Dip Ee 404 Industrial Drives Lab Manual

PRACTICAL LAB RECORD
Course: Diploma
Semester: 4th
Subject: INDUSTRIAL DRIVES
Subject Code: DIP EE-404
Name of Student:
Roll No.:
Branch :
Sem./Year:
LIST OF EXPERIMENT
S.NO. NAME OF EXPERIMENT PAGE NO.
1 Dismantle the given DC motor and identify its different parts
2 Draw speed current characteristics of D.C. series motor

3 Draw speed torque characteristics of D.C. series motor
4 Study of various methods for speed control of D.C.
5 Study of an electric locomotive
6 Study of pole and bow current collector
7 Study of pentagraph current collector
8 Study of Metaldyne control system
EXPERIMENT NO -1
AIM: Dismantle the given DC motor and identify its different parts
APPARATUS: D.C. machine assembly
THEORY: D.C. Machine: DC Machines are of two types:
1. D.C. motor
2. D.C. generator
Main parts of D.C. machines:
1. Magnetic Yoke 2. Pole core and pole shoes 3. Pole coils 4. Armature core
5. Armature coils 6. Commutator 7. Brushes and bearings
a) It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
b) It provides the mechanical support for the pole and acts as a protecting cover for the
whole machine.
Pole Core & Pole Shoe : Pole core and Pole shoes serve the following purpose
Pole shoe spreads the flux in the air gap to reduce the reluctance of magnetic path. Pole
shoes provide the support for the pole coils
Pole Coils: Pole coils are made up of copper wire. These are placed on pole core.
Armature Core: It houses armature coils & causes them to rotate, hence cuts the flux produced by
field winding. It is cylindrical & made up of laminations of approx 0.5mm thickness. It is keyed to
the shaft laminations are used to reduce the eddy currents.
Armature Windings: These are usually former wound. Various conductors are placed in armature
slots, which are lined with insulating material.
Commutator: The function of commutator is to collect the current from the armature conductors.
It converts the a.c. of armature conductor into unidirectional current in external load. It is
cylindrical structure with wedge shaped segments insulated from each other by thin sheets of mica.
Number of segments is equal to number of armature conductors.
MADHYANCHAL PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY, BHOPAL
School of Electrical&Electronics Engineering
7. Brushes & Bearings: Brushes collect the current from commutator. They are made of
carbon & are of rectangular shape. Brush holder is mounted on spindle & brushes can
slide. Ball bearings are used for less wear and tear.
RESULT: The assembly of D.C. machine is observed and construction of all the parts is studied in
detail.
Faculty of Engineering & Technology

School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
EXPERIMENT NO -2
Aim: To discover the characteristic change in speed of a DC series motor as it is loaded.
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
Upon successful completion of this experiment the student will be able to:
1. Analyze series motor characteristics.
2. Explain why series motors must be rigidly connected to the load.
BRIEFING:
DC series motors are widely used in traction vehicles, such as locomotives and electric cars, because of
their ability to produce a high torque without a corresponding high armature current. However, there is a
drastic change in speed when a series motor is loaded. In tractionequipment, the heaviest load is at start,
when torque is more important than speed.
In a DC series motor, the armature current and the field current are the same current, sincethe two are in
series. Torque output is proportional to the armature current and field flux. The field flux then is
proportional to armature current. This makes torque proportional tothe square of armature current. For
light loads a series motor produces less torque for thesame armature current; for heavy loads it produces
more torque than a shunt motor.

Series motors are alwaysrigidly connected to their loads, and never operated without someLoad. A shunt
motor can operate unloaded because a strong field flux is always present.Enough CEMF is generated to
lower armature current to just the amount needed to overcomewindage and friction losses. A series
motor, on the other hand, will get into runawaycondition, if unloaded. That is when the motor continues
to increase in speed until it tearsitself to pieces. Assume a series motor is running under load and the
load is suddenly removed. The torquethat was driving the load is now applied to the motor shaft as
accelerating torque. As themotor begins to speed up, additional CEMF is gmerated, reducing armature
current. But thisalso reduces the strength of the field flux. notenough CEMF is generated to reduce
thearmature current enough to stop the motor from accelerating. The motor speeds up more.
Armature current continue dropping but the field keeps getting weaker. CEMFcan never catch up with
the armature current, EveD at light loads, the speed can become excessivebefore armature current
decreases enough to eliminate the accelerating torque,
MACHINES REQUIRED:
DM-100A DC Machine operating as a motor
“DYN-1OODMD vnamometer
POWER REQUIRED:
O-125 volt Variable DC, 5 amps
0-1.50volt VariableD C, 1 amp
METERS REQUIRED:
0-150 volt DC voltmeter
O-150 volt DC voluneter
0-5 amp DC ammeter
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL REQUIRED:

MGB-100-DG Bedplate
RL-100AR resistanceLoad Bank
FIT-100J Tachometer
SFR-100 Series Field (Diverter) Rheostat
PROGRAM PLAN:
Step 1. Place the two machines on the bedplate with the motor on the left and thed5mamometer on the
right.
Step 2. Couple the two machines tightly, using the rubber coupling. Be sure the couplingfits snugly
inside both flanges. Be sure the rotor locking device has been removedfrom the dlrnamometer..
Step 3. Clamp the machines tightly to the bedplate. Place the coupling guard over thecoupling and the
shaft guard over the motor and dynamometer shafts.
Step 4. Connect the motor. Note that this is a series motor connection.Set the diverter rheostat to 5 ohms
(mid point) in parallel with the seriesfield.
Step 5. T\rrn theposition.
START
SWTCH
knob of the 0-125 volt supply fully counterclockwise to its zero outputPower should remain off.

Step 6. Connect the dynamometer as shown in Figure 19-1. Note that this is a separatelyexcited
generator connection. Note also that the shunt field rheostat is not beingused.
Step 7. Have someone check your connections to be sure they are correct. Then turn ONresistance legs
1, 2, and 3 on the load bank.
Step 8. Turn ON the main AC and the 0-150 volt supply circuit breakers.
Step 9. Temporarily connect a voltmeter across the 0-150 volt excitation supply and adjustthe knob for
125 volts. Then connect the voltmeter across the RJ,-100A ResistanceLoad Bank.
Step 10. Turn ON the 0-125 volt supply and the motor circuit breaker switches. Start the
motor b-v slow if increasing the output of the 0- 125 volt supply to 1 15 volts.
Step 11.Use the 0-150 volt excitation supply knobto adjust the dynamometer's output voltageto 125
volts. If necessary, re-adjust the 0-125 volt supply to 115 volts.
Step 12.Read, and record in Table 19-1 of TEST RESIILTS, the values of motor speed,armature voltage,
armature current, torque, and load voltage.
Step 13. Switch ON resistance legs 4, 5, and 6 on the load bank.
Step 14. Repeat Steps 11 and 12.
Step 15. Switch ON resistance lep 7, 8, and g on the load bank,
Step 17. Turn OFF all circuit breaker switches. Disconnect all loads
TEST RESULTS:
STEP1 2 STEP1 3 STEP1 5

SPEED
ARMATUREV
OLTAGE
ARMATUREC
URRENT
TORQUE(N -m)
GENERATEVDO
LTAGE

DE.BRIEFIN
1. On the graph provided, use the data you have recorded in Table 19-1 to plot a curve showing
how the speed of a DC series motor changes as the armature current increases with increasing
load. Label this curve SPEED.
2. On the same graph, use the data from Table 19-1 to plot a curve showing how theoutput torque of a
DC shunt motor changes as the ar:nature current increases withincreasing load. Label this curve
TORQUE.
3. When lightly loaded, the field strength of a DC series motor is:
a. About the same as a shunt motor driving the same load.
b. Less than that of a shunt motor driving the same load.
c. Greater than that of a shunt motor driving the same load.DC series motors ane better able to handle
overloads because:
a. The field strength increases as annatur€ current decreases
b. The field strength and armature curtent increase together.
c. The field strength decreases as aruature current increasesThe top speed of a DC series motor with no
load is:
a. About the same as a shunt motor.
b. Less than a shunt motor.
c. Infinite - there is no limit.

3. Does the field flux become stronger or weaker as a series motor is loaded? Explainwhy.
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4. A hoist should travel fast when it does not have a load, and slowly when lifting aload. Would you
choose a series motor or shunt motor? Explain why.
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5. At light loads, a series motor hns g ls1ge1 amature current than a shunt motor forthe same torque
output. At rated load, a series motor has about the same armaturecurrent as a shunt motor for the same
torque output. At healy loads, a seriesmotor has less armature current than a shunt motor for the same
torque output.Explain why this is so. (Hint: Torque ie proportional to the product of armaturecurrcnt and
field flux).
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QUICK QUIZ:
1. As additional load was placed on the series motor, its fieldcurrent:
a. Increased.
b. Decreased.
c. Stayed the same.
2. In a DC series motor the field current is the same as:
a. Armature current.
b. Current through the load.
c. Shunt field current.

EXPERIMENT NO -3
Aim: Draw speed torque characteristics of D.C. series motor.
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES:
Upon successful completion of this experiment the student will be able to:
1. Analyze series motor characteristics.
2. Explain why series motors must be rigidly connected to the load.
BRIEFING:
DC series motors are widely used in traction vehicles, such as locomotives and electric cars, because of
their ability to produce a high torque without a corresponding high armature current. However, there is a
drastic change in speed when a series motor is loaded. In tractionequipment, the heaviest load is at start,
when torque is more important than speed.
In a DC series motor, the armature current and the field current are the same current, sincethe two are in
series. Torque output is proportional to the armature current and field flux. The field flux then is
proportional to armature current. This makes torque proportional tothe square of armature current. For
light loads a series motor produces less torque for thesame armature current; for heavy loads it produces
more torque than a shunt motor.
Series motors are always rigidly connected to their loads, and never operated without someLoad. A
shunt motor can operate unloaded because a strong field flux is always present.Enough CEMF is
generated to lower armature current to just the amount needed to overcomewindage and friction losses.
A series motor, on the other hand, will get into run awaycondition, if unloaded. That is when the motor
continues to increase in speed until it tearsitself to pieces. Assume a series motor is running under load
and the load is suddenly removed. The torquethat was driving the load is now applied to the motor shaft
as accelerating torque. As themotor begins to speed up, additional CEMF is gmerated, reducing
armature current. But thisalso reduces the strength of the field flux. not enough CEMF is generated to
reduce thearmature current enough to stop the motor from accelerating. The motor speeds up more.
Armature current continue dropping but the field keeps getting weaker. CEMF can never catch up with
the armature current, EveD at light loads, the speed can become excessivebefore armature current
decreases enough to eliminate the accelerating torque,
MACHINES REQUIRED:
DM-100A DC Machine operating as a motor
“DYN-1OODMD vnamometer
POWER REQUIRED:
O-125 volt Variable DC, 5 amps
0-1.50volt VariableD C, 1 amp
METERS REQUIRED:
0-150 volt DC voltmeter
O-150 volt DC voluneter
0-5 amp DC ammeter
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL REQUIRED:

MGB-100-DG Bedplate
RL-100AR resistanceLoad Bank

FIT-100J Tachometer
SFR-100 Series Field (Diverter) Rheostat
PROGRAM PLAN:
Step 1. Place the two machines on the bedplate with the motor on the left and thed5mamometer on the
right.
Step 2. Couple the two machines tightly, using the rubber coupling. Be sure the couplingfits snugly
inside both flanges. Be sure the rotor locking device has been removedfrom the dlrnamometer..
Step 3. Clamp the machines tightly to the bedplate. Place the coupling guad over thecoupling and the
shaft guard over the motor and dynamometer shafts.
Step 4. Connect the motor. Note that this is a series motor connection.Set the diverter rheostat to 5 ohms
(mid point) in parallel with the seriesfield.
Step 5.T\rrn theposition.
START
SWTCH
knob of the 0-125 volt supply fully counterclockwise to its zero outputPower should remain off.

Step 6. Connect the dynamometer as shown in Figure 19-1. Note that this is a separatelyexcited
generator connection. Note also that the shunt field rheostat is not beingused.
Step 7. Have someone check your connections to be sure they are correct. Then turn ONresistance legs
1, 2, and 3 on the load bank.
Step 8. Turn ON the main AC and the 0-150 volt supply circuit breakers.
Step 9. Temporarily connect a voltmeter across the 0-150 volt excitation supply and adjustthe knob for
125 volts. Then connect the voltmeter across the RJ,-100A ResistanceLoad Bank.
Step 10. Turn ON the 0-125 volt supply and the motor circuit breaker switches. Start the
motor b-v slow if increasing the output of the 0- 125 volt supply to 1 15 volts.
Step 11. Use the 0-150 volt excitation supply knobto adjusts the dynamometer's output voltageto 125
volts. If necessary, re-adjust the 0-125 volt supply to 115 volts.
Step 12.Read, and record in Table 19-1 of TEST RESIILTS, the values of motor speed,arrrrature
voltage, armature current, torque, and load voltage.
Step 13. Switch ON resistance legs 4, 5, and 6 on the load bank.
Step 15. Switch ON resistance lep 7, 8, and g on the load bank,
Step 17. Turn OFF all circuit breaker switches. Disconnect all loads
TEST RESULTS:
STEP1 2 STEP1 3 STEP1 5

SPEED

ARMATUREV
OLTAGE
ARMATUREC
URRENT
TORQUE(N -m)
GENERATEVDO
LTAGE
DE.BRIEFIN
1. On the graph provided, use the data you have recorded in Table 19-1 to plot acurve showing how the
speed of a DC series motor changes as the armature currentincreases with increasing load. Label this
curve SPEED.
2. On the same graph, use the data from Table 19-1 to plot a curve showing how theoutput torque of a
DC shunt motor changes as the ar:nature current increases withincreasing load. Label this curve
TORQUE.
3. When lightly loaded, the field strength of a DC series motor is:

a. About the same as a shunt motor driving the same load.
b. Less than that of a shunt motor driving the same load.
c. Greater than that of a shunt motor driving the same load.DC series motors ane better able to handle
overloads because:
a. The field strength increases as annatur€ current decreases
b. The field strength and armature curtent increase together.
c. The field strength decreases as aruature current increasesThe top speed of a DC series motor with no
load is:
a. About the same as a shunt motor.
b. Less than a shunt motor.
c. Infinite - there is no limit.
EXPERIMENT NO -4
Study of various methods for speed control of D.C
Often we want to control the speed of a DC motor on demand. This intentional change of drive speed is
known as speed control of a DC motor.

Speed control of a DC motor is either done manually by the operator or by means of an automatic
control device. This is different to speed regulation – where the speed is trying to be maintained (or
‘regulated’) against the natural change in speed due to a change in the load on the shaft
The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to:
N=(V-IaRa)/KΦ
Therefore speed of the 3 types of DC motors – shunt, series and compound – can be controlled by
changing the quantities on the right-hand side of the equation above.
Hence the speed can be varied by changing:
1. The terminal voltage of the armature, V.
2.The external resistance in armature circuit, Ra
3.The flux per pole, φ.
Terminal voltage and external resistance involve a change that affects the armature circuit, while flux
involves a change in the magnetic field. Therefore speed control of DC motor can be classified into:
1. Armature Control Methods

2. Field Control Methods
Speed Control of DC Series Motor
Speed control methods for a DC series motor can be classified as:


Armature Controlled DC Series Motor
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by:

1. Armature Resistance Control Method
2. Shunted Armature Control Method
3. Armature Terminal Voltage Control
Armature Resistance Control Method
This is the most common method employed. Here the controlling resistance is connected directly in
series with the supply of the motor as shown in the fig.
The power loss in the control resistance of DC series motor can be neglected because this control
method is utilized for a large portion of time for reducing the speed under light load condition. This
method of speed control is most economical for constant torque. This method of speed control is
employed for DC series motor driving cranes, hoists, trains etc.

Shunted Armature Control
The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with the armature is
involved in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the armature is varies by varying series
rheostat R1. The exciting current can be varied by varying the armature shunting resistance R 2. This
method of speed control is not economical due to considerable power losses in speed controlling
resistances. Here speed control is obtained over wide range but below normal speed.
Armature Terminal Voltage Control
The speed control of DC series motor can be accomplished by supplying the power to the motor from a
separate variable voltage supply. This method involves high cost so it rarely used.
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by field control may be done by:
1. Field Diverter Method

2. Tapped Field Control
Field Diverter Method
This method uses a diverter. Here the field flux can be reduced by shunting a portion of motor current
around the series field. Lesser the diverter resistance less is the field current, less flux therefore more
speed. This method gives speed above normal and the method is used in electric drives in which speed
should rise sharply as soon as load is decreased.
Tapped Field Control
This is another method of increasing the speed by reducing the flux and it is done by lowering number
of turns of field winding through which current flows. In this method a number of tapping from field
winding are brought outside. This method is employed in electric traction.

Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor
The classification of speed control methods for a DC shunt motor are similar to those of a DC series
motor. These two methods are:

Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
Armature controlled DC shunt motor can be performed in two ways:
1. Armature Resistance Control

2. Armature Voltage Control
Armature Resistance Control
In armature resistance control a variable resistance is added to the armature circuit. Field is directly
connected across the supply so flux is not changed due to variation of series resistance. This is applied
for DC shunt motor. This method is used in printing press, cranes, hoists where speeds lower than rated
is used for a short period only.
Armature Voltage Control
This method of speed control needs a variable source of voltage separated from the source supplying the
field current. This method avoids disadvantages of poor speed regulation and low efficiency of
armature-resistance control methods.
The basic adjustable armature voltage control method of speed d control is accomplished by means of an
adjustable voltage generator is called Ward Leonard System. This method involves using a motor-
generator (M-G) set. This method is best suited for steel rolling mills, paper machines, elevators, mine
hoists, etc. This method is known as Ward Leonard System.

Advantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
1. Very fine speed control over whole range in both directions

1. Uniform acceleration is obtained
2. Good speed regulation
3. It has regenerative braking capacity
Disadvantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
1. Costly arrangement is needed, floor space required is more

2. Low efficiency at light loads
3. Drive produced more noise.
Field Controlled DC Shunt Motor
By this method a DC Shunt motor’s speed is controlled through a field rheostat.
Field Rheostat Controlled DC Shunt Motor
In this method, speed variation is accomplished by means of a variable resistance inserted in series with
the shunt field. An increase in controlling resistances reduces the field current with a reduction in flux
and an increase in speed. This method of speed control is independent of load on the motor. Power
wasted in controlling resistance is very less as field current is a small value. This method of speed
control is also used in DC compound motor.
Disadvantages of Field Rheostat Controlled DC Shunt Motor
 Creeping speeds cannot be obtained.

 Top speeds only obtained at reduced torque.
 The speed is maximum at minimum value of flux, which is governed by the demagnetizing effect
of armature reaction on the field.

Solid State Speed Control
Static Ward Leonard drives are being used these days because of the drawbacks of the classical method.
Rotating M-G sets are replaced by solid state converters to control DC motor speed. The converters used
are choppers (in case of DC supply) or controlled rectifiers (in case of AC supply). This method is not
suitable for intermittent loads.
DC Motor Speed Control Theory
To derive the speed of a DC motor, we start with the equation for the DC motor’s EMF
(Electromagnetic Force). We know that the EMF equation of DC motor is equal to:
E=NPZØ/60A
Hence rearranging the equation:
 N = 60A E / PZØ
With k = PZ/60A, then:
 N = E / kØ
Hence with E = V – IaRa, we derive the speed of the DC motor (N):
N=(V-IaRa)/KØ

EXPERIMENT NO -5
Aim of the Experiment:Study of an electric locomotive

Objective:To visit the railways repair shop at a nearby station, for study of electric locomotive.
Theory:
Electric railways are widespread throughout the world and there are many different varieties but all are
based on either direct current or alternating current. Electric locomotive benefits from high efficiency of
electric motors, often above 90%.
Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking which allows kinetic energy to be
recovered during braking to put some power back on line. Newer electric locomotive use ac motor
inverter drives systems that provide for regenerative braking.
The chief disadvantages of electrification are the cost of overhead power lines, substations and control
systems.
In an electric locomotive various types of power supplied are used:
Rechargeable energy storage systems, as battery.
2. A stationary source, such as a third rail or overhead wire.
The distinguishing design features of electric locomotives are:

(i) The type of electric power used, either alternating current or direct current.
i) The method of store (batteries, ultra capacitors) or collecting electric power transmission.
The earliest systems used direct current and locomotives typically run relatively at low voltage (750 to
3000 volts) and the currents involved are large in order to transmit sufficient power. Then alternating
motors were developed ac high voltages are then used because this allows the use of low currents,
transmission losses are proportional to the square of the current. Thus high power can be conducted over
long distances on lighter and cheaper wires. Transformers in the locomotives transform this power to
low voltage, high current for the motors.
A similar high voltage, low current system could not be employed with direct current locomotives
because there is no early way for dc to do the voltage/current transformation so efficiently achieved by
ac transformers. Nowadays ac traction system used three phase current rather than single phase of
household use. Today electric locomotive have invariably three phase induction motors. These poly
phase motor machines are powered from G.T.O. inverters. The cost of electric devices in modern
locomotive can be reduced by 50% of the total cost of the vehicle.
Electric traction allows the use of regenerative braking in which the motors are used as brakes and
become generators that transform the motion of the train into electrical power that can feed back into the

lines. This system is particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending locomotives
can produces a large portion of power required for ascending lines.
he original electrification used a sliding shoe in overhead channel. Now it was replaced with third rail
system in which shoe rode underneath or on top of a small rail parallel to the main track above ground
level.
However, railways generally tend to prefer overhead lines, often called ‘catenaries’ after the support
system used is hold the wire parallel to the ground.
Three collection methods are possible:

1. Trolley Pole:
A long flexible pole, engages the line with a wheel or shoe.
2. Bow Collector:
A frame holds a long collecting rod against the wire.
3. Pantograph:
A hinged frame that holds the collecting shoes against the wire in a fixed geometry. Of the three, the
pantograph method is best suited for high speed operation.
The following points describe the two systems and they are applied to different railways, this also
includes various control systems used on electric locomotives and trains:
1. Asynchronous Motor:
Modern traction motor type using three phase AC electrical supply and now the favoured design for
modern train traction systems can be used on DC and AC electrified railways with suitable control
electronics and on diesel-electric locomotives.
2. Axle Brush:
The means by which the powers supply circuit is completed with the substation once power has been
drawn on the locomotive. Current collected from the overhead line or third rail is returned via the axle
brush and one of the running rails.
3. Battery:
All trains are provided with a battery to provide start up current and for supplying essential circuits, such
as emergency lighting in, when the line supply fails. The battery is usually connected across the DC
control supply circuit.
4. Buchholtz Relay:
A device inserted in the oil cooling circuits of electric locomotive transformers to detect low oil
pressure. In this event the relay trips out the power system. Often a source of spurious circuit breaker
trips if not carefully calibrated.
5. Camshaft:
Most DC electric traction power circuits use a camshaft to open or close the contactors controlling the
resistances of the traction motor power circuit. The camshaft is driven by an electric motor or pneumatic
cylinder.
The cams on the shaft are arranged to ensure that the contactors open and close in the correct sequence.
It is controlled by commands from the driver’s cab and regulated by the fall of current in the motor
circuit as each section of resistance is cut out in steps. The sound of this camshaft stepping can be head
under many older (pre electronics) trains as they accelerate.
6. Cannon Box:
Sleeve used to mount a traction motor on axle in electric power bogies and sometimes including an axle
brush.
7. Chopper Control:
A development in electric traction control which eliminates the need for power resistors by causing the
voltage to the traction motors to be switched on and off (chopped) very rapidly during acceleration. It is
accomplished by the use of thyristors and will give up to 20% improvement in efficiency over
conventional resistance control.
8. Circuit Breaker:
An electric train is almost always provided with some sort of circuit breaker to isolate the power supply
when there is a fault, or for maintenance. On AC systems they are usually on the roof near the
pantograph. There are two types the air blast circuit breaker and the vacuum circuit breaker. The air or
vacuum part is used to extinguish the arc which occurs as the two tips of the circuit breaker are opened.
9. Contactor:
Similar to a relay in that it is a remotely operated switch used to control a higher power local circuit. The
difference is that contactors normally latch or locks closed and have to be opened by a separate action. A
lighting contactor will have two, low voltage operating coils, one to “set” the contactor closed to switch
on the lights; the other to “trip” off the lights.
10. Converter:
Solid state electronic system is used for converting alternating current to direct current or vice versa.
Where an AC supply has to be converted to DC it is called a rectifier and where DC is converted to AC
it is called an inverter.
11. Cooling Fans:
To keep the thyristors and other electronic power systems cool, the interior of a modern locomotive is
equipped with an air management system, electronically controlled to keep all systems operating at the
correct temperature. The fans are powered by an auxiliary inverter producing 3-phase AC at about 400
volts.
12. Creep Control:

A form of electronically monitored acceleration control used very effectively on some modern drive
systems which permits a certain degree of wheel slip to develop under maximum power application. A
locomotive can develop maximum slow speed tractive effort if its wheels are turning between 5% and
15% faster than actually required by the train speed.
13. DC Link:
Used on modern electronic power systems between the single phase rectifier and the 3-phase inverter. It
is easier to convert the single phase AC from the overhead line to 3-phase required for the motors by
rectifying it to DC and then inverting the DC in 3- phase AC.
14. Dynamic Braking:

A train braking system using the traction motors of the power vehicle(s) to act as generators which
provide the braking effort. The power generated during braking is dissipated either as heat through on-
board resistors (rheostatic braking) or by return to the traction supply line (regenerative braking). Most
regenerative systems include on board resistors to allow rheostatic braking if the traction supply system
is not receptive. The choice is automatically selected by the traction control system.
15. Grid:
Train or locomotive mounted expanded steel resistor used to absorb excess electrical energy during
motor or braking power control. Often seen on the roofs of diesel electric locomotives where they are
used to dissipate heat during dynamic braking.
16. Ground Relay:

An electrical relay provided in diesel and electric traction systems to protect the equipment against
damage from earths and so-called “grounds”. The result of such a relay operating is usually a shut-down
of the electrical drive. Also sometimes call an Earth Fault Relay.
17. GTO Thyristor:

(Gate Turn OffThyristor) A thyristor which does not requires a commutation (reverse flow circuit)
circuit to switch it off.
18. IGBT:
Most recent power electronics development, it is replacing the GTO thyristor as it is smaller and
requires less current to operate the switching sequences.
19. Inverter:
Electronic power device mounted on trains to provide alternating current from direct current. Popular
nowadays for DC railways to allow three phase drive or for auxiliary supplies which need an AC supply.
20. Jerk Limit:

A means by which starting is smoothed by adjusting the rate of acceleration of a train by limiting the
initial acceleration rate upon starting. It could be described as limiting the initial rate of change of
acceleration. Also used in the dynamic braking.
21. Line Breaker:

Electro-mechanical switch in a traction motor power circuit used to activate or disable the circuit. It is
normally closed to start the train and remains closed all the time power is required. It is opened by a
command from the driving controller, no volts detected, overload detected and (were required) wheel
spin or slide detected. It is linked to the overload and no-volt control circuits so that it actually functions
as a protective circuit breaker.
22. Master Controller:

Drivers power control device located in the cab. The driver moves the handle of the master controller to
apply or reduce power to the locomotive or train.
23. Motor Blowers:

Traction motors on electric locomotives get very hot and, to keep their temperature at a reasonable level
for long periods of hard work, they are usually fitted with electric fans called motor blowers. On a
modern locomotive, they are powered by an auxiliary 3-phase AC supply 400 volts supplied by an
auxiliary inverter.
24. Notching Relay:

A DC motor power relay which detect the rise and fall of current in the circuit and inhibits the operation
of the resistance contactors during the acceleration sequence of automatically controlled motors. The
relay operates a contactor stepping circuit so that during acceleration of the motor, when the current
falls, the relay detects the fall and calls for the next step of resistance to be switched out of the circuit.
25. No-Volt Relay:

A power circuit relay which detected if power was lost for any reason and made sure that the control
sequence was returned to the starting point before power could be re-applied.
26. Overload Relay:

A power circuit relay which detected excessive currents in the circuit and switched off the power to
avoid damage to the motors.
27. Rectifier:
A converter consists of thermistors and diodes which is used to convert AC to DC. A modern
locomotive will usually have at least two, one for the power circuits and one or more for the auxiliary
circuits.
28. Relay:
A remotely controlled switch which uses a low voltage control circuit. It will close (or open) a switch in
a local circuit, usually of higher power.
29. Resistance Control:

Method of fractions motor, control formerly almost universal on DC electric railways whereby the
power to the motors was gradually increased from start up by removing resistances from the power
circuit in steps. Originally this step control was done manually but it was later automatic, a relay in the
circuit monitoring the rise and fall of current as the steps were removed. Many examples of this system
still exist but new builds now use solid state control with power electronics.
30. Shoe-Gear:

Equipment carried by a train and used for current collection on track mounted (third rail) power supply
systems. Shoe-gear is usually mounted on the bogies close to the third rail. It is often equipped with
devices to enable it to be retracted if required to isolate the car or on-board system which it supplies.
31. Synchronous Motor:

Traction motor where the field coils are mounted on the drive shaft and the armature coils in the
housing, the inverse of normal practice. This is a single-phase machine controlled by simple inverter,
now superseded by the asynchronous motor.
32. Tap Changer:

Camshaft operated set of switched used on AC electric locomotives to control the voltage taken off the
main transformer for traction motor power, Superseded by thyristor control.
33. Transformer:
A set of winding with a magnetic core used to step down or step up a voltage from one level to another.
The voltage differences are determined by the proportion of windings on the input side compared with
the proportion on the output side. An essential requirement for locomotives and trains using AC powers,
where the line voltage has to be stepped down before use on the train.
34. Wheel Spin:

On a steam locomotive, the driver must reduce the steam admission to the cylinders by easing closed (or
partially closed) the throttle/regulator when he hears the wheels start to spin. On diesel or electric
locomotives, the current drawn by individual or groups of traction motors are compared-the motor (or
group) which draws proportionally less amps than the others is deemed to be in state of slip and the
power is reduced. Some systems-EMD Super Series for one-measure known wheel speed against ground
speed as registered on a Doppler radar. Many locomotives additionally use sand, which is applied to the
wheel/ rail contact point to improve adhesion—this is either controlled automatically or manually by the
driver.
35. Wheel Spin Relay (WSR):

A relay in older traction motor control circuits used to detect wheel spin or slide by measuring the
current levels in a pair of motors on a bogie and comparing them. The idea is to prevent motor damage
by preventing an over speeding motor causing an unacceptable rise in current tin the other motor of the
pair. If detected, the imbalance causes the control circuits to open the line breakers and reset the power
control to the start position like a “no-volt” relay
EXPERIMENT NO -6
Aim of the Experiment: Study of pole and bow current collector
The current in the overhead system is collected with the help of sliding contact collector mounted on the
roof of the vehicle. The main requirement of a current collector is that it should, under no circumstances,
leave the contact of overhead equipment. Contact wire in all practical installations is never perfectly
horizontal, it rises and falls depending upon the weight of the contact wire, and distance between
droppers. Also contact wire comes very low under bridges and tunnels and rises high over public
crossings. The current collector has to rise and come down according to the speed of the electric vehicle
in order to maintain the contact with overhead equipment.
Therefore, in order that the current collector gear picks up the current without any spark, it must be
designed so as to maintain an even pressure against the trolley wire at all speeds. To ensure an even
pressure the current collector gear must have a sufficient flexibility to adjust itself to the variation of the
level of the conductor at high speeds. Either a spring or compressed air is used to maintain the pressure.

When the contact wire rises the current collector has to move upwards so as to maintain contact, and the
pressure exerted on the contact wire is the pressure of the spring or compressed-air piston less the force
required to accelerate the current collector to its new position and any force necessary to overcome the
frictional resistance.
To design a satisfactory current collector therefore, particularly for high speed work, the frictional
resistance must be reduced to a minimum and the moment of inertia must be kept low. Furthermore,
means must be provided for lowering when idle and reasonable precautions taken to prevent the
collector leaving the wire at points and crossings.
As the tramcars and trolley buses draw their power from overhead conductors suspended about 6.7 m
(from 4.7 m to 7.5 m) above the road surface, the current collector must, therefore, be mounted on the
vehicle.
Trolley Collector:
The trolley collector is universally employed with tramways and trolley buses. This consists of a
grooved gun metal wheel or grooved slider shoe with carbon insert carried at the end of a long pole. The
other end of this pole is hinged to a swiveling base fixed to the roof of the vehicle. Necessary upward
pressure for the pole and current collector is achieved by means of springs.

As two trolley wires are required for a trolley bus a separate trolley collector is provided for each wire,
the bases being mounted side by side. The pressure for wheel is approximately 10 kg and for a carbon
insert slider is approximately 17 kg.
The main drawback of trolley collector is that it has to be rotated through 180° for reversing the
direction of motion of the vehicle. Another drawback particularly with trolley wheel collector is that
there is poor contact between the wheel and trolley wire. This gives rise to high current density in gassy
mines where trolley collector with grooved slider shoe is preferred.
The trolley collector is suitable for comparative low speeds (say 24 to 32 kmph) beyond this speed there
is every possibility of its jumping off the trolley wire
Bow Collector:
The bow collector is also employed for collecting the current with tramways. The bow collector consists
of light metal strip or bow 0.6 or 0.9 metre wide pressing against the trolley wire and attached to a
framework mounted on the roof of vehicle. Although provision of metal strip enables vehicle to run at
higher speeds without running the risk of leaving the contact of trolley wire, its maneuverability is lost.

It is as such not suitable for trolley buses. In order to avoid jumping off of the trolley wire at high
speeds, it is desired that the wire be accurately located above the track and staggered about 15 cm to
each side of centre line to avoid the wearing of the groove in the contact strip. Collection strip is made
of soft material such as copper, aluminum or carbon so that it should wear instead of trolley wire as it is
easy to replace worn out collection strip than trolley wire. Necessary upward pressure is obtained by
springs.
The length of the poles is kept sufficient to have lateral movement along the mean path of trolley bus.
This arrangement enables vehicle to run at higher speed without danger of the jumping off wire. Bow
collector has always to run trailing just like trolley collector. It, therefore, requires either provision of

duplicate bows or an arrangement of reversing the bows for motion in the reverse direction. The bow
collector has smaller inertia but is not so readily adoptable for collection of large currents as is a
pantograph collector.
The above arrangement has the following advantages over other types of collectors:
(i) It can operate in either direction of motion.
(ii) There is no risk of leaving wire junction etc.
(iii) The erection of the overhead network is very simple due to absence of points and grooved crossings
required for bows.
(iv) Its height can be varied from the drivers’ cabin by carrying out simple operations.
EXPERIMENT NO -7
Aim of the Experiment: Study of pentagraph current collector
There are mainly three current collecting systems in electrical traction.

1. Trolley collector
2. Bow collector
3. Pentoghaph.
We see in detail in one by one.In this type, the surface contact is obtained by two ways
 Grooved sliding contact filled with carbon
 Grooved gun metal wheel
Both of them are mounted on the light pole at the one end and the other end of this pole is hinged at a
rotating base and it is arranged on the roof top of train. Springs are used for getting the contact pressure.
Application:
In tramways & trolley buses. Two trolley collectors are used for trolley buses. The trolley collector
works properly at low speeds, but at high speeds it can get separated from the contact wire. The trolley
contact can be used up to 32km/hr. For changing the direction of vehicle the collector must be rotated at
180.
Pantograph collector: This type of collector consists of copper wearing strip which acts as contact
surface. This strip is removable and when it wears off it is replaced with a new one. This copper strip is
placed on pressed steel pan of the channel section. The springs help to support the channel section on a
frame work of pentagonal shape.
Application:
This system is also used in tramways. It also reduces the risk of the collector getting separated from the
conductors at high speeds also. And thus a bow collector has high speed than trolley collector.

o In electric trains
o Tram cars or trolley buses
It operates at a speed in between 100kmph to 125kmph. The current gets collected in the range of 2000A
to 3000A.
It has many advantages over other types of collectors:-

o It operates in both the directions.
o The conductor and the collector separation risk are low.
o The erection of overhead network is simple.
o Its height can be adjusted accordingly by the will of operator.
Pantograph Collector:
The pantograph is employed in railways for collection of current where the operating speed is as high as
100 or 130 kmph and the currents to be collected are as large as 2,000 or 3,000 amperes. Pantographs
are mounted on the roof of the vehicles and usually carry a sliding shoe for contact with the overhead
trolley wire. These consist of a jointed frame usually of steel tubing.
The contact shoes are usually about 1.2 metres long. There may be a single shoe or two shoes on each
pantograph. The shoes may be straight throughout their lengths or cambered slightly or may be in the
form of an auxiliary bow. Material used for pantograph is often steel with sometimes, wearing plates of
copper or bronze inserted. The pressure varies from 5 to 15 kg.
The pantographs should be of such construction that they maintain continuous contact with the overhead
wire at reasonably constant pressure at any height. They must be light enough in order to follow the
overhead wire as it changes height above the rails to pass under overhead crossing etc., with minimum
inertia effects even at high speeds they must be sufficiently strong and rigid to resist air pressures both
head on, due to speed of train, and transverse, due to wind; also they must resist stresses due to the sway
of the locomotive at high speeds and to some extent, stresses due to blows from the overhead system at
deflectors or turnouts etc. and from striking birds. If, however, there is a serious trouble on the overhead
system, the pantograph must be sufficiently pliable so that it will be damaged rather than pulling down
the overhead structure.
EXPERIMENT NO - 8
Aim of the Experiment: Study of Metaldyne control system

Metadyne is a cross-field machine. The cross-field machines are special DC machines having an
additional set of brushes on the direct-axis or d-axis. This arrangement of brushes enables the use of
armature MMF to provide most of the excitation and achieve high power gains.
Construction and Working of Metadyne

An ordinary DC generator can be converted into a metadyne by providing an additional pair of brushes
on the direct-axis or d-axis (see the figure). The brushes lie on the quadrature axis or q-axis are short-
circuited and the output of the machine is obtained from the d-axis brushes. The stator consists of a
control field winding. A field current If𝐼𝑓 flows through the control field winding
When the rotor of the machine is rotating at a constant speed, the MMF of the control field winding ( 𝐹𝑓)
induces an EMF 𝐸𝑞 between the q-axis brushes qq’. This induced EMF is given by,
Eq=KgfIf ……………………..(1)
Where, Kqf is a constant.

As the brushes qq’ are short circuited, a q-axis armature current (𝐼𝑞) flows and establishes q-axis MMF
(𝐹𝑞). Since the impedance of the short-circuited path is very low, therefore, only a small field current (𝐼𝑓)
in the control field winding will produce a much larger q-axis armature current. The corresponding flux
density wave will be centred on the q-axis. Due to commutator action, this magnetic field is stationary in
space. An EMF is induced in the armature by its rotation in the stationary q-axis flux. This generated
EMF appears across the daxis brushes dd’ and is given by,
Ed=KdqIq ……………………………………………(2)
Where, 𝐾𝑑𝑞 is a constant.
Now, if a load of resistance 𝑅𝐿 is connected across the d-axis brushes, the daxis armature current (𝐼𝑑)
will flow through the load. This current produces d-axis MMF (𝐹𝑑). According to the Lenz’s law, the d-
axis MMF (𝐹𝑑) opposes its cause of production, that is the control field MMF (𝐹𝑓).
Each stage of the generation of voltage produces a current whose magnetic field is 90° ahead of the
magnetic flux wave producing the voltage. As there are two stages of the voltage generation, thus the
MMF of the d-axis output current is shifted by 90° two times, i.e., 180° and hence opposes the control
field MMF (𝐹𝑓). Therefore, the q-axis generated EMF becomes,
Eq=KqfIf-KqdId ……………….(3)
If the magnetic saturation is neglected and the speed of the machine is assumed to be constant, then
𝐾𝑞𝑑 is a constant.
For a given control field MMF (𝐹𝑓) and load resistance, the steady state values of 𝐼𝑑 and 𝐼𝑞 are reached.
From Eqn. (3), it can be seen that any increase in current 𝐼𝑑 decreases the value of EMF 𝐸𝑑. This in turn
reduces the current 𝐼𝑑. Therefore, 𝐸𝑑 and 𝐼𝑑 are decreased. Hence for a given value of control field
excitation current (𝐼𝑓), the d-axis output current (𝐼𝑑) remains constant over a wide range of load
variation. Thus, the above discussion shows that a metadyne behaves as a constant current generator.

Applications of Metadyne
Metadynes were mainly used in the following applications −
 To supply DC power to process control motors

 To supply the excitation systems of large AC generators
 In traction systems and Ward-Leonard speed control systems, etc.
At present, metadynes are not manufactured and are replaced by solid state power amplifiers.


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PRACTICAL LAB RECORD

2 Draw speed current characteristics of D.C. series motor

APPARATUS: D.C. machine assembly

THEORY: D.C. Machine: DC Machines are of two types:

Main parts of D.C. machines:

5. Armature coils 6. Commutator 7. Brushes and bearings

a) It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

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Aim: To discover the characteristic change in speed of a DC series motor as it is loaded.

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ADDITIONAL MATERIAL REQUIRED:

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STEP1 2 STEP1 3 STEP1 5

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Aim: Draw speed torque characteristics of D.C. series motor.

ADDITIONAL MATERIAL REQUIRED:

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STEP1 2 STEP1 3 STEP1 5

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3. When lightly loaded, the field strength of a DC series motor is:

Study of various methods for speed control of D.C

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Hence the speed can be varied by changing:

1. The terminal voltage of the armature, V.

2.The external resistance in armature circuit, Ra

3.The flux per pole, φ.

1. Armature Control Methods

Speed control methods for a DC series motor can be classified as:

1. Armature Control Methods

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Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by:

Armature Resistance Control Method

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Shunted Armature Control

Armature Terminal Voltage Control

Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by field control may be done by:

1. Field Diverter Method

Tapped Field Control

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1. Armature Control Methods

Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor

Armature controlled DC shunt motor can be performed in two ways:

1. Armature Resistance Control

Armature Voltage Control

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1. Very fine speed control over whole range in both directions

1. Costly arrangement is needed, floor space required is more

By this method a DC Shunt motor’s speed is controlled through a field rheostat.

Field Rheostat Controlled DC Shunt Motor

 Creeping speeds cannot be obtained.

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Hence rearranging the equation:

Hence with E = V – IaRa, we derive the speed of the DC motor (N):

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Aim of the Experiment:Study of an electric locomotive

In an electric locomotive various types of power supplied are used:

Rechargeable energy storage systems, as battery.

2. A stationary source, such as a third rail or overhead wire.

The distinguishing design features of electric locomotives are:

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