explained by the hypothetical breakoff of
the Bangong–Nujiang oceanic slab following the
Qiangtang–Lhasa collision (Zhu et al., 2011a;
Chen et al., 2014). Alternatively, an extensional
setting is also compatible with the bimodal vol-
canism (Zhang et al., 2004).
The back-arc extension model is consistent
with the great thickness (>4 km) and provenance
of Cretaceous Linzhou Basin strata. In this sce-
nario, volcanic detritus was derived from pene-
contemporaneous magmatic rocks of north Lhasa
produced during the main extensional stage and
from both southern and northern flanks of the
basin during post-extensional thermal recovery.
The Linzhou basin would have accommodated
all sediment shed from north Lhasa, preventing
it from reaching the Xigaze forearc farther south.
Before ca. 88 Ma, in fact, the Gangdese arc had
represented the only source for Xigaze Forearc
Basin sediments (lower–middle Ngamring For-
mation; An et al., 2014).
Lower Cretaceous strata in the northwestern
Lhasa block document a long-term transgressive
sequence (Fig. 13; Zhang et al., 2011; Sun et al.,
2017), which is also compatible with the exten-
sional model (Zhang et al., 2004). Volcanic rocks
of the Zenong Group and volcaniclastic sand-
stones of the Duoni Formation were generated
during the tectonic stretching phase, whereas
the overlying limestones were accommodated
during post-extensional cooling. Back arc rift-
ing might have extended westward as far as the
Shyok suture, which separated the Kohistan arc
from the Karakorum in the Early Cretaceous
(Gaetani et al., 1990; Treloar et al., 1996; Rol-
land et al., 2000).
Although the back-arc extension model is
preferred, syn-depositional normal fault and
growth strata were not found in the field, pos-
sibly because of the limited exposure and/or
later tectonic overprint. The Cretaceous strata
are mostly buried by the unconformably over-
lying Linzizong volcanic rocks and by Paleo-
zoic–Mesozoic strata in the hanging wall of the
boundary thrust faults (Fig. 2A). Strata along
the central part of the basin are only partially
exposed. Besides, the Cretaceous Linzhou Basin
was bounded by thrust faults along both north-
ern and southern sides (He et al., 2007; Kapp
et al., 2007). It is possible that these faults were
initially normal and were reactivated as thrusts
during later contraction. Further detailed struc-
tural analysis is needed to clarify the geometry
of the Linzhou Basin.
Onset of Andean-type Orogeny and
Topographic Growth in Tibet
The transition from the shallow marine car-
bonates of the Takena Formation to the massive
fluvial sandstones at the base of the Shexing For-
mation in the Linzhou Basin is held to reflect the
onset of topographic growth and active erosion
on the Lhasa block. The timing of this transition
is constrained as mid Aptian by biostratigraphy
and detrital zircons yielding a YC1σ(2+) age of
119 Ma. Initial topographic growth before the
end of the Early Cretaceous is also suggested
by the stratigraphic record of other sedimentary
basins in the Lhasa block (Figs. 13 and 14A).
Deposition of the Damxung Conglomerate in
braided river to alluvial fan settings took place
in the central Lhasa block in Early Albian time
(ca. 111 Ma) (Wang et al., 2017a). Deposition
of the shallow marine to fluvial Duoni Forma-
tion took place in the northwestern Lhasa block
17
 Jian-Gang Wang et al.

A: Aptian–Early Albian ( ca. 125–108 Ma ) in Aptian to Early Albian time (DeCelles et al.,
2007; Zhang et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2017). Mas-
( Takena to middle Sh e x i n g ; Regional extension)
sive influx of Gangdese detritus into the Xigaze
BNS Qiangtang Forearc Basin began at 113–110 Ma (Dai et al.,
2015; Orme and Laskowski, 2016; Wang et al.,
Dong Co 2017b). Surface uplift may have been associated
Duoni Fm Nima Selin Co with arc and back arc magmatism in a tectonic
setting that was possibly extensional rather than
contractional at that time. During such early
uplift and erosion stages, topography on most
Coqen Damxung of the Lhasa block was still subdued, and large
areas to the west and northwest of the Linzhou
Linzhou Basin were subsequently submerged during the
? ? Takena-middle Shexing
?
?
80 km
Starved forearc (Chert and siliceous shale) Figure 14. Cretaceous paleogeographic
Xigaze evolution and topographic growth of the
NTSZ Lhasa block in southern Tibet. Broad ar-
Neo-Tethys rows indicate transport direction of sedi-
ments. BNS—Bangong–Nujiang suture;
B : Late Albian–Ea rly Cenomanian (ca. 108–96 Ma) NTSZ—Neo-Tethyan subduction zone. (A)
(Upper Shexing; Postextensional thermal subsidence) Aptian–Early Albian (ca. 125–108 Ma): re-
gional extension in the Lhasa block, possibly
BNS Qiangtang
associated with spreading in the Gangdese
Dong Co
forearc (Maffione et al., 2015; Xiong et al.,
2016; Butler and Beaumont, 2017). Mag-
Nima
Langshan Fm matic flare-up on the Lhasa block led to
Selin Co initial topographic growth of north Lhasa,
? ? Damxung and deposition of widespread volcaniclastic
Coqen rocks including the Duoni Formation, the
Langshan Fm Damxung Conglomerate, and the lower–
Upper Shexing
Linzhou middle members of the Shexing Formation.
Turbidites derived from the Lhasa block
reached the Xigaze Forearc Basin from ca.
113–110 Ma (Wang et al., 2017a). (B) Late
Albian–Early Cenomanian (ca. 108–96 Ma):
Xigaze thermal subsidence of north Lhasa at the
NTSZ end of magmatic flare-up led to transgres-
Neo-Tethys sion and deposition of shallow marine lime-
C : Late Cenomanian–Earl y Turonian (ca. 96–90 Ma) stones of the Langshan Formation. Facies
(Uppermost Shexing; Onset of contractional deformation) change from east to west indicates higher
relief in the east (Wang et al., 2017b). Mag-
BNS Qiangtang matism was focused along the Gangdese
arc, which prevented sediments from north
Dong Co J in g z h
ushan
Lhasa from reaching the Xigaze Forearc
Fm Nima J in
gzhus
han Fm
Basin (An et al., 2014). Volume volcanic
detritus from the Gangdese arc was depos-
Selin Co
ited in the Linzhou Basin. (C) Late Ceno-
Damxung manian–Early Turonian (ca. 96–90 Ma):
Coqen D a x io n g onset of contractional deformation caused
Fm deposition of continental conglomerates
Uppermost (Jinzhushan and Daxiong Formations; Sun
Shexing Linzhou et al., 2015a; Lai et al., 2019). Fold-thrust
?
deformation affected Lower Cretaceous and
older strata (e.g., Murphy et al., 1997). De-
tritus from north Lhasa reached the Xigaze
Xigaze Forearc Basin (An et al., 2014). The Linzhou
NTSZ Basin was inverted and involved in N–S
Neo-Tethys
shortening.

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by China University of Geosciences Beijing user

Aptian–Albian transgression documented by the
Langshan shallow marine limestones (Figs. 13
and 14B) (Zhang et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2017).
As a result of the early topographic growth on the
Lhasa block, an axial river system developed in
the Linzhou basin, which received detritus from
the highlands of both north and south Lhasa and
flowed toward the sea in the west.
Widespread crustal shortening and acceler-
ated topographic growth of the Lhasa block
began at the beginning of the Late Cretaceous
(96–92 Ma), as indicated by the cessation
of shallow marine sedimentation (Langshan
Formation) and deposition of fluvial/alluvial
conglomerates (Daxiong and Jingzhushan For-
mations; Zhang et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2015a;
Lai et al., 2019) (Figs. 13 and 14C). Conglom-
erate sedimentation was associated with active
thrust faults carrying Lower Cretaceous strata
in the hanging wall (Murphy et al., 1997; Kapp
et al., 2003). Structural restorations suggest that
≥55% of N–S shortening occurred in the Late
Cretaceous well before the onset of the India–
Asia collision (Murphy et al., 1997; Kapp et al.,
2007). Emplacement of Mg-rich and adakitic
magmatism in north Lhasa at ca. 90 Ma sug-
gests that the underlying crust had been previ-
ously thickened significantly (Sun et al., 2015b),
supporting a scenario of crustal thickening and
consequent uplift by early Late Cretaceous time.
The resulting Andean-type orogen—the Lhasa-
plano—formed then and possibly achieved even
high elevation well before the India–Asia colli-
sion (Kapp et al., 2007; Ding et al., 2014; Lai
et al., 2019).
The deposition of the uppermost member of
the Shexing Formation in the Linzhou Basin is
interpreted here as the sedimentary response to
the mid-Cretaceous onset of the Andean-type
orogeny. This unit documents a facies transi-
tion to a braided river system and extensive re-
cycling of previously deposited strata in north
Lhasa, which indicate rapid erosion and exhu-
mation in the source region induced by crustal
thickening and topographic uplift. N–S shorten-
ing and basin inversion eventually terminated
sedimentation in the Linzhou Basin in the early
Late Cretaceous. The uplift of the Lhasaplano
imposed a reorganization of the regional drain-
age system, and sediments from north Lhasa
transported across the Gangdese arc started to
reach the Xigaze Forearc Basin in the Early Co-
niacian (ca. 88 Ma; An et al., 2014; Orme and
Laskowski, 2016).
Geodynamic Scenario
The stratigraphic and provenance analyses of
Cretaceous sedimentary basins allow us to tenta-
tively unravel the stepwise paleotectonic evolu-
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by China University of Geosciences Beijing user
Andean-type orogeny in the Lhasa block
tion of the Lhasa block (Fig. 14). Initially, the
Takena Formation, the lower and middle mem-
bers of the Shexing Formation in the Linzhou
Basin, and the volcanic rocks and volcaniclas-
tic sandstones in the northwestern Lhasa block
are held to document an extensional stage be-
tween ca. 124 Ma and 108 Ma. Next, the up-
per member of the Shexing Formation in the
Linzhou Basin and shallow marine limestones
in the northwestern Lhasa block are inferred to
testify to post-extensional thermal subsidence
between ca. 108 Ma and 96 Ma. Finally, the up-
permost member of the Shexing Formation in
the Linzhou Basin, continental conglomerates in
the northwestern Lhasa block, and north/south
vergent fold-thrust deformation of Lower Creta-
ceous and older strata recorded N–S contraction
beginning at 96–92 Ma. Basin inversion in the
mid-Cretaceous marked the onset of the Andean-
type orogeny along the south Asian margin and
the rapid topographic rise of southern Tibet.
Tectonic stress within the plate overriding
a subduction zone is induced by the geometry
and characteristics of the subducting oceanic
lithosphere (Stern, 2002; Doglioni and Panza,
2015). Extension in the overriding plate is com-
monly ascribed to trench retreat or steepening of
the downward slab (e.g., Uyeda and Kanamori,
1979). Forearc spreading along the southern
edge of the Lhasa block led to the emplacement
of the Xigaze ophiolites in the Early Cretaceous
(Dai et al., 2015; Maffione et al., 2015; Wang
et al., 2017b), and tectonic extension within the
Lhasa block may have been part of the same
geodynamic process. Both initiation/re-initia-
tion of Neo-Tethyan subduction and rollback of
the subducting slab have been proposed as the
cause of extension (e.g., Zhang et al., 2004; Dai
et al., 2013; Xiong et al., 2016; Butler and Beau-
mont, 2017). The primary difference between
these two scenarios concerns the existence of a
subduction zone along the southern margin of
the Lhasa block in the Early Mesozoic, a still
lively debated issue. Numerous Middle Triassic
to Jurassic magmatic rocks were reported from
the Gangdese domain, but the mechanisms of
magma generation are controversial (e.g., Zhu
et al., 2008, 2011a; Ma et al., 2018; Kapp and
DeCelles, 2019). At any rate, it is established
that northward oceanic subduction south of the
Lhasa block became stable in the Albian, when
arc magmatism focused along the east-west–
trending axis of the Gangdese arc while thermal
subsidence took place in the back-arc region.
Initiation of Andean-type orogeny in the mid-
Cretaceous indicates strong compressive stress
originating from the subducting oceanic litho-
sphere. Crustal shortening in the overriding plate
may result from flat subduction or subduction
of oceanic plateaus (e.g., Livaccari et al., 1981;
Gutscher et al., 2000). However, a shallow sub-
duction model predicts waning magmatism
whereas explosive magmatism broadly coeval
with tectonic inversion of the Linzhou Basin
characterized the Gangdese arc at ca. 90 Ma
(Ji et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2011a; Hou et al.,
2015). Compressional stress may also build up
as a result of rapid subduction of buoyant young
lithosphere (Stern, 2002); in fact, convergence
rates between India and Asia appeared to have
increased significantly at ca. 90 Ma (van Hins-
bergen et al., 2011). Moreover, subduction of the
Neo-Tethyan mid-ocean ridge has been suggest-
ed to have occurred at 90–86 Ma (Zhang et al.,
2010). Acceleration of subduction rate and ridge
subduction could provide more fluids and heat to
promote arc magmatism, and thus the possibility
of a causal link with the onset of an Andean-type
orogeny does exist.
A Comparison to the Andes and Broader
Implications
The Early Cretaceous sedimentary and tec-
tonic evolution of the Lhasaplano is broadly like
the situation in the Andes Mountains. The An-
dean Retroarc Foreland Basin was built upon the
pre-Andean back arc extensional basins (Horton
et al., 2018a). Extension occurred in the Late
Triassic to Early Cretaceous, well before the ini-
tiation of the Andean orogeny. During the exten-
sional stage, initial short-term, fault-controlled
subsidence was followed by thermal subsid-
ence driven by long-term lithospheric cooling
(Horton et al., 2018a). Sediments feeding the
extensional basins were mostly derived from
the South American craton in the east (Horton
et al., 2016). Andean shortening began at Late
Cretaceous-early Paleocene time, following the
cessation of extensional and/or post-extensional
neutral stress conditions. The Andean orogeny
changed the sediment routing system, leading
to a provenance switch from eastern cratonic
sources to Andean sources in the west (Horton
et al., 2016). The relative and absolute rates of
plate convergence and/or the dip of the subduct-
ing slab were critical for the tectonic transition in
the Andes (Horton et al., 2018b). Broad similari-
ties between the mid-Cretaceous paleotectonic
evolution of the Lhasa block and the beginning
of the Andean orogeny in South America sug-
gest that geodynamic processes may have been
analogous, which invites us to speculate further
on the causal relationships between subduction
and tectonic evolution of the overriding plate.
CONCLUSIONS
The Cretaceous succession of the Linzhou Ba-
sin records the onset of an Andean-type orogeny
19

in the Lhasa block and the initial topographic
growth of southern Tibet. The youngest marine
strata are represented by carbonate rocks of the
Takena Formation deposited in lagoonal envi-
ronments. Foraminiferal assemblages indicate
an Early Aptian (123–119.5 Ma) depositional
age. The conformably overlying fluvial sand-
stones of the Shexing Formation were deposited
from the Late Aptian to the Early Cenomanian
(ca. 119–90 Ma). Marked provenance changes
are documented throughout the Shexing Forma-
tion. Sediment was entirely derived from north
Lhasa in the lower member. Detritus from the
Gangdese arc first appeared in the middle mem-
ber, increased up section, and became dominant
in the upper member. In the uppermost member,
clasts are mostly recycled from Paleozoic strata
of north Lhasa. Back stripping analysis indicates
rapid tectonic subsidence and high sedimenta-
tion rates during deposition of the Takena For-
mation and the lower and middle members of
the Shexing Formation (ca. 125–108 Ma). Sub-
sidence decreased notably during deposition of
the upper member of the Shexing Formation (ca.
108–96 Ma), and the Linzhou Basin was even-
tually inverted and uplifted in the Cenomanian.
Three stages can be identified in the Creta-
ceous evolution of the Linzhou Basin. (1) Tec-
tonic extension took place between ca. 124 Ma
and 108 Ma; rapid subsidence was associated
with magmatic flare up in north Lhasa, where
surface uplift and erosion started to feed sedi-
mentary basins in the central part of the Lhasa
block. (2) Steady post-extensional thermal sub-
sidence took place between ca. 108 Ma and
96 Ma; shallow marine limestones (Langshan
Formation) were deposited on the northwestern
Lhasa block, passing to fluvial sediments in the
east. Magmatism focused along the Gangdese
arc, which acted as a topographic barrier that
prevented detritus from north Lhasa from reach-
ing the Xigaze Forearc Basin farther south. (3)
N–S shortening and crustal thickening occurred
beginning at ca. 96–92 Ma, which is evidenced
by widespread deposition of fluvial conglom-
erates. Topographic growth resulted in inver-
sion of sedimentary basins on the Lhasa block,
and clasts from north Lhasa began to reach
the Xigaze forearc basin. Tectonic inversion
from extension to contraction at ca. 96–92 Ma
marked the initiation of the Andean-type orog-
eny and rapid topographic growth of southern
Tibet. A similar evolution is observed in the
Andes Mountain range and may, thus, represent
a common feature of Andean-type active conti-
nental margins.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Wei-Qiang Ji, Liang-Liang Zhang,
Chang Zhang, Xiao-Chi Liu, and Tong Liu for their
20
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by China University of Geosciences Beijing user
Jian-Gang Wang et al.
help in several field seasons, and Yue-Heng Yang for
assistance during zircon U–Pb dating and Hf isoto-
pic analyses. We are deeply grateful to the editors, to
Brian Horton, and to another anonymous reviewer for
their constructive comments and advice. This study
was financially supported by the National Science
Foundation of China (projects 41672109, 91755209),
the Frontier Research Foundation of State Key Labo-
ratory of Mineral Deposits Research (SKL-Q201802),
and the Youth Innovation Promotion Associate Project
of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
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Science Editor: Bradley S. Singer
Associate Editor: Rajat Mazumder
Manuscript Received 9 April 2019
Revised Manuscript Received 11 September 2019
Manuscript Accepted 7 December 2019
Printed in the USA

Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 130, no. XX/XX 23

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