11H Solving trigonometric equations 541

Exercise 11H FOU NDAT ION

1 Find, in radians, the acute angle θ that satis es:

1 1
a tan θ = 1 b sin θ = c cos θ =
2 √2
1 √3 1
d tan θ = e sin θ = f cos θ =
√3 2 2

π
2 Find, correct to three decimal places, the value of x between 0 and that satis es each equation.
2
(Your calculator needs to be in radians mode.)
a tan x = 3 b sin x = 0.8 c cos x = 0.4
d sin x = 0.234 e cos x = 0.987 f tan x = 100
3 Solve for x over the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π:
1 1
a sin x = 2
b cos x = − 2 c tan x = −1

d sin x = 1 e 2 cos x = √3 f √3 tan x = 1

g cos x + 1 = 0 h √2 sin x + 1 = 0

D EV E LOP ME NT

4 Solve each equation for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Remember that a positive number has two square roots.
1 3
a sin2 θ = 1 b tan2 θ = 1 c cos2 θ = 4
d cos2 θ = 4

5 Consider the equation cos2 θ − cos θ = 0, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

a Write the equation as a quadratic equation in u by letting u = cos θ.
b Solve the quadratic equation for u.
c Hence nd the values of θ that satisfy the original equation.
6 Consider the equation tan2 θ − tan θ − 2 = 0, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
a Write the equation as a quadratic equation in u by letting u = tan θ.
b Solve the quadratic equation for u.
c Hence nd the values of θ that satisfy the original equation, giving the solutions correct to two
decimal places where necessary.
7 Solve each equation for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π by transforming it into a quadratic equation in u. Give your
solutions correct to two decimal places where necessary.
a tan2 θ + tan θ = 0 (Let u = tan θ.) b 2 sin2 θ − sin θ = 0 (Let u = sin θ.)
c sin2 θ + sin θ − 2 = 0 (Let u = sin θ.) d tan2 θ + tan θ − 6 = 0 (Let u = tan θ.)
e 2 cos2 θ + cos θ − 1 = 0 f 2 sin2 θ − sin θ − 1 = 0
g 3 sin θ + 8 sin θ − 3 = 0
2
h 3 cos2 θ − 8 cos θ − 3 = 0

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542 Chapter 11 Extending calculus 11H

8 Use the trigonometric identities from Chapter 6 to transform each equation so that it only involves one
trigonometric function. Then solve it for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, giving solutions correct to two decimal places
where necessary.
a 2 sin2 x + cos x = 2 b sec2 x − 2 tan x − 4 = 0
c 8 cos2 x = 2 sin x + 7 d 6 tan2 x = 5 sec x

9 Solve each equation for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, giving solutions correct to two decimal places where necessary.
Again, you will need trigonometric identities.
a 3 sin α = cosec α + 2 b 3 tan α − 2 cot α = 5
10 Solve each equation for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π by rst dividing through by cos2 x. Give solutions correct to two
decimal places where necessary.
a sin2 x + sin x cos x = 0 b sin2 x − 5 sin x cos x + 6 cos2 x = 0
11 Solve for −π ≤ x ≤ π:
1
a sin 2x = 2
b cos 3x = −1

c tan ( x − 6)
π
= √3 d sec ( x + 4)
π
= − √2

e cosec ( x − 4)
3π
= 1 f cot ( x + 6)
5π
= √3

12 [Technology]
Graphing programs provide an excellent way to see what is happening when an equation has many
solutions. The equations in Question 2 are quite simple to graph, because y = LHS is a single
trigonometric function and y = RHS is a horizontal line. Every one of the in nitely many points of
intersection corresponds to a solution.

EN R ICH ME NT

13 Solve the equation 4 sin2 θ + 2 cos θ = 3 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, giving exact solutions.

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 11I Arcs and sectors of circles 543

11I Arcs and sectors of circles

The lengths of arcs and the areas of sectors and segments can already be calculated using fractions of circles,
but radian measure allows the formulae to be expressed in more elegant forms.

B ℓ
Arc length
In the diagram to the right, the arc AB has length ℓ and subtends an angle θ at
r
the centre O of a circle with radius r. θ
ℓ r A
The de nition of angle size in radians is θ = . O
r
Multiplying through by r, ℓ = rθ.
This is the standard formula for arc length:

15 ARC LENGTH

An arc subtending an angle θ at the centre of a circle of radius r has length

ℓ = rθ

Note: When the radius is 1, the arc length formula becomes ℓ = θ . Thus in a circle of radius 1, we can
identify the arc length and the angle size in radians.

This is often taken as the de nition of angle size in radians, but if this is done, it is important to remember that
an angle size in radians is still a pure number without units, because it is the ratio of a length and a unit length.

Example 20 11I
What is the length of an arc subtending a right angle at the centre of a circle B
of radius 200 cm?

SO LU TIO N
Arc length = r θ
A
π O
( a right angle has size 2 )
π 200 cm
= 200 ×
2
= 100π cm .

Area of a sector
In the diagram to the right, the sector AOB, as shaded, is bounded by the arc
B
AB and the radii OA and OB. Its area can be calculated as a fraction of the total
area: r
θ
area of sector = × area of circle θ
2π O r
A
θ
= × πr 2
2π
= 12 r 2θ .

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544 Chapter 11 Extending calculus 11I

16 AREA OF A SECTOR

An arc subtending an angle θ at the centre of a circle of radius r has area

Area = 12 r 2θ

Example 21 11I
What are the area and the perimeter of a sector subtending an angle of 45° at the centre of a circle of
radius 40 metres?

SO LU TIO N
Area of sector = 12 r 2θ B
π
( 45° in radians is 4 )
1 π
= × 1600 ×
2 4
45°
= 200π square metres. O
A
40 m
Perimeter = arc length + 2r
π
= 4
× 40 + 2 × 40
= 10π + 80 metres.

Example 22 11I
A circular cake has radius 12 cm. What angle at the centre is subtended by a sector of area 100 cm2 ?
Answer correct to the nearest degree.
B
SO LU TIO N
1
Area of sector = 2
r 2θ .
1
100 = × 144 × θ
2 θ
A
100 180° O 12 cm
÷ 72 θ = × (converting to degrees)
72 π
≑ 80°.

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 11I Arcs and sectors of circles 545

Major and minor arcs and sectors

B
In the diagram to the right, the phrase ‘the arc AB’ is ambiguous, because there
are two arcs AB. r
• The minor arc AB is the arc subtending the marked angle at the centre. This
angle is less than a straight angle, and the minor arc is less than half the O r
A
circumference
• The major arc AB is the opposite arc subtending the unmarked re ex angle
at the centre. This angle is more than a straight angle, and the major arc is
more than half the circumference.
The words ‘major’ and ‘minor’ are originally Latin words that simply mean ‘greater’ and ‘lesser’. They
apply also to sectors in the obvious way — there are two opposite sectors AOB, the minor sector containing
the marked angle, and the major sector containing the unmarked re ex angle.
The length of a major arc and the area of a major sector can be calculated with the usual arc length and sector
formulae, but using the re ex angle that they subtend, as in the example below. Alternatively, they can be
calculated by subtraction from the circumference or area of the whole circle.

Example 23 11I
[The opposite arc and sector of an earlier example]
Find the area and the perimeter of the major sector AOB in the diagram below.

SO LU TIO N
π 7π
The major arc and sector each subtend 2π − 4
= 4
at the centre, and are unshaded in the diagram.

Area of sector = 12 r 2θ
B
( 315° in radians is 4 )
1 7π 7π
= × 1600 ×
2 4
= 1400π square metres. 45°
A
O 40 m
Perimeter = arc length + 2r
7π
= 4
× 40 + 2 × 40
= 70π + 80 metres.

Area of a segment B
In the diagram to the right, the chord AB divides the circle into two segments.
The minor segment has been shaded, and the rest of the circle is the major
r
segment. θ
A
Drawing the two radii OA and OB produces an isosceles triangle AOB, O r
together with two opposite sectors. The areas of the two segments can now be
found by adding or subtracting appropriate areas.

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546 Chapter 11 Extending calculus 11I

17 AREA OF A SEGMENT

To nd the area of a segment:

• Construct the radii from the ends of the chord, to form an isosceles triangle and two opposite
sectors.
• Add or subtract the appropriate areas.

Example 24 11I
a Find the lengths of the minor and major arcs formed by two radii of a B
circle of radius 6 metres meeting at 150°.
b Find the areas of the minor and major sectors.
6m
c Find the area of △ AOB. 150°
d Find the areas of the major and minor segments. A
O 6m

SO LU TIO N

The minor arc subtends 150° at the centre, which in radians is 5π

6
, and the
major arc subtends 210° at the centre, which in radians is 7π
6
.
a Minor arc = r θ Major arc = r θ
= 6 × 5π
6
= 6 × 7π
6
= 5π metres. = 7π metres.

b Minor sector = 12 r 2θ Major sector = 12 r 2θ

1 5π 1 7π
= 2
× 62 × 6
= 2
× 62 × 6
= 15π m2. = 21π m2.

c Area of △ AOB = 12 r 2sin θ

× 62 × sin 150° ( alternatively sin 6 )
1 5π
= 2
1 1
= 2
× 36 × 2
= 9 m2.

d The minor segment area is obtained by subtraction.

Minor segment = minor sector − △ AOB

= (15π − 9) m2.
The major segment area is obtained by addition.
Major segment = major sector + △ AOB

= (21π + 9) m2.

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 11I Arcs and sectors of circles 547

Example 25 11I
Find, correct to the nearest mm, the radius of a circle in which:
a a sector, b a segment,
of area 1 square metre subtends an angle of 90° at the centre of the circle.

SO LU TIO N
B
Let the radius of the circle be r metres.
1 π
Then area of sector AOB = 2 r 2 × 2
= π4 r 2
and area of △ AOB = 12 r 2 (it is half a square). A
O r

a Substituting into the formula for the area of a sector,

π
4
× r 2 = 1 (the area is 1 m2 )
4 4
× r2 =
π π
r ≑ 1.128 metres.

b Subtracting, area of segment = π4 r 2 − 12 r 2

= 14 r 2 (π − 2) .
1 2
Hence 4
r (π − 2) = 1 (the area is 1 m2 )

4 4
× r2 =
π − 2 π − 2
r ≑ 1.872 metres.

Exercise 11I FOU NDAT ION

Note: Are you working with radians or degrees? Remember the button labelled mode .
1 A circle has radius 6 cm. Find the length of an arc of this circle that subtends an angle at the centre of:
π π
a 2 radians b 0.5 radians c 3
radians d 4
radians

2 A circle has radius 8 cm. Find the area of a sector of this circle that subtends an angle at the centre of:
π 3π
a 1 radian b 3 radians c 4
radians d 8
radians

3 What is the radius of the circle in which an arc of length 10 cm subtends an angle of 2.5 radians at the
centre?
4 If a sector of a circle of radius 4 cm has area 12 cm2, nd the angle at the centre in radians.

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548 Chapter 11 Extending calculus 11I

5 A circle has radius 3.4 cm. Find, correct to the nearest millimetre, the length of an arc of this circle that
subtends an angle at the centre of:
a 40° b 73°38 ′
(Hint: Remember that θ must be in radians.)

6 Find, correct to the nearest square metre, the area of a sector of a circle of radius 100 metres if the angle
at the centre is 100°.
7 A circle has radius 12 cm. Find, in exact form:
a the length of an arc that subtends an angle of 120° at the centre,
b the area of a sector in which the angle at the centre is 40°.
8 An arc of a circle of radius 7.2 cm is 10.6 cm in length. Find the angle subtended at the centre by this arc,
correct to the nearest degree.

9 A sector of a circle has area 52 cm2 and subtends an angle of 44°16 ′ at the centre. Find the radius in cm,
correct to one decimal place.

D EV E LOP ME NT

10 Consider the diagram to the right.

a Find the exact area of the sector OPQ.
b Find the exact area of △OPQ.
c Hence nd the exact area of the shaded minor segment. O
11 A chord of a circle of radius 4 cm subtends an angle of 150° at the centre. 60°
6 cm 6 cm
a Use the same method as the previous question to show that the area of
the minor segment cut off by the chord is 43 (5π − 3) cm2. P Q
b By subtracting the area of the minor segment from the area of the circle,
show that the area of the major segment cut off by the chord is 43 (7π + 3) cm2.

12 A circle has centre C and radius 5 cm, and an arc AB of this circle has length
6 cm. Find the area of the sector ACB.
13 The diagram to the right shows two concentric circles with common O 60°
4 cm
centre O.
B
a Find the exact perimeter of the region APQB.
A 4 cm
b Find the exact area of the region APQB.
P Q
14 Triangle ABC is equilateral with side length 2 cm. Circular arcs AB, BC and
CA have centres C, A and B respectively. Answer each part in exact form. A
a Find the length of the arc AB.
b Find the area of the sector CAPBC. P R
c Find the length of the perimeter APBQCRA.
d Find the area of △ABC and hence nd the area enclosed by the perimeter
APBQCRA. B C
Q

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 11I Arcs and sectors of circles 549

15 Find the exact area of the shaded region of the circle shown in the diagram
to the right.
2 cm

2 cm

16 A piece of paper is cut in the shape of a sector of a circle. The radius is O

8 cm
8 cm and the angle at the centre is 135°. The straight edges of the sector 135°
are placed together so that a cone is formed. A B
a Show that the base of the cone has radius 3 cm.
b Show that the cone has perpendicular height √55 cm.
c Hence nd, in exact form, the volume of the cone.
d Find the curved surface area of the cone.
17 An athlete runs at a steady 4 m/s around a circular track of radius 300 metres.
She runs clockwise, starting at the southernmost point.
a How far has she run after 3 minutes?
b What angle does this distance subtend at the centre? θ
c How far is she from her start, in a direct line across the eld, correct to the 300 m
nearest 0.01 metre?
d What is her true bearing from the centre then, correct to the nearest minute? Start
18 [A proof that 3 < π < 2√3, which are signi cant bounds on the number π]
a Prove that an equilateral triangle of side length s has height 12 s√3 and area 14 s 2√3.
b In the diagram to the right, two regular hexagons have been drawn inside and
r
outside a circle of radius r.
i Explain why the perimeter of the inner hexagon is 6r, and why its perimeter is
less than the circumference of the circle. Hence show that 3 < π.
ii Explain why the area of the outer hexagon is 32 r 2√3, and why its area is greater than the area of
the circle. Hence show that π < 2√3.

EN R ICH ME NT

A B
19 Two circles of radii 2 cm and 3 cm touch externally at P. AB is a common
tangent. Calculate, in cm2 correct to two decimal places, the area of the
region bounded by the tangent and the arcs AP and BP.
P
20 A certain hill is represented by a hemisphere of radius 1 km. A man 180 cm
tall walks down the hill from the summit S at 6 km/h. How long (correct
to the nearest second) will it be before he is invisible to a person lying on the S
180 cm
ground at S ?

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550 Chapter 11 Extending calculus 11J

11J Trigonometric graphs in radians

Now that angle size has been de ned as a ratio, that is, as a pure number, the trigonometric functions can be
drawn in their true shapes. On the next page, the graphs of the six functions have been drawn using the same
scale on the x-axis and y-axis. This means that the gradient of the tangent at each point now equals the true
value of the derivative there.
For example, place a ruler on the graph of y = sin x so that it makes a tangent to the curve at the origin. The
ruler should lie along the line y = x, indicating that the tangent at the origin has gradient 1. In the language
of calculus, this means that the derivative of sin x has value 1 when x = 0. This is where we will begin when
the topic is taken up again in Year 12.

Amplitude of the sine and cosine functions

The amplitude of a wave is the maximum height of the wave above the mean position. Both y = sin x and
y = cos x have a maximum value of 1, a minimum value of −1 and a mean value of 0 (the mean value is the
average of the maximum value and the minimum value). Thus both waves have amplitude 1.

18 THE AMPLITUDES OF THE SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS

• y = sin x and y = cos x both have amplitude 1.

The other four trigonometric functions increase without bound near their asymptotes, so the idea of
amplitude makes no sense. We can conveniently tie down the vertical scale of y = tan x, however, by using
π
the fact that tan 4
= 1.

The periods of the trigonometric functions

The trigonometric functions are called periodic functions because each graph repeats itself exactly over and
over again. The period of such a function is the length of the smallest repeating unit.
The graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x on the previous page are waves, with a pattern that repeats every
revolution. Thus they both have period 2π.
The graph of y = tan x, on the other hand, has a pattern that repeats every half-revolution. Thus it has
period π.

19 THE PERIODS OF THE SINE, COSINE AND TANGENT FUNCTIONS

• y = sin x and y = cos x both have period 2π (that is, a full revolution).
• y = tan x has period π (that is, half a revolution).

The secant and cosecant functions are reciprocals of the cosine and sine functions and so have the same
period 2π as they do. Similarly, the cotangent function has the same period π as the tangent function.

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