Chapter 5

Issues and Challenges of Maritime Sustainable Development in the Indo-Pacific Region

Huzaifah Ashraf Abdul Jamal

Abstract
The Indo-Pacific region has immense ecological and economic importance due to its diverse
marine ecosystems and strategic maritime trade routes. However, the region faces significant
challenges in achieving maritime sustainable development and protecting marine ecosystems.
This chapter examines the issues and challenges surrounding marine ecosystem protection and
maritime sustainable development in the Indo-Pacific region. It explores the importance of marine
ecosystems in supporting biodiversity, the blue economy, and the livelihoods of millions of
people. This chapter identified three key challenges: illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU)
fishing; marine pollution; and climate change as the region's main sustainable development
concern ultimately putting the region's marine ecosystems at risk. IUU fishing threatens food
security, economic stability, and the sustainability of fisheries, while marine pollution, including
oil spills and plastic waste, harms marine life and impacts coastal communities and tourism
industries. Climate change exacerbates these challenges, endangering marine biodiversity, coastal
populations, and the overall socio-economic well-being of the region. This chapter concludes by
providing insights to emphasise the need for a multidimensional and collaborative approach
involving cooperation among nations, international organisations, and maritime enforcement
agencies to address these challenges. It is important to adopt sustainable practices in key sectors
such as fisheries, tourism, shipping, and offshore resource extraction to maintain the long-term
health of the region's marine ecosystems.

Keywords: Maritime sustainable development, blue economy, IUU fishing, climate change,
marine pollution

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1.0 Introduction
The Indo-Pacific region, which includes huge coastal areas, diversified ecosystems, and important
maritime trade routes, is critical to global ecological balance and economic prosperity. According
to the Indo-Pacific Conservation Alliance (2021), the unparalleled richness of the Indo-Pacific is
due to its geographic position at the crossroads of Asia and the Pacific. This geologically
complicated region known as the "Pacific Ring of Fire" has resulted in diverse biologically and
culturally distinct island habitats and species. With its rich biodiversity and invaluable natural
resources, the region supports the livelihoods of millions of people and serves as a vital component
in fostering the growth of the Blue Economy. According to Phang (2022), Blue Economy (BE)
may be defined as a sustainable maritime economy that emerges when economic activity is in
balance with the capacity of ocean ecosystems to support this activity and remains resilient and
healthy. BE is driven by the sustainable development of marine resources and innovations,
bringing inclusive economic and societal benefits while conserving the integrity of natural
ecosystems (Phang, 2022).
In order to achieve maritime sustainable development requires a multidimensional and
collaborative approach to balancing economic growth and ecological preservation. It necessitates
adopting sustainable practices in key sector,s such as fisheries, tourism, shipping, and marine
resource extraction. In 2015, the United Nations (UN) introduced SDG 14 to recognise the
importance of preserving and sustaining marine ecosystems. According to the Department of
Economic and Social Affairs United Nations (n.d), SDG 14’s is to “conserve and sustainably use
the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.” SDG 14 aims to achieve the
long-term health and productivity of the marine environment while promoting sustainable
economic development.
However, it is found that the uncontrolled exploitation of marine resources, coupled with the
growing impacts of climate change and several other issues, has led to significant challenges for
the marine ecosystem and the attainment of maritime sustainable development goals. The
protection and sustainable management of marine ecosystems in the Indo-Pacific region have
become pressing concerns in recent years. Addressing the issues and challenges of marine
ecosystem protection requires a comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between
human activities, ecosystem dynamics, and sustainable development goals. Therefore, this chapter
explores the importance of marine ecosystems and various issues and challenges surrounding
maritime sustainable development in the Indo-Pacific region. By examining the key drivers of
degradation, this chapter provides insights and recommendations for effective conservation and
sustainable management practices.

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2.0 The Importance of Marine Ecosystems
The Indo-Pacific region is bio-geographically one of the world's most diverse and prosperous
regions (IPBES, 2018). This region contains more species than any other in the world's oceans.
(Miller, 2018). The Coral Triangle as shown in Figure 1, located in the Indonesia Malaysia
Philippines Archipelago, is the global epicentre of marine biodiversity (Coral Triangle Atlas,
2013). Analysis of distribution data for 2,983 marine species reveals a pattern of biodiversity
richness peaks in the central Philippine Islands and between peninsular Malaysia to Sumatra
situated in the Indo-Pacific region. The South China Sea (SCS) is one of the largest marginal seas
in the world and is renowned for its abundant biodiversity resources (Brain Kart, n.d.). According
to Duo Ding (2020), 20% of coral reefs in Southeast Asia and about 12% of mangrove forests in
the world, equal to 30% in Asia, are located along the coast of the SCS. The SCS also carries
tremendous geographic importance; one-third of the world's shipping passes through the SCS,
carrying over US$ 5.3 trillion in trade each year (Saiidi, 2018). It contains lucrative fisheries that
are important for the food security of millions in Southeast Asia.

Figure 1: Reef Fish Biodiversity in the Coral Triangle

Source: Corat Triangle Atlas (2013)

In light of the above information, it is clear that the maritime sector is crucial to the growth of the
Blue Economy (BE). It is suggested that the BE incorporating renewable energy, fisheries,
maritime transport, tourism, and waste management is vital for economic security and livelihoods
in Southeast Asia (Clayton, 2022). According to the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM)
Special Interest Group on Blue Economy (2022), oceans contribute 3-5% of the global Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), and ocean-based jobs are expected to increase by 120% between 2010
and 2030. In 2023, the global ocean economy is estimated to double from the 2010 estimate of
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US$ 1.5 trillion, or 2.5% of global gross value, to US$ 3 trillion. The maritime sector also greatly
impacts the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) economy. Figure 2 compares ocean
economy productivity efficiency in Southeast Asia in 2015. Singapore produces the most
productivity efficiency by creating just over 50 times (US$ 20.6 million/km2) the gross value-
added per square kilometre of the Exclusive Economic Zone's (EEZ) next most productive country
(Thailand). Malaysia has the third most productive ocean economy in this region, with (US$ 0.14
million/km2) and about 23% of Malaysian GDP is contributed by the BE (ASM Special Interest
Group on Blue Economy, 2022).

Figure 2: Comparison of Ocean Productivity Efficiency in Southeast Asia in 2015

Sources: Academy of Sciences Malaysia (2022)

The discussion above highlighted the value of ocean economy productivity to BE and the
importance of protecting marine ecosystem resources, which indirectly has brought the need to
strengthen maritime sustainability and marine ecosystem protection towards Sustainable
Development Goal 14 (SDG 14). Over the past decade, this region's rapid economic development
and population growth have threatened the marine environment. According to Duo Ding (2020),
many mangroves, coral reefs and sea-grass beds in SCS are affected and show a trend of decline.
Therefore, the next section will examine emerging issues and challenges of marine ecosystem
protection and maritime sustainable development in this region.

3.0 Issues and Challenges of Maritime Sustainable Development

There are three main issues identified as the most developing security concern to the maritime
ecosystem development in the Indo-Pacific region in recent years. It is highlighted that illegal,
unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, marine pollution and climate change are the region's
main maritime sustainable development issues (MIMA, 2021). The Council for Security
Cooperation in Asia Pacific (CSCAP) Study Group's Memorandum No. 31 (2018) also supports
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this by stating that the Indo-Pacific region's marine environment is threatened by natural and
human-made causes, including ocean warming, destructive fishing practices and overfishing, as
well as pollution from numerous sources and activities.

3.1 Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing

The sustainability of fisheries concerns has grown recently in response to rising global demand
caused by rising human populations and shifting dietary preferences. The concern about illegal,
unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is not limited to the Indo-Pacific region but
concurrently affects the entire world as the world's oceans are being overfished at an alarming
rate, endangering food security and long-term economic prosperity of numerous nations. It has
been found that IUU fishing has replaced piracy as the leading global maritime security threat
(Insitu Inc, 2021). Defence Visual Information Distribution Service (DVIDS) estimates that up to
27 million tonnes of fish are caught each year illegally, which accounts for 20 - 30% of global
fisheries' annual catch, equal to a US$ 23 billion annual loss to the global economy (DVIDS,
2020; Karl, 2020). Concerns about the economic and environmental effects of IUU fishing in this
region have grown over the last decade.
According to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Fisheries Working Group (2008), IUU
fishing is a major issue in the Indo-Pacific region, and it is estimated that 3.4 - 8.1 million tonnes
of fish are taken by IUU fishing each year in the region, representing between 8 - 16% of the
reported 51 million tonnes of catch in recent years. In Southeast Asia alone, many fisheries have
been fished down to between 5 - 15% of their original natural population levels, resulting in
increased levels of competition and conflict among fishers over remaining stocks, resulting in
decreased economic and food security, decreased environmental sustainability, and threats to
peace and order (Pomeroy et al., 2016).
It is also reported by MIMA (2021) that IUU fishing has caused various adverse impacts ranging
from overfishing to bycatch to severe economic loss and social damage inflicted on coastal
communities and small-scale fisheries. This has also disrupted the social, economic, and
environmental balance that strengthens the effort towards sustainable development and causes
destruction to marine biodiversity (MIMA, 2021).
This issue has been driven and worsening by a lack of political will in regional management,
which is symptomatic of larger systemic failures in governance and has indirectly catalysed other
security threats, such as human trafficking, smuggling, and sea robbery. According to Indo-Pacific
internal (2021), IUU fishing has posed a geopolitical threat to economic stability and is often
connected to non-traditional crime across Southeast Asia. IUU fishing operations are known by
law enforcement officials and fisheries managers in Southeast Asia to be associated with
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supporting insurgency, terrorism and organised maritime crime, particularly piracy, kidnapping
and the trafficking of narcotics, humans, and small arms (Pomeroy et al., 2016).
However, to address this issue, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) states are
facing a dilemma where only Indonesia is seen to consider IUU fishing a crime while other states
still do not consider it as a crime or a serious threat, just a mismanagement issue. RSIS (2017)
supports this by claiming that "a big agenda for Indonesia currently, ASEAN has thus far failed
to support their efforts to recognise IUU fishing as a transnational crime. Vietnam agreed that
IUU fishing requires imperative responses and cooperation between the states. However,
criminalising IUU fishing activities or imposing brutal punishment cannot address the issue's root
causes. On the other hand, Malaysia wishes to treat IUU fishing as a resource management issue,
not an issue of transnational organised crime". Indonesia's commitment is proven by the
establishment of Task Force 115, a task force with the main goal of combating IUU fishing. It is
found that since its establishment, the task force has shown significant results in combating IUU
fishing (Octavian et al., 2020).

3.2 Marine Pollution

The presence of marine pollution also threatens the sustainability of maritime ecosystem
development. Shipping activity along the coastline and in the busy Sea Lanes of Communications
(SLOCs) frequently contaminates the marine environment and causes massive environmental
damage. Ship oil and grease pose the greatest threat to marine life in the Indo-Pacific, especially
in the Straits of Malacca. According to Sutarji Kasmin (2010), it is found that Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAHs), one of the primary components in oil and residue discharge from cargo
and feeder ships (intentionally or accidentally due to collision or grounding), are particularly
difficult to clean up and could linger in the sediment and marine environment for years. Constant
exposure to PAHs can cause maritime developmental issues and make marine organisms more
prone to disease.
Like other coastal regions worldwide, the Southeast Asian states are also vulnerable to the
negative impacts of oil spill pollution on the economy, particularly severe impacts for countries
heavily relying on the fishing and tourism industries, two critical sectors of the ASEAN economy.
According to Sulistyono (2013), the impact caused by the oil spills will cause economic losses,
which the affected community will experience. These can lead to a decline in income for
fishermen and a reduction in the availability of fish in local markets, which can result in increased
food prices for consumers. It has been supported by a study that found that after oil contamination
affected the Sedari Sea Indonesia, fishermen in Sedari Village, who heavily rely on marine

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resources as their source of income, experienced a clear economic loss and an income decline of
about 76%, or Rp. 177.875/trip (Alvernia, 2021).
Moreover, the tourism industry can also be adversely affected by oil spills. Oil spills can lead to
the closure of beaches and the cancellation of tourism activities, such as diving and snorkelling,
resulting in reduced income for tourism operators and losses for the broader economy. Ocean
plastic pollution has also had a parallel impact on the marine pollution issue. According to the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2022), an estimated 75 - 199 million tonnes of
plastic is currently in the oceans. Approximately 1 million metric tonnes of plastic waste annually
enter the ocean, particularly prevalent in tropical archipelago countries like the Indo-Pacific
Region (Meijer et al., 2021).
Figure 3 shows the global comparison of ocean plastic waste polluters (in metric tonnes), where
the Philippines (356,371), Malaysia (73, 098), and Indonesia (56, 333) are among the top ASEAN
states contributing to the global ocean plastic waste pollution (Lugas, 2023). In addition, the
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has estimated that China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Thailand and Vietnam contribute 60% of the total plastic entering the ocean annually (MIMA,
2021). Marine debris, particularly plastic, has been identified to cause ingestion, suffocation, and
entanglement of hundreds of marine species. High concentrations of plastic bags block hundreds
of species' breathing passages and stomachs, including turtles.

Figure 3: Ocean Plastic Waste Polluters Worldwide (in metric tonnes)

Sources: Lugas (2023)

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There is also emerging evidence that the toxic chemicals such as styrene and benzene added to
foamed plastic during manufacturing have transferred from the ingested plastic into the animals'
tissues, eventually entering the food chain for humans and adversely effects on the nervous,
respiratory and reproductive systems, and possibly on the kidneys and liver (UNEP, 2018).
Stranded single-use plastics also have created visual pollution and negatively impact countries
that rely heavily on tourism as a major Gross Domestic Product (GDP) source. Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC) estimated a US$ 1.3 billion economic impact of marine plastics
on the Indo-Pacific Region's tourism, fishing, and shipping industries.

3.3 Climate Change

Extreme hydrometeorological and heat events, sea level rise, and acidifying oceans are a few of
the climate-driven threats to which the Indo-Pacific region is extremely vulnerable (Shiloh Fetzek
et al., 2020). The Global Climate Risk Index 2018 ranks Southeast Asia as one of the most
vulnerable regions to climate change, with all the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) states except Singapore in the top 50 most climate-affected between 1997 and 2016
(Eckstein et al., 2018). According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Center (2021), natural
disasters in Southeast Asia and the Pacific between 2008 and 2020 displaced 65.9 million people.
The United Nations (UN) estimates that by 2050, the Indo-Pacific could see as many as 89 million
climate refugees, most of whom will come from Southeast Asia and the Pacific (Clayton, 2022).
The existing literature demonstrates that climate change's effects on natural systems, such as
marine biodiversity loss, can then affect human, social, and political systems through economic
slowdown, food insecurity, natural disasters, extreme weather events, coastal population
vulnerability, and the synergistic effects of these processes. For instance, increases in floods and
ocean acidification threaten the fishing industry, providing food and jobs for 200 million people
in the Indo-Pacific (Robert et al., 2020). Southeast Asia's high dependency on fisheries due to its
population's rapid growth and high fish consumption is expected to negatively impact fish stocks'
potential distribution and productivity due to climate change (MIMA, 2021).
Figure 4 shows least developed countries in tropical regions like Southeast Asia, as particularly
vulnerable to climate change, are projected to negatively impact their potential fish catches
because of their greater economic and nutritional dependence on fish and fewer available
resources to invest in climate adaptation (Barange et al., 2014). The degradation of fisheries and
socio-economic conditions in Southeast Asia as a consequence of climate change has also been
proposed as factors potentially triggering incentives for piracy.

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 Figure 4: Kobe Plot on Potential Catch Change and National Dependency on Fisheries Per
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)
Source: Barange et al. (2014)

According to Shiloh Fetzek et al. (2020) climate change may alter the security dynamics in the
Indo-Pacific region, with increased piracy and transnational crime resulting from climate
displacement, poverty, and overfishing caused by pollution, ocean warming, and acidification. It
could overwhelm existing state resources and maritime security capabilities, necessitating
increased ocean management and law enforcement. Figure 5 demonstrates how climate change
affects natural systems, which negatively impacts human systems and can engender or contribute
to maritime crimes. The proliferation of one form of maritime crime (namely illegal fishing) can
contribute to the emergence of another security concern (namely piracy), which negatively
impacts natural and human systems by reinforcing existing issues, such as lack of resources,
poverty, and grievance (Germond and Mazaris, 2019).

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 Figure 5: Synergistic links between climate change impacts and maritime criminality
Source: Germond and Mazaris (2019)

The fact that the Indo-Pacific is the world's most natural disaster-prone region makes it
particularly vulnerable and faces large-scale migration and human trafficking due to extreme
weather. It will create a range of threats to the well-being and security of countries in the region,
many of which are already threatened by disaster vulnerability and increasingly complex security
tensions (Fetzek and McGinn, 2020). These impacts, disproportionately affecting the
communities, contribute to political instability and damage local and national economies
(Maimunah, 2022). Economic losses caused by natural disasters greatly increase the financial
risks in the affected areas and cause indirect damage to the economy by breaking the global supply
chains, thus attacking the financial stability of any nation.
To address this, multilateral arrangement and cooperation are important since many Indo-Pacific
countries lack the financial and governance capacity to conduct surveillance and emergency
response. In the coming years, security communities across the Indo-Pacific will need to take
comprehensive measures to address the risks posed by climate change to succeed in their mission
(Fetzek and McGinn, 2020). The capacity of civil and military institutions to coordinate
comprehensive responses and shift to a more preventative stance can be enhanced by taking a
more holistic view of the effects of climate security, including how they affect current and future
drivers of fragility and instability. These highlight the need for dynamic maritime security
cooperation among the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) states by leveraging the
existing partnership on Disaster Management and Emergency Response to natural disasters.

4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, the protection and sustainable development of marine ecosystems in the Indo-
Pacific region is of utmost importance for the regional ecological balance and economic
prosperity. The region's rich biodiversity, valuable natural resources, and strategic maritime trade
routes make it crucial for global ecological balance and economic prosperity. With one of the

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world's most diverse and prosperous biodiversity in the world's oceans, particularly in the Coral
Triangle, the region supports a vast array of marine species and habitats critical to global
ecological balance. Recognising the significance of the maritime sector, the Blue Economy (BE)
has emerged as a key driver of economic growth and livelihoods in Southeast Asia. With ocean-
based jobs expected to grow significantly and the global ocean economy forecasted to double by
2023, the sustainable development of marine resources becomes critical.
Countries like Singapore and Malaysia have already demonstrated productivity efficiency and
substantial contributions of the Blue Economy to their respective economies. However, the
region's rapid economic development and population growth have also posed significant
challenges to marine ecosystem protection and maritime sustainability. The unsustainable and
illegal exploitation of marine resources, coupled with the impacts of climate change and marine
pollution, has put the region's marine ecosystems at risk. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated
(IUU) fishing threatens food security, economic stability, and the sustainability of fisheries, while
marine pollution, including oil spills and plastic waste, harms marine life and impacts coastal
communities and tourism industries. Climate change exacerbates these challenges, endangering
marine biodiversity, coastal populations, and the overall socio-economic well-being of the region.
To address these challenges, a comprehensive and dynamic approach is necessary.
Cooperation among governments, international organisations, and maritime enforcement agencies
is critical for effective marine resource preservation and sustainability while balancing
socioeconomic development goals. Sustainable practices must be implemented in critical sectors
like fisheries, tourism, shipping, and offshore resource extraction to maintain the long-term health
of the region's marine ecosystems. Efforts to combat IUU fishing, reduce marine pollution, and
mitigate the impacts of climate change are of utmost importance. By addressing these issues
through proactive policies, enforcement mechanisms, and sustainable practices, the Indo-Pacific
region can pave the way for sustainable future work towards achieving Sustainable Development
Goal 14. This requires a comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between human
activities, ecosystem dynamics, and sustainable development goals. Ultimately, by prioritising the
protection and sustainable development of marine ecosystems, the Indo-Pacific region can ensure
its oceans' long-term health and productivity, foster economic prosperity, and contribute to global
efforts in achieving a sustainable and resilient future.

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