Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Mineralogy, whole-rock geochemistry and C, O isotopes from Passo Feio T

Carbonatite, Sul-Riograndense Shield, Brazil
Beatriz Andrea de Almeida Moralesa,∗, Delia Del Pilar Montecinos de Almeidaa, Edinei Koesterb,
Alexandre Magno Rocha da Rochac, Nilson Tôrres Dornelesd, Marcelo Barcellos da Rosae,
André Abreu Martinsb
a
Universidade Federal do Pampa – UNIPAMPA, Caçapava do Sul RS, Brazil
b
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS, Porto Alegre RS, Brazil
c
Instituto Federal do Rio Grande do Norte – IFRN, Brazil
d
Minerogeo, Brazil
e
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria – UFSM, Santa Maria RS, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Carbonatites are peculiar igneous rocks, consisting mainly of greater than 50% carbonate minerals, which arouse
Carbonatite an economic interest due to the potentiality of high phosphate content and Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE)
Petrology associated with their occurrence. The Passo Feio Carbonatite (PFC) is located 17 km Southwest of Caçapava do Sul
Geochemistry city and constitutes NW dipping body, which is interposed with Passo Feio Formation metamorphic rocks. The
Stable isotopes
PFC varies texturally from massive to foliated, being mainly composed of calcites and dolomites and on a smaller
REE-Bearing minerals
scale by apatites, phlogopites and tremolites. The opaque minerals correspond to hematites, magnetites, pyrites
and barites, while the accessory minerals are represented by zircons, monazites- (Ce) and aeschynites- (Ce).
Probably those REE mineral phases correspond to a hydrothermal stage, with the REE remobilization from
apatites into those latter REE-rich mineral phases – this hypothesis is corroborated by geochemistry, mineral
chemistry and microtextures found. Considering the results of mineral chemistry and taking into account the
textural criteria, it was possible to classify carbonatite as an alvikite, with geochemical patterns that do not
indicate economic potential for REE. However, soil geochemistry showed an important enrichment in REE,
reflecting a probable concentration of monazites- (Ce) and aeschynites- (Ce), and because of this, it was possible
to establish a zone in which the Passo Feio Carbonatite would probably be extended. In the stable isotope
analyzes, the δ13C values varied between −4.14 and −3.89‰, while those of δ18O between 10.01 and 11.32‰,
which can be attributed to the cooling of the magma itself, without suggesting metamorphic processes or sub-
sequent changes. The deformation found in this carbonatite was probably developed in late-magmatic condi-
tions, guided by tectonics associated with horizontal movements in shear zones. Thus, this work suggests that
this carbonatite was the product of the reactivation of mantle sources, within a post-collision magmatic context
of the Sul-Riograndense Shield.

1. Introduction
The carbonatites are peculiar igneous rocks composed of more than
50% of primary carbonate, named after the main carbonate mineral
that constitutes them. The carbonatites can be divided in calcite or
dolomites carbonatites, ferrocarbonatites and natrocarbonatites ac-
cording to the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) clas-
sification (Le Maitre et al., 2002). Around the world, 527 occurrences of
carbonatites have been reported, of which only 22 are located in Brazil
(Woolley and Kjarsgaard, 2008). In Brazil there are several mineral
deposits associated with carbonatite complexes, among them Seis Lagos
(Amazonas), Catalão (Goiás), Jacupiranga (São Paulo), Angico dos Dias
(Bahia). The mineral deposits associated with carbonatites comprise
significant sources of Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE), niobium, iron,
copper, apatite, sodalite, among others, and are historically important
suppliers of uranium and thorium (Simandl, 2015).

Corresponding author.
∗

E-mail addresses: bimorales.geo@gmail.com (B.A. de Almeida Morales), delia.pilar@gmail.com (D.D.P.M. de Almeida), koester@ufrgs.br (E. Koester),
alexandre.geoquimica@gmail.com (A.M.R. da Rocha), nilson@minerogeo.com.br (N.T. Dorneles), marcelobdarosa@gmail.com (M.B. da Rosa),
andreabreumartins@yahoo.com.br (A.A. Martins).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2019.05.024
Received 26 August 2018; Received in revised form 5 May 2019; Accepted 18 May 2019
Available online 22 May 2019
0895-9811/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al.
Fig. 1. Subdivision of sul-riograndense shield (modified from (Hartmann et al., 2007; Hasui, 2012).
It is typical of most carbonatites a Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE)
enrichment, with values of La at least two orders of magnitude higher
than Lu. It reflects a predominance of LREE rich minerals such as
fluocarbonates, bastnäsite-(Ce), parisite-(Ce) and synchysite- (Ce); the
hydrated carbonate ancylite and the phosphate, monazite-(Ce) (Wall
and Mariano, 1995).
The carbonatitic complexes and in some cases the respective su-
pergenic enrichment are favorable hosts of metallic and industrial mi-
nerals. Currently, deposits related to carbonatites represent a large part
of LREE and niobium resources (Möller, 1989). These deposits are
usually associated to a thick weathering profile where the intense
leaching results in the concentration of insoluble and chemically inert
elements such as Nb, Zr, REE, Ba, Mn, Fe, Ti, P, V, Sc, etc. These su-
pergene zones can be subdivided depending on the intensity and con-
ditions of formation (pH, weather, drainage system etc.) on lateritic or
pre-lateritic facies (Kravchenko et al., 1988).
According to Chakhmouradian (2009), two types of carbonatites
can be found, according to their tectonic environment and their trace
element geochemistry: I - Carbonatites positioned in rifts or extension
structures developed in stable Archean cratons and paleo-orogenic
belts. II - Carbonatites positioned in collisional configurations, suc-
ceeding orogenesis, depleted in HFSE compared to type I carbonatites.
2
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208
Morphologically, Lapin and Ploshko (1988) subdivided the carbonatites
into two classes: I - Central type carbonatites, with circular or oval
shapes, associated with the tectono-magmatic activation of cratons and
II - Carbonatites of linear type, located in zones of deep faults, with
linear shapes and generally parallel or sub parallel with respect to the
host rock.
Woolley and Kjarsgaard (2008) attributes two possible genesis for
carbonatitic magma: those that emanate directly from the mantle and
those associated with silicate rocks that were probably generated from
magmatic differentiation mechanisms.
The importance of the characterization of the carbonatite's occur-
rences on the Sul-Riograndense Shield resides on the fact that, as stated
by Woodard and Hetherington (2014), the structural conduits that al-
lows the emplacement of these magmas links the mantle source to the
upper crust and may only occur in an extensional environment – not
necessarily related to rifting, the extensional condition can occur under
localized conditions (for example, shear zones). Therefore, the occur-
rence of these carbonatite bodies on the Sul-Riograndense Shield in-
dicates that these conditions of local extension occurred and provided
for the emplacement of these magmas – probably under a pot-colli-
sional context. We present in this paper a new data of field work, pet-
rography, geochemistry of the PFC as well as an integration of these
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al.
Fig. 2. A. Location map of the studied area B. Airborne gamma ray spectrometry – eTh (CPRM, 2010).
data with the geology of Sul-Riograndense Shield, supporting the hy-
pothesis that the PFC was emplaced under post-collisional environment.
2. Geological setting
The Sul-Riograndense Shield comprises the Southern portion of the
Mantiqueira Province (Almeida et al., 1976), which demarcates the
3
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208
occurrence of two major orogenic cycles, the Transamazonic (Paleo-
proterozoic) and the Brazilian (Neoproterozoic). The Sul-Riograndense
Shield can be compartmentalized, according to its geotectonic meaning,
in four main terrains: Taquarembó, São Gabriel, Tijucas and Pelotas
Batholith. The Taquarembó Terrain encompasses the oldest unit of the
shield, the Santa Maria Chico Granulitic Complex (Neoarchean)
(Chemale, 2000; Hartmann et al., 2007) (Fig. 1).
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al.
Fig. 3. Geological map of the Southern region of the Caçapava do Sul Granite (Modified from Remus et al., 2000).
The geochronological data available suggest the development of
three main orogenic events during the Neoproterozoic: (i) a crustal
accretion phase accompanied with juvenile magmatism (890-860 Ma);
(ii) a continental arc magmatism followed by accretion (770-680 Ma);
(iii) collisional metamorphism (650-620 Ma) with a magmatic phase
characterized by intense crustal anatexis promoted by the injection of
mantle magmas (650-550 Ma). The studied PFC area is located at the
São Gabriel Terrain, which comprises petrotectonic associations of
passive and back-arc environments, being composed by the following
units, from East to West: Passo Feio Belt, Bossoroca Belt, Cambaí
Complex and Cambaizinho Belt. The units of the São Gabriel Terrain are
strongly controlled by N30-40°E trending shear zones that are easily
recognized by magnetic anomalies (Hartmann et al., 2000; Phillip et al.,
2016).
Rocha et al. (2013) announced the discovery of the Picada dos Tocos
and Passo Feio Carbonatites, located on the outskirts of Caçapava do Sul
city, identified with the aid of geophysical methods showing an
anomaly of 1,5 km2. The Picada dos Tocos Carbonatite (PTC) is located
on the Eastern edge of the Caçapava do Sul Granite and according to
Cerva-Alves (2017), constitutes an elongated body in the N10°E, di-
rection with a 30° dip SE. In the Southern region of the granite, the
authors characterized the PFC as a body oriented in the direction
N30°E, dipping 30° to NW, concordant with respect to the metamorphic
rocks from the Passo Feio Formation. Those studies characterized PTC
and PFC as belonging to the linear type, mainly due to the absence of
associated silicate rocks and on the shape of the intrusion – observed
mainly in geophysical images. In the geochronological study of eight
zircons with the laser ablation technique coupled to a mass spectro-
meter (LA-ICP-MS), Cerva-Alves (2017) obtained an age for the PTC
occurrence corresponding to the range of 603 ± 4.5 Ma, in a post-
collision geotectonic context.
Other occurrences of carbonatites in Sul-Riograndense Shield were
discovered by the Phosphate Project of Brazil that identified two car-
bonatites, Três Estradas and Joca Tavares. The Três Estradas Carbonatite
is interspersed with metamorphic rocks and probably have a minimum
age of Cryogenian, while the Joca Tavares Carbonatite intrudes the
sedimentary rocks of Cerro do Bugio (Ediacaran) and metasediments
from Arroio do Marmeleiro Formation (Criogenian) (Toniolo et al.,
2011). The Três Estradas Carbonatite belongs to the linear type carbo-
natites, having NE oriented foliation, while Joca Tavares Carbonatite
belongs to the central type, not showing foliation (Senhorinho, 2012).
The studied area is located in the Western portion of the Sul-
Riograndense Shield and it is 17 km away from Caçapava do Sul city,
being focused on the PFC (Fig. 1). The Passo Feio Carbonatite is sur-
rounded by Santo Ferreira Granite, the metamorphites of the Passo Feio
Formation and conglomerates of the Camaquã Basin (Fig. 2).
4
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208
2.1. The Passo Feio Formation (PFF)
Remus et al. (2000) defines the Passo Feio Formation as a volcano
sedimentary succession metamorphosed at 700 Ma predominantly
under lower amphibolite facies. It consists mainly of slates, phyllites,
pelitic schists, graphite schists, marbles, quartzites, metaconglomerates,
calcium-silicate rocks, amphibolites, in addition to the subordinate
occurrence of metabasalts and magnesium schists (Ribeiro, 1966;
Bitencourt, 1963).
The metamorphism increases towards the granite intrusion, but the
real thermal effect of this intrusion on the Passo Feio rocks is limited to
recrystallization in contact with its apophyses (Remus et al., 2000).
2.2. Caçapava do Sul Granitic Complex (CSGC)
According to Nardi and Bitencourt (1989), the Caçapava do Sul
Granitic Complex (CSGC) consists of calcium-alkaline affinity rocks
arranged in three main facies: granitoid biotite, leucogranitoid and
transitional granitoids that present intermediate characteristics be-
tween the first two types.
In the South-east region of the Caçapava do Sul Granitic Complex, a
granite body with an ellipse shape was designated by Ribeiro (1970) as
Granito Santo Ferreira. Due to its similarities with the main body, the
authors treated the Caçapava do Sul and Santo Ferreira granites as be-
longing to the same unit. Remus et al. (2000) provides a SHRIMP age of
568 ± 8 Ma for the Caçapava do Sul granite.
2.3. Guaritas Formation (Camaquã Basin)
The Camaquã Basin is a volcano sedimentary package of rocks with
Ediacaran-Eocambrian age (630 - 510 Ma), which corresponds to an
important record of the Gondwana stabilization stages. The basin is
about 10,000 m thick and is controlled by NNE steering faults. The
highlands of Caçapava do Sul and Serra das Encantadas allow its sub-
division in Western, Central and Eastern Camaquã (Almeida, 2005).
The filling of the basin occurred in the following order, according to
Remus et al. (2000): Maricá Formation, Bom Jardim Group, Acampa-
mento Velho and Santa Barbara Formation, Rodeio Velho Member, fin-
ishing with the Guaritas Formation at the top.
The Guaritas formation was divided into two subunits, the Pedra
Pintada Formation and Varzinha. The Pedra Pintada Formation was
developed in a desert environment consisting of crescent aeolian dunes.
Varzinha Formation corresponds to a shallow lacustrine environment
consisting of fluvial packages and deltaic deposits at the top (Paim
et al., 1995). At the base of Guaritas Formation occurs the alkaline
basalt lavas called as Rodeio Velho Member, temporally and spatially
related to the Pedra Pintada Formation. Almeida et al. (2012) obtained
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208

Table 1
Geochemical analyzes obtained by ICP-MS. Major elements in % and trace elements in ppm.
Passo Feio Carbonatite Soil

PCB-5A1 PCB-47A PCB-5 PGS-6 PGS-30B PGS-31B PGS-21B PGS-27B PGS-16B PGS-36B PGS-10A PGS-2B PGS-26B PGS-35B PGS-37B

SiO2 2.04 3.40 6.63 58.26 33.31 51.58 41.58 72.73 74.83 75.80 65.96 50.25 71.25 56.22 24.51
Al2O3 0.30 0.28 0.55 11.41 11.16 8.28 13.32 11.34 12.92 10.62 11.18 14.74 11.25 17.42 6.45
Fe2O3(T) 1.76 2.30 5.56 10.30 18.04 13.17 18.23 3.05 1.33 4.66 7.26 13.87 1.49 11.41 27.56
MnO 0.10 0.12 0.26 0.14 0.25 0.28 0.43 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.25 0.25 0.06 0.27 0.53
MgO 1.88 2.48 4.03 1.30 4.56 11.67 1.76 1.00 0.17 0.15 0.66 1.32 0.23 0.99 5.78
CaO 51.45 49.92 44.94 1.37 12.40 3.98 3.35 1.40 0.39 0.11 0.32 1.28 0.49 0.29 15.09
Na2O 0.07 0.17 0.29 1.56 1.47 0.10 1.49 1.40 1.64 0.43 0.19 0.91 0.98 0.20 1.04
K2O 0.01 0.01 0.03 1.14 0.91 0.09 0.35 2.51 5.37 3.14 0.64 0.98 3.91 1.34 0.38
TiO2 0.06 0.13 0.27 1.92 6.25 0.81 4.84 0.39 0.18 0.26 1.70 3.42 0.28 1.62 4.02
P2O5 3.08 3.93 4.16 0.19 1.51 0.07 1.51 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.13 0.21 0.08 0.20 5.64
LOI 38.03 35.90 31.89 12.64 8.87 9.01 13.57 4.90 2.89 5.58 10.63 12.62 9.27 9.08 7.94
Total 98.78 98.65 98.60 100.30 98.72 99.06 100.40 98.80 99.80 100.80 98.92 99.86 99.30 99.05 98.93
Sc 8.00 10.00 19.00 24.00 21.00 27.00 32.00 8.00 2.00 5.00 20.00 25.00 4.00 25.00 33.00
Be <1 <1 <1 4.00 5.00 1.00 7.00 1.00 <1 1.00 2.00 4.00 1.00 3.00 3.00
V 35.00 41.00 105.00 225.00 509.00 169.00 517.00 54.00 16.00 61.00 141.00 361.00 21.00 193.00 666.00
Ba 178.00 152.00 916.00 717.00 727.00 88.00 470.00 1429.00 6402.00 441.00 465.00 637.00 956.00 524.00 305.00
Sr 4175.00 4274.00 4315.00 170.00 551.00 26.00 372.00 199.00 408.00 54.00 34.00 182.00 122.00 45.00 918.00
Y 62.00 65.00 69.00 26.00 48.00 21.00 75.00 16.00 7.00 14.00 31.00 34.00 27.00 31.00 118.00
Zr 95.00 106.00 297.00 313.00 485.00 72.00 301.00 136.00 70.00 116.00 254.00 348.00 129.00 236.00 625.00
Cr < 20 < 20 < 20 140.00 20.00 1840.00 180.00 60.00 < 20 30.00 190.00 180.00 < 20 160.00 190.00
Co 2.00 2.00 4.00 43.00 50.00 97.00 53.00 12.00 4.00 6.00 37.00 45.00 5.00 42.00 43.00
Ni < 20 < 20 < 20 70.00 90.00 760.00 130.00 20.00 < 20 < 20 70.00 90.00 < 20 70.00 80.00
Cu 30.00 10.00 < 10 110.00 190.00 60.00 40.00 < 10 50.00 20.00 50.00 60.00 < 10 50.00 70.00
Zn 40.00 40.00 110.00 120.00 140.00 90.00 160.00 40.00 60.00 < 30 140.00 140.00 30.00 250.00 280.00
Ga 6.00 7.00 9.00 17.00 26.00 11.00 30.00 14.00 11.00 14.00 18.00 24.00 16.00 27.00 27.00
Ge <1 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 <1 <1 1.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
As 6.00 5.00 10.00 17.00 6.00 <5 11.00 <5 <5 <5 <5 8.00 <5 <5 11.00
Rb <2 <2 <2 48.00 25.00 6.00 32.00 45.00 62.00 77.00 54.00 84.00 118.00 135.00 17.00
Nb 40.00 51.00 56.00 42.00 206.00 23.00 387.00 24.00 8.00 12.00 26.00 122.00 19.00 26.00 522.00
Mo <2 <2 <2 <2 4.00 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 6.00 <2 <2 2.00
Ag 3.30 2.70 1.80 3.40 1.50 < 0.5 1.50 0.90 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.60 0.80 1.10 2.10
In < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 0.30
Sn <1 3.00 1.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 3.00 1.00 <1 <1 2.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 8.00
Sb < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5
Cs < 0.5 < 0.5 < 0.5 1.90 0.90 1.10 3.80 1.20 0.70 1.90 4.20 5.20 2.40 6.10 1.00
La 273.00 314.00 275.00 46.70 150.00 16.60 281.00 27.50 10.90 15.50 53.80 88.90 31.00 69.00 420.00
Ce 559.00 658.00 605.00 78.60 340.00 33.40 576.00 52.40 27.00 28.20 127.00 236.00 59.40 157.00 1050.00
Pr 62.30 72.70 70.70 10.70 38.50 4.14 60.20 5.33 2.09 3.36 13.40 19.90 5.74 15.70 111.00
Nd 234.00 274.00 263.00 41.00 150.00 16.40 225.00 18.90 7.80 12.70 51.40 76.00 20.00 58.80 427.00
Sm 37.00 43.80 43.20 7.60 26.40 3.70 38.50 3.30 1.20 2.70 10.40 14.00 4.20 11.20 70.70
Eu 10.40 12.40 12.20 2.22 7.93 0.89 11.00 0.86 0.51 0.62 2.04 3.71 0.49 2.33 20.30
Gd 26.10 30.20 30.00 6.40 16.60 2.80 28.20 2.70 0.90 2.20 7.10 10.80 3.80 8.80 40.60
Tb 3.10 3.50 3.50 1.00 2.30 0.60 3.60 0.40 0.20 0.40 1.10 1.50 0.70 1.30 5.90
Dy 14.30 16.40 17.20 5.60 12.20 3.80 17.90 2.70 1.00 2.30 6.70 8.10 4.20 7.30 28.70
Ho 2.20 2.60 2.60 1.10 2.00 0.80 2.90 0.50 0.20 0.50 1.30 1.40 0.80 1.30 4.60
Er 5.40 5.80 6.30 2.90 4.80 2.30 7.60 1.70 0.60 1.50 3.50 3.80 2.70 3.60 11.40
Tm 0.63 0.65 0.72 0.42 0.59 0.36 0.97 0.28 0.10 0.24 0.53 0.49 0.44 0.52 1.32
Yb 3.50 3.70 4.10 2.60 3.50 2.40 5.50 2.00 0.70 1.80 3.50 3.10 3.20 3.40 7.50
Lu 0.51 0.52 0.59 0.40 0.49 0.39 0.78 0.35 0.13 0.31 0.52 0.46 0.47 0.52 1.04
Hf 1.90 1.90 3.20 7.70 12.60 2.20 5.90 3.90 1.80 3.40 8.50 8.80 4.40 7.50 12.80
Ta 2.10 3.60 0.90 2.20 13.70 2.80 9.50 4.30 1.40 2.40 1.90 6.00 2.50 1.70 18.50
W <1 <1 <1 2.00 <1 37.00 11.00 2.00 <1 <1 3.00 3.00 <1 <1 1.00
Tl 0.60 0.20 < 0.1 0.30 < 0.1 0.10 0.40 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.10
Pb 5.00 <5 11.00 80.00 15.00 28.00 49.00 20.00 18.00 32.00 72.00 104.00 25.00 34.00 30.00
Bi < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.4
Th 7.10 7.60 25.40 20.60 21.50 8.00 49.40 11.20 4.20 7.30 15.20 21.90 15.00 16.00 43.80
U 0.70 0.70 2.30 2.00 5.50 2.40 4.60 4.40 1.40 3.20 3.10 4.00 4.80 2.90 6.90
REE 1293.44 1503.27 1403.11 233.24 803.31 109.58 1334.15 134.92 60.33 86.33 313.29 502.16 164.14 371.77 2318.06
LREE 1201.80 1405.10 1299.10 193.22 729.43 77.93 1219.90 110.99 50.40 65.28 265.14 449.31 124.63 322.83 2139.60
HREE 29.64 33.17 35.01 14.02 25.88 10.65 39.25 7.93 2.93 7.05 17.15 18.85 12.51 17.94 60.46

the age of 547 ± 6.3 Ma for the Rodeio Velho Member alkaline basalt,
which can be interpreted as the maximum age for the magmatism,
therefore, the deposition of the Guaritas Formation. On the other hand,
detrital zircon collected from the upper portion of the Guaritas Group is
dated at 535 ± 10 Ma (Hartmann et al., 2008).
2.4. Methodology
Fieldwork was carried out in two field campaigns comprising geo-
logical mapping at a 1:20.000 scale, and soil sampling at a 1:30.000
scale (Fig. 3). The soil sampling grid employed on this study was
idealized from the shape of the geophysical anomaly attributed to the
presence of the PFC.

5
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208

A total of 36 soil sampling points were obtained, of which 12 points

were selected for geochemical analysis, as well as three samples of
carbonatite collected from each of the available outcrops (Table 1).
From three rock samples, four thin sections were prepared. The
petrographic study was accomplished at the Laboratory of Mineralogy
and Petrography of the Universidade Federal do Pampa (UNIPAMPA),
while the SEM-EDS analyses were performed at the Laboratory of
Isotopic Geology from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
(UFRGS).
The soil and rock samples that were selected to geochemical ana-
lyses were prepared, respectively, at the sample preparation labora-
tories of UFRGS and UNIPAMPA. The geochemical analyses were per-
formed at the ActLabs in Canada by the ICP-MS method.
Also, a fraction of the rock samples were sent for stable isotope
(δ13C and δ18O) analysis. The equipment used for the isotopic analysis
was the Delta V, a mass spectrometer of isotopic ratios belonging to the
Isotopic Geology Laboratory from UFRGS. Stable isotope analysis was
performed by the reaction of the carbonates with phosphoric acid at
70 °C, using the semiautomatic gas bench coupled to the Delta V mass
spectrometer.

3. Results

3.1. Geological mapping

It was possible to identify four distinct lithological domains: the

metamorphic basement belonging to the Passo Feio Formation (PFF),
Fig. 4. Soil sampling and geological mapping points.
the Santo Ferreira Granite (CSGC), the sedimentary deposits of the
Camaquã Basin (CB) and the PFC (Fig. 4).
The PFC has three scarce outcrops, with dimensions less than 1 m2,
showing a leucocratic rock with fine grained equigranular phaneritic
texture. With naked eye it is possible to observe the presence of thin
layers (approximately 2 mm thick) containing more mafic minerals
(strongly oriented tremolites), interspersed with portions richer in
calcite (Fig. 5).
The PFF on the studied area is represented by greenish mica-schists
and amphibolites with incipient foliation. The CSGC manifests mainly
as a leucocratic rock of granitic composition, with medium equi-
granular phaneritic texture, sometimes presenting facies rich in mus-
covite or garnet; in some portions it manifests itself markedly miloni-
tized. The CB is represented by polymictic conglomerates that arise in
the south of the studied area, have clasts with angular to subangular
shapes, varying between 2 and 13 cm in size and surrounded by a
medium sand matrix. The provenance of the clasts is mainly of schist
with rare granitic contribution.

3.2. Petrography and mineralogy of PFC

The PFC varies from massive to strongly foliated, displaying a

Fig. 5. Geological map of the study area.
porphyritic texture with crystals of apatite, phlogopite and tremolite

Fig. 6. Samples from the PFC. Arrows indicate the intercalation of the fine layers of different mineralogical composition.

6
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208

Fig. 7. Images in back-scattered electrons (a,b,d,f-g) and by cross-polarized transmitted light (c,e,i) (Ap = apatites; Mnz = monazites; Cal = calcite;
Phl = phlogopite; Mag = magnetite; Hem = hematite; Py = pyrite; Tr = tremolite; Zrn = zircon; Aes = aeschynite-Ce) (Abbreviations from Whitney and Evans,
2010).

7
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al.
Table 2
Abundance of some trace elements of the PFC compared to the values estab-
lished by Samoilov (1991).
Geochemical characteristics of carbonatites, Passo Feio Carbonatite
defined by Samoilov (1991)
Sr > 700 ppm 4175–4315 ppm
Ba > 250 ppm 178–916 ppm
V > 20 ppm 35–105 ppm
REE + Y > 500 ppm 1293–1403 ppm
ΣCe/ΣY >4 9.47–10.71
surrounded by a calcitic mass. It has a slight porosity, which may or
may not be filled.
The mean modal composition found was calcite (∼59%), apatite
(∼18%), tremolites (∼10%), phlogopites (∼7%), and accessory mi-
nerals (< 6%), including hematites (Fig. 6d,h), magnetites (Fig. 6d),
ilmenites, zircons (Fig. 6f), monazites (Fig. 6a), aeschynites-Ce
(Fig. 6g), pyrites (Fig. 6d,h) and barites. All accessory minerals, except
for zircons and magnetites, occurred filling spaces (fractures and por-
osity) of the rock, which probably proves a later origin (possibly hy-
drothermal). Meanwhile, the calcites, apatites, tremolites, phlogopites,
magnetite and zircons suggest more an initial phase of crystallization.
The calcites (Fig. 6a–h) behave like a mass that surrounds the other
components of the mineralogical assembly, with crystals exhibiting
ameboid shapes. Apatites (Fig. 6 a,b,d) appear as fractured, elongated
and rounded subhedral crystals ranging from 0.3 to 0.8 mm in size.
Tremolites (Fig. 6e) are found as subedric to euedric crystals, ranging
from 0.4 to 2 mm, showing sometimes strong orientation. The alter-
nation of layers composed by oriented tremolites and by calcite forms a
spaced foliation probably with magmatic origin and could be explained
by the competence difference between the constitution of carbonates
and silicates accentuated under an emplacement in a shear zone stress,
as suggested by Cerva-Alves (2017) (Fig. 6i). Phlogopites (Fig. 6 c,f) are
generally strongly deformed and/or have fractured subhedral crystals,
ranging from 0.5 to 3 mm. The only Rare Earth minerals identified
through mineral chemistry were the monazites-(Ce) and aechynites-
(Ce), appearing to belong to later stages of crystallization as texturally
they occur surrounding the apatites (Fig. 6a).
3.3. Rock and soil geochemistry
The samples from PFC fit with the geochemical characteristics de-
fined by Samoilov (1991), about the abundance of trace elements for
Fig. 8. Classification diagram for carbonatites by Samoilov (1991) and Le Maitre et al. (2002).
8
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208
this group of rocks (Fig. 7a; Table 2). Considering the classification of
Le Maitre et al. (2002), it is possible to classify this occurrence as an
alvikite, due to its fine texture and its calciocarbonatitic composition
(Fig. 7b). The PCB-5 sample has a ferrocarbonatitic tendency, which
explains the higher values of Fe2O3(T), MgO, Sc, V, Ba and Zr when
compared to the other samples. According to Le Bas (1981), the frac-
tionation process of carbonatitic magma starts with the emplacement of
calciocarbonatites, followed by dolomitic carbonatites and ferrocarbo-
natites, indicating an increasing iron content.
It was possible to relate the soil samples to the lithology present in
the studied area (Fig. 8). Thus, these samples were divided in three
groups: those associated with the Passo Feio Formation (Fig. 8a and b –
green domain), those related to Santo Ferreira Granite (Fig. 8 a,b – red
domain) and with PFC (Fig. 8 a,b – yellow domain). It is possible to
notice how the soil samples linked to the PFC are enriched with P2O5
and REE in relation to the other domains.
The difference between the three domains is also noticeable on the
chondrite-normalized diagram (Fig. 9). It is possible to observe that the
domains have similar behavior: enrichment in LREE and impoverish-
ment in HREE, however, the relative abundance of these elements
varies. Comparing the PFC samples with the domain of soil samples
associated with it, we can notice the similarity.
Binary diagrams were performed to clarify the abundance of LREE
and HREE versus P2O5, in rock and soil (Figs. 10 and 11). Soil and rock
samples showed a positive correlation with respect to REE.
The sample PGS-37B that was obtained from the soil immediately
above one of the carbonatite outcrops is the most enriched sample in
REE, particularly the HREE.
3.4. Stable isotopes (C, O) geochemistry
According to Table 3, 13CV-PDB values range from −4.14 to
−3.89‰ while 18OSMOW range from 10.01 to 11.32‰. In the stable
isotope diagram of 13CV-PDB and 18OSMOW for carbonatites proposed
by Keller and Hoefs (1995), it is noted that the PCB-47A sample is
extremely close to the field established for the primary igneous carbo-
natites, while the others have a greater variation in the isotopes of
18
OSMOW than in 13CV-PDB (Fig. 12).
4. Discussion
The primary mineralogy of the PFC corresponds to calcites, apatites,
tremolites, phlogopites, magnetites and zircons. While hematite, pyrite,
barites, monazites- (Ce) and aeschynites-(Ce) would have crystallized at
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208

Fig. 9. Binary diagrams for soil samples A. P2O5 (%) vs SiO2 (%) and B. REE (ppm) vs SiO2 (%).

a later magmatic stage, since the latter occur by filling fractures and/or
porosities of the rock or surrounding the primary mineralogy. The
textures suggesting apatite reabsorption may have remobilized the REE
for later-magmatic phases and have enabled the precipitation of mon-
azites-(Ce) and aeschynites-(Ce) – a similar process was described by
Nasir et al. (2009) in a study on carbonatites in Oman. As no REE was
detected in the apatite EDS analyzes it as expected, this could be ex-
plained by the removal of the REE from the apatites probably under
hydrothermal conditions. According to Schandl and Gorton (2004), the
hydrothermal monazite tends to concentrate itself in preferential por-
tions of the rock, besides possessing less ThO2 (< 1%) than the igneous
monazites (3–5%). These characteristics are consistent with the petro-
graphy and mineral chemistry observed in the monazites- (Ce) found in
the PFC, since the presence of ThO2 in the SEM-EDS was not detected
and they occur associated with apatite.
The textural variation from massive to foliated, observed on the PFC
may reflect the conditions of its placement. The alternation of layers by
oriented tremolites and by calcite forms a spaced foliation. These fo-
liations are formed in response to the deformation of the rock, and the
main factors that control this process are rock composition, orientation
and magnitude of stress, as well as metamorphic conditions (tempera-
ture, lithostatic pressure and fluids) (Passchier and Trouw, 2005). One
possibility is that this foliation was generated due to the difference in
competence between calcite and the other minerals, which led to a
compositional bandage forming segregated calcitic layers in contrast to
the higher competence minerals (tremolites). This process would ex-
plain the ameboid shape of the calcite, the strong orientation of the
tremolites, the deformation of the phlogopites and the intense frac-
turing evidenced in apatites and tremolites.
The thermal regime of this deformation is probably related to late-
magmatic conditions of magma emplacement, a hypothesis corrobo-
rated by the stable isotope 13CV-PDB and 18OSMOW which do not in-
dicate the occurrence of metamorphic processes since isotopic sig-
natures of the PFC correspond to those expected for the primary igneous
carbonatites. The small isotope variation found among the PFC samples
could be explained by the process described by Demény et al. (2006), in
which this isotope variation would be derived from the crystallization
and cooling processes of the magma itself. Due to the relatively low
18
OSMOW variation, probably the crustal assimilation was not a de-
terminant factor in the evolution of this carbonatite and the behavior of
the samples does not suggest metamorphism occurrence. However, it is
likely that during this process the calcites have undergone re-
Fig. 10. Behavior of soil samples related to the lithological units and PFC rock
crystallization. Kennedy and White (2001) reported the occurrence of
samples (losangles). Samples normalized to the chondrite of Nakamura (1974).
dynamic recrystallization of calcite at temperatures from 150 to 250 °C.

9
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208

Fig. 11. Rock and soil samples, LREE (ppm) vs P2O5 (%).

Table 3 magnetic anomaly of Caçapava do Sul, a continuous and rectilinear

Stable isotope ( 13
CV-PDB and 18
OSMOW) results (in ‰) of Passo Feio lineage with orientation N35° E (Fernandes et al., 1995) that represents
Carbonatite. an important crustal structure. During the interval of approximately
δ13CV-PDB δ18OSMOW 650-580 a.m., it is believed that the shear zones were important con-
trols for the positioning of post-collision magmas in the southern region
PCB-5 −4.14 10.28 of Brazil (Babinski et al., 1997; Bitencourt and Nardi, 1993). Cerva-
PCB-5A1 −3.89 11.32
Alves (2017) obtained an age of 603 ± 4.5 Ma for one of the carbo-
PCB-47A −4.07 10.01
natites from the region of Caçapava do Sul, and raised the hypothesis
that these carbonatites were installed in a post-collision context. The
age obtained by Cerva-Alves (2017) for the PTC is older than the CSGC,
Considering the calciocarbonatitic composition and the fine texture however the isotopic results found for the PFC shows results nearly
of the PFC, it is possible to classify it as an alvikite. According to the expected for primary igneous carbonatite, not suggesting actuation of
whole-rock analyzes performed, it is noted that the concentrations are metamorphism. Therefore, the age obtained for PTC probably doesn't
within the standards established in the literature for this group of rocks. represent the crystallization age of the PFC, probably being an inherited
In the normalized chondrite diagrams, it can be observed that the PFC zircon. To clarify this issue, a geochronological study directed towards
shows the characteristic LREE enrichment of the carbonatites, forming the carbonatite occurrences around CSGC should be performed, trying
a similar pattern to that found in the apatite-sövites from Fen, Norway to elucidate if PTC and PFC are contemporaries or not.
(Ingrid, 1998) (Fig. 13). The deformation observed in the PFC and its proximity to large
Through the geochemical analysis in rock and its similarity with two structures supports the hypothesis that this occurrence corresponds to a
soil samples, it was possible to establish a zone in which the CPF carbonatite of the linear type, according to the classification of Lapin
probably extends in depth. In Fig. 14 a-b, the greater concentration of and Ploshko (1988). Liégeois (1998) reports that post-collisional mag-
the LREE and HREE in these points is contrasting with respect to the matism is commonly associated with large horizontal movements along
others (Fig. 14 a-b). The PGS-37B sample had 1.65 times more REE than shear zones, and that the source of magmatism is in the lithosphere or
the carbonatite itself, demonstrating an important enrichment of these asthenospheric mantle, previously affected by periods of subduction
elements in the soil profile. This enrichment probably reflects a con- and collision.
centration of REE-rich minerals, such as the monazites- (Ce), aeschy-
nites- (Ce) and zircons (see Fig. 15).
It should be mentioned that, regionally, the PFC is close to the

10
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al.
Fig. 12. Rock and soil samples, HREE (ppm) vs P2O5 (%).
Fig. 13. Stable isotope results graphic (Modified from Keller and Hoefs, 1995
and Demény et al., 2006).
5. Conclusions
(1) The PFC has scarce three outcrops in the Passo Feio region, varying
from massive to strongly foliated and exhibiting a porphyritic tex-
ture with crystals of apatites, phlogopites and tremolites sur-
rounded by a calcitic mass. The accessory minerals found were
11
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 94 (2019) 102208
hematites, magnetites, ilmenites, zircons, monazites-Ce, aeschy-
nites-Ce, pyrites and barites.
(2) Monazites-(Ce) and aeschynites-(Ce) are suggested as a product of
later remobilization of REE from apatites, as suggested by textures
the found.
(3) It was possible to classify this occurrence as an alvikite, due to its
fine texture and its calciocarbonatitic composition. According to the
whole-rock analyzes performed, it is noted that the REE con-
centrations are within the standards established in the literature for
this group of rocks.
(4) Soil and rock samples showed a positive correlation with respect to
REE. The sample PGS-37B that was obtained from the soil im-
mediately above of one of the carbonatite outcrops is the most
enriched sample in REE, particularly the HREE. Through the geo-
chemical analysis in rock and its similarity with two soil samples, it
was possible to establish a zone in which the CPF probably extends.
(5) According to the PCF C-O isotopic signatures, 13CV-PDB values
range from −4.14 to −3.89‰ while 18OSMOW range from 10.01 to
11.32‰, which do not indicate the occurrence of metamorphic
processes since isotopic signatures correspond to those expected for
the primary igneous carbonatites. This small isotopic variation
could be explained by crystallization.
(6) The deformation observed in the PFC and its proximity to large
structures supports the hypothesis that this occurrence corresponds
to a carbonatite of the linear type associated to post-collision
magmatism.
B.A. de Almeida Morales, et al.
Fig. 14. A. Signatures of REE of PFC. Normalization made for the chondrite of Nakamura (1974). B. Signatures from the apatites-sövites of the Fen complex, Norway
(data from Ingrid, 1998).
Fig. 15. Distribution of light (A) and heavy (B) REE in the soils of the study area.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the CNPq (National Science and
Technology Development Council) for the financial support for this
research, which provided a scientific initiation granted to the first au-
thor (process number 165514/2014-0).
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