RESPIRATORY (1)

Chapter 13
The Respiratory
System
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

Organs of the Respiratory System
 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs—alveoli

Figure 13.1 The major respiratory organs shown in relation to surrounding structures.
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Nostril Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Left main
Right main (primary)
(primary) bronchus
bronchus
Left lung
Right lung
Diaphragm

Functions of the Respiratory System
 Gas exchanges between the blood and external

environment
 Occur in the alveoli of the lungs
 Passageways to the lungs purify, humidify, and
warm the incoming air

The Nose
 The only externally visible part of the respiratory

system
 Air enters the nose through the external nostrils
(nares)
 Interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided
by a nasal septum

Concept Link

Figure 13.2b Basic anatomy of the upper respiratory tract, sagittal section.
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Posterior nasal Nasal cavity
aperture • Nasal conchae (superior,
Nasopharynx middle and inferior)
• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,
middle, and inferior)
• Opening of
• Nasal vestibule
pharyngotympanic
tube • Nostril
• Uvula Hard palate
Oropharynx Soft palate
• Palatine tonsil Tongue
• Lingual tonsil
Hyoid bone
Laryngopharynx Larynx
• Epiglottis
Esophagus • Thyroid cartilage
Trachea • Vocal fold
• Cricoid cartilage
(b) Detailed anatomy of the upper respiratory tract

The Nose
 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on

the superior surface
 The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
mucosa, which:
 Moistens air
 Traps incoming foreign particles

The Nose
 Lateral walls have projections called conchae

 Increase surface area
 Increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity
 The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by
the palate
 Anterior hard palate (bone)
 Posterior soft palate (unsupported)

Paranasal Sinuses
 Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity

are called sinuses
 Sinuses are located in the following bones:
 Frontal
 Sphenoid
 Ethmoid
 Maxillary

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
• Opening of
• Nasal vestibule
pharyngotympanic
tube • Nostril
• Lingual tonsil
Hyoid bone
• Epiglottis

Paranasal Sinuses
 Functions of the sinuses:

 Lighten the skull
 Act as resonance chambers for speech
 Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity

Pharynx (Throat)
 Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx

 Three regions of the pharynx:
1. Nasopharynx—superior region behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx—middle region behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx—inferior region attached to larynx
 The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common
passageways for air and food

Figure 13.2a Basic anatomy of the upper respiratory tract, sagittal section.
Pharynx
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
(a) Regions of the pharynx

Pharynx (Throat)
 Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the nasopharynx

 Tonsils of the pharynx
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) is located in the
nasopharynx
 Palatine tonsils are located in the oropharynx
 Lingual tonsils are found at the base of the tongue

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
• Opening of
• Nasal vestibule
pharyngotympanic
tube • Nostril
• Lingual tonsil
Hyoid bone
• Epiglottis

Larynx (Voice Box)
 Routes air and food into proper channels

 Plays a role in speech
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-
shaped flap of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)

Larynx (Voice Box)
 Thyroid cartilage
 Largest of the hyaline cartilages
 Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
 Epiglottis
 Protects the superior opening of the larynx
 Routes food to the posteriorly situated esophagus
and routes air toward the trachea
 When swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid
over the opening of the larynx

Larynx (Voice Box)
 Vocal folds (true vocal cords)

 Vibrate with expelled air
 The glottis consists of the vocal cords and the
slitlike pathway (opening)

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Frontal sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
• Opening of
• Nasal vestibule
pharyngotympanic
tube • Nostril
• Lingual tonsil
Hyoid bone
• Epiglottis

Trachea (Windpipe)
 4-inch-long tube that connects larynx with bronchi

 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline
cartilage, which keeps the trachea patent
 Lined with ciliated mucosa
 Cilia beat continuously in the opposite direction of
incoming air
 Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away
from lungs

Figure 13.3a Structural relationship of the trachea and esophagus.
Posterior
Mucosa
Esophagus Submucosa
Trachealis Seromucous
Lumen of
muscle gland in
trachea
submucosa
Hyaline
cartilage
Adventitia
Anterior
(a)

Figure 13.3b Structural relationship of the trachea and esophagus.
(b)
Main (Primary) Bronchi
 Formed by division of the trachea

 Each bronchus enters the lung at the hilum (medial
depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than
left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches

Figure 13.1 The major respiratory organs shown in relation to surrounding structures.
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Nostril Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Left main
Right main (primary)
(primary) bronchus
bronchus
Left lung
Right lung
Diaphragm

Lungs
 Occupy most of the thoracic cavity

 Heart occupies central portion called mediastinum
 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
 Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
 Left lung—two lobes
 Right lung—three lobes

Coverings of the Lungs
 Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs

 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
 Pleural fluid fills the area between layers to allow
gliding and decrease friction during breathing
 Pleural space (between the layers) is more of a
potential space

Figure 13.4a Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
Intercostal muscle
Rib
Parietal pleura
Trachea Pleural cavity
Lung
Visceral pleura
Thymus
Apex of lung
Right superior lobe Left superior lobe
Horizontal fissure
Oblique fissure
Right middle lobe
Oblique fissure Left inferior lobe
Right inferior lobe
Heart
(in pericardial cavity
of mediastinum)
Diaphragm
Base of lung
(a) Anterior view. The lungs flank mediastinal structures laterally.

Figure 13.4b Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
Posterior Esophagus
Vertebra (in posterior mediastinum)
Root of lung at hilum
Right lung • Left main bronchus
• Left pulmonary artery
Parietal pleura • Left pulmonary vein
Visceral pleura
Left lung
Pleural cavity
Thoracic wall
Pulmonary trunk
Pericardial
membranes Heart (in mediastinum)
Sternum Anterior mediastinum
Anterior
(b) Transverse section through the thorax, viewed from above.

Bronchial (Respiratory) Tree Divisions
 All but the smallest of these passageways have

reinforcing cartilage in their walls
 Conduits to and from the respiratory zone
 Primary bronchi
 Secondary bronchi
 Tertiary bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Terminal bronchioles

Respiratory Zone Structures
 Respiratory bronchioles
 Alveolar ducts
 Alveolar sacs
 Alveoli (air sacs)

Figure 13.5a Respiratory zone structures.
Alveolar duct Alveoli
Respiratory Alveolar duct

bronchioles
Terminal
bronchiole Alveolar
sac
(a) Diagrammatic view of respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli

Figure 13.5b Respiratory zone structures.
Alveolar
Alveolar
duct
pores
Alveolus
(b) Light micrograph of human lung tissue,

showing the final divisions of the
respiratory tree (120×)

The Respiratory Membrane
 Thin squamous epithelial layer lines alveolar walls

 Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of
alveoli
 Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier)
 On one side of the membrane is air, and on the other
side is blood flowing past
 Formed by alveolar and capillary walls

The Respiratory Membrane
 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion

 Oxygen enters the blood
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 Alveolar macrophages (“dust cells”) add protection
by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other
debris
 Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats gas-exposed
alveolar surfaces

Figure 13.6 Anatomy of the respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier).
Red blood cell

Capillary
Endothelial cell
nucleus
Alveolar pores
O2
Capillary
CO2
Macrophage
Alveolus
Nucleus of
squamous
epithelial cell
Respiratory Alveolar epithelium
membrane
Fused basement
membranes
Capillary endothelium
Alveoli (gas- Red blood Surfactant- Squamous
filled air cell in secreting cell epithelial cell
spaces) capillary of alveolar wall

Four Events of Respiration
1. Pulmonary ventilation—moving air into and out of

the lungs (commonly called breathing)
2. External respiration—gas exchange between
pulmonary blood and alveoli
 Oxygen is loaded into the blood
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood

Four Events of Respiration
3. Respiratory gas transport—transport of oxygen

and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
4. Internal respiration—gas exchange between blood
and tissue cells in systemic capillaries

Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary
Ventilation)
 Completely mechanical process that depends on
volume changes in the thoracic cavity
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which
lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure

Concept Link

Ventilation)
 Two phases
 Inspiration = inhalation
 Flow of air into lungs
 Expiration = exhalation
 Air leaving lungs

Ventilation)
 Inspiration
 Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
 The size of the thoracic cavity increases
 External air is pulled into the lungs as a result of:
 Increase in intrapulmonary volume
 Decrease in gas pressure
 Air is sucked into the lungs

Figure 13.7a Rib cage and diaphragm positions during breathing.
Changes in anterior-posterior and Changes in lateral

superior-inferior dimensions dimensions
Ribs elevated
as external
intercostals
contract
External Full inspiration
intercostal (External
muscles intercostals contract)
Diaphragm moves
inferiorly during
contraction
(a) Inspiration: Air (gases) flows into the lungs

Figure 13.8 Changes in intrapulmonary pressure and air flow during inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration Expiration
+2
to atmospheric pressure
Pressure relative
Intrapulmonary
+1 pressure
−1
−2
(a)
Volume of
breath
0.5
Volume (L)
−0.5
(b)
Ventilation)
 Expiration
 Largely a passive process that depends on natural
lung elasticity
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs as a
result of:
 Decrease in intrapulmonary volume
 Increase in gas pressure
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by contraction of
internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage

Ventilation)
 Normal pressure within the pleural space is always
negative (intrapleural pressure)
 Differences in lung and pleural space pressures
keep lungs from collapsing
 Atelectasis is collapsed lung
 Pneumothorax is the presence of air in the
intrapleural space

Figure 13.7b Rib cage and diaphragm positions during breathing.
Changes in anterior-posterior and Changes in lateral

superior-inferior dimensions dimensions
Ribs depressed
as external
intercostals relax
External Expiration
intercostal (External
muscles intercostals relax)
Diaphragm moves
superiorly as
it relaxes
(b) Expiration: Air (gases) flows out of the lungs
Figure 13.8 Changes in intrapulmonary pressure and air flow during inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration Expiration
+2
to atmospheric pressure
Pressure relative
Intrapulmonary
+1 pressure
−1
−2
(a)
Volume of
breath
0.5
Volume (L)
−0.5
(b)
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
 Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with

each breath
 This respiratory volume is tidal volume (TV)
 Many factors affect respiratory capacity
 A person’s size
 Sex
 Age
 Physical condition

 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

 Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the
tidal volume
 Usually around 3,100 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a
tidal expiration
 Approximately 1,200 ml

 Residual volume
 Air remaining in lung after expiration
 Allows gas exchange to go on continuously, even
between breaths, and helps keep alveoli open
(inflated)
 About 1,200 ml

 Vital capacity
 The total amount of exchangeable air
 Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
 4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women
 Dead space volume
 Air that remains in conducting zone and never
reaches alveoli
 About 150 ml

 Functional volume
 Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
 Usually about 350 ml
 Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer

Figure 13.9 Idealized tracing of the various respiratory volumes of a healthy young adult male.
6,000
5,000 Inspiratory
reserve volume
Milliliters (ml)
4,000 3,100 ml
Vital
capacity
3,000 Total lung
Tidal volume 500 ml 4,800 ml
capacity
Expiratory 6,000 ml
2,000
reserve volume
1,200 ml
1,000
Residual volume
1,200 ml
0

Nonrespiratory Air (Gas) Movements
 Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions

 Examples:
 Cough and sneeze—clears lungs of debris
 Crying—emotionally induced mechanism
 Laughing—similar to crying
 Hiccup—sudden inspirations
 Yawn—very deep inspiration

Table 13.1 Nonrespiratory Air (Gas) Movements

Respiratory Sounds
 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope

 Two recognizable sounds can be heard with a
stethoscope:
1. Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing
through large passageways such as the trachea
and bronchi
2. Vesicular breathing sounds—soft sounds of air
filling alveoli

External Respiration, Gas Transport, and
Internal Respiration
 Gas exchanges occur as a result of diffusion
 Movement of the gas is toward the area of lower
concentration

Figure 13.10 Gas exchanges in the body occur according to the laws of diffusion.
Inspired air: Alveoli

of lungs:
CO2 O2
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
External
respiration
Pulmonary Pulmonary
Alveolar
arteries veins
capillaries
Blood Blood
leaving leaving
tissues and lungs and
entering entering
lungs: tissue
capillaries:
Heart
O2 CO2 Tissue O2 CO2
capillaries
Systemic Systemic
veins arteries
Internal
respiration CO2 O2
Tissue
cells:
O2 CO2
External Respiration
 Oxygen is loaded into the blood

 The alveoli always have more oxygen than the blood
 Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower
concentration
 Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen

External Respiration
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of the blood

 Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the
alveoli
 Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide to
be exhaled
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen rich and carbon
dioxide poor

Figure 13.11a Diagrammatic representation of the major means of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) loading and unloading in the body.
(a) External respiration in the lungs

(pulmonary gas exchange)
Oxygen is loaded into the blood

and carbon dioxide is unloaded.
Alveoli (air sacs)
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2
Hb + O2 HbO2 HCO3−+ H+ H2CO3 CO2+ H2O

(Oxyhemoglobin Bicar- Carbonic Water
is formed) bonate acid
ion
Plasma
Red blood cell
Pulmonary capillary
Gas Transport in the Blood
 Oxygen transport in the blood

 Most oxygen travels attached to hemoglobin and
forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
 A small dissolved amount is carried in the plasma



Alveoli (air sacs)
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2

ion
Plasma
Red blood cell
Pulmonary capillary
 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood

 Most carbon dioxide is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
 A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on
hemoglobin, but at different binding sites from those
of oxygen

Concept Link

 For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood into the

alveoli, it must be released from its bicarbonate
form:
 Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
 Combine with hydrogen ions
 Form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
 Carbonic acid splits to form water + CO2
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli



Alveoli (air sacs)
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2

ion
Plasma
Red blood cell
Pulmonary capillary
Internal Respiration
 Exchange of gases between blood and body cells

 An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs
 Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood (called
loading)
 Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue (called
unloading)

Figure 13.11b Diagrammatic representation of the major means of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) loading and unloading in the body.
(b) Internal respiration in the body tissues

(systemic capillary gas exchange)
Oxygen is unloaded and carbon

dioxide is loaded into the blood.
Tissue cells
CO2
O2
Loading
Unloading
of CO2
of O2
CO2 +H2O H2CO3 H++ HCO3−

Water Carbonic Bicar-
acid bonate HbO2 Hb + O2
Plasma ion
Systemic capillary
Red blood cell
Neural Regulation of Respiration
 Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to and

from the brain by phrenic and intercostal nerves
 Neural centers that control rate and depth are
located in the medulla and pons
 Medulla—sets basic rhythm of breathing and
contains a pacemaker (self-exciting inspiratory
center) called the ventral respiratory group (VRG)
 Pons—appears to smooth out respiratory rate

Neural Regulation of Respiration
 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea)

 12 to 15 respirations per minute
 Hyperpnea
 Increased respiratory rate, often due to extra oxygen
needs

Figure 13.12 Breathing control centers, sensory inputs, and effector nerves.
Breathing control centers:

• Pons centers
• Medulla centers
Afferent Efferent nerve impulses from

impulses to medulla trigger contraction
medulla of inspiratory muscles.
• Phrenic nerves
• Intercostal nerves
Breathing control centers
stimulated by:
CO2 increase in blood Nerve impulse

(acts directly on medulla from O2 sensor Intercostal
centers by causing a indicating O2 muscles
drop in pH of CSF) decrease Diaphragm
O2 sensor
in aortic body
CSF in of aortic arch
brain
sinus
Non-Neural Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
 Physical factors
 Increased body temperature
 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors such as fear, anger, and
excitement

Rate and Depth
 Chemical factors: CO2 levels
 The body’s need to rid itself of CO2 is the most
important stimulus for breathing
 Increased levels of carbon dioxide (and thus, a
decreased or acidic pH) in the blood increase the
rate and depth of breathing
 Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the
medulla oblongata

Rate and Depth
 Chemical factors: oxygen levels
 Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are
detected by chemoreceptors in the aorta and
common carotid artery
 Information is sent to the medulla
 Oxygen is the stimulus for those whose systems
have become accustomed to high levels of carbon
dioxide as a result of disease

Rate and Depth
 Chemical factors
 Hyperventilation
 Rising levels of CO2 in the blood (acidosis) result in
faster, deeper breathing
 Blows off more CO2 to restore normal blood pH
 May result in apnea and dizziness and lead to
alkalosis

Rate and Depth
 Chemical factors
 Hypoventilation
 Results when blood becomes alkaline (alkalosis)
 Extremely slow or shallow breathing
 Allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood

Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
 Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema
 Major causes of death and disability in the United
States

 Features of these diseases
1. Patients almost always have a history of smoking
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes
progressively more severe
3. Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections are
common

 Features of these diseases (continued)
4. Most victims are hypoxic, retain carbon dioxide, and
have respiratory acidosis
 Those who acquire infections will ultimately develop
respiratory failure

Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Bronchitis
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes

severely inflamed
 Excessive mucus production impairs ventilation and
gas exchange
 Patients become cyanotic and are sometimes called
“blue bloaters” as a result of chronic hypoxia

Respiratory Disorders: Emphysema
 Alveoli permanently enlarge as adjacent chambers

break through and are destroyed
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis, and
lungs lose elasticity
 Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale as
exhalation becomes an active process
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a permanently
expanded barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease; sufferers are
often called “pink puffers”

Figure 13.13 The pathogenesis of COPD.
• Tobacco smoke
• Air pollution
Continual bronchial Breakdown of elastin

irritation and in connective tissue
inflammation of lungs
Chronic bronchitis Emphysema

• Excessive mucus • Destruction of
produced, alveolar walls
• Chronic productive • Loss of lung elasticity
cough
• Airway obstruction
or air trapping
• Dyspnea
• Frequent infections
Respiratory
failure
Lung Cancer
 Extremely aggressive and metastasizes rapidly

 Accounts for one-third of all U.S. cancer deaths
 Increased incidence is associated with smoking
 Three common types:
1. Squamous cell carcinoma
2. Adenocarcinoma
3. Small cell carcinoma

Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Premature infants have problems keeping their
lungs inflated because of a lack of surfactant in their
alveoli. (Surfactant is formed late in pregnancy
around 28 to 30 weeks of pregnancy)
 Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)—
surfactant production is inadequate

System
 Significant birth defects affecting the respiratory
system:
 Cleft palate
 Cystic fibrosis—oversecretion of thick mucus clogs
the respiratory system

System
 Respiratory rate changes throughout life
 Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per minute
 Infants: 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
 Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per minute
 Rate often increases somewhat with old age

System
 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
 Apparently healthy infant stops breathing and dies
during sleep
 Some cases are thought to be a problem of the
neural respiratory control center
 One-third of cases appear to be due to heart rhythm
abnormalities
 Recent research shows a genetic component

System
 Asthma
 Chronically inflamed hypersensitive bronchiole
passages
 Respond to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and
wheezing

System
 During youth and middle age, most respiratory
system problems are a result of external factors,
such as infections and substances that physically
block respiratory passageways

System
 Aging effects
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide decrease
 Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit sleep apnea
 More risks of respiratory tract infection

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Chapter 13

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Gas exchanges between the blood and external

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 The only externally visible part of the respiratory

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Lateral walls have projections called conchae

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Functions of the sinuses:

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 Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

(a) Regions of the pharynx

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 Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the nasopharynx

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© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Routes air and food into proper channels

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Vocal folds (true vocal cords)

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© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 4-inch-long tube that connects larynx with bronchi

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Formed by division of the trachea

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© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Occupy most of the thoracic cavity

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 All but the smallest of these passageways have

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

Alveolar duct Alveoli

Respiratory Alveolar duct

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

(b) Light micrograph of human lung tissue,

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Thin squamous epithelial layer lines alveolar walls

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

Red blood cell

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1. Pulmonary ventilation—moving air into and out of

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

3. Respiratory gas transport—transport of oxygen

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.