3. Reproduction

3.
REPRODUCTION IN
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PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
 Reproduction.-This is the process 3. It brings about formation of
by which organisms give rise to seeds, spores and larvae which
offspring of their kind/species. reduce intra specific
Importance of reproduction. competition.
1. Procreation- It increases the 4. It is involved in development
number of organisms in a species. of resistant stages in the
2. Quality improvement- It increases lifecycle of some organisms.
genetic variety and therefore helps
the species to adapt to changing
environmental conditions.
© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

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Types of reproduction. Disadvantages of asexual reproduction.

A. Asexual reproduction- in this type an i. The undesirable qualities can be passed
already existing individual develops into a on to the offspring.
new free existing individual and does not
involve the fusion of male and female ii. There is no genetic variation hence
gametes. offspring may not be able to withstand
changing environmental conditions.
Advantages of asexual reproduction. iii. Faster growth and development may
i. Good/ favorable qualities/ characteristics result in overcrowding and competition
of the parent are retained. where only a few members survive.
ii. Plants mature faster/ short life cycle/ iv. It reduces the strength and vigour
faster reproduction. gradually/ there is no hybrid vigor;
iii. It does not depend on two parents/ it does
not depend on pollination, fertilization and
seed and fruit dispersal.
iv. It exploits the parental favorable
conditions.
v. There is large store of food supply.

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B. Sexual reproduction- it Disadvantages of sexual

involves the fusion of male and reproduction.
female gametes (reproductive 1. It takes a long time.
cells) to form a zygote
(fertilized egg). 2. Harmful characteristics can be
passed from parents to offspring.
• The fusion of male and female
gametes is called fertilization. 3. Fewer offspring are produced at a
time.
Advantages of sexual
reproduction. 4. It involves two organisms that
must mate.
1. It leads to variation due to
crossing over which leads to
hybrid vigor and better
adaptations of organisms to the
environment.
2. Introduction of useful traits/
characteristics.
CELL DIVISION.
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 This refers to the division or  In the body/somatic cells chromosomes

multiplication of the cells. Cell division occur in pairs hence called homologous
leads to growth and formation of chromosomes (which have the same shape
reproductive cells/gametes. and size.
 The cell is able to do all these because it  Along the length of the chromatid there are
contains chromosomes found within structures called genes.
the nucleus.  Genes are found in the protein molecules
CHROMOSOMES. called DNA (deoxy ribonucleic acid)
 They are thread like structures found in  Chromosomes are able to form exact copies
the nucleus of animal and plant cells. of themselves. This is called duplication
 It is made up of two parallel strands  There are two types of cells in the human
called chromatids. body, namely:
 The two chromatids (pair of chromatids) i. Body/somatic cells.
are connected at a point called ii. Reproductive cells/gametes.
centromere.

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Sister chromatids
Homologous chromosomes
Centromere

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Types of cell division Stages of mitosis

 There are two types of cell division 1. Interphase (I)
namely: 2. Prophase (P)
A. Mitosis. 3. Metaphase (M)
B. Meiosis. 4. Anaphase (A)
5. Telophase (T)
A. MITOSIS.
 This is the process in which a cell
divides into two daughter cell each
having the same number of
chromosomes as parent cell.
 It takes place in somatic/body cells.

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1. Interphase. Centrioles Nucleolus

 This is a resting stage and
chromosomes are not visible but
appear as threads called
chromatin.
 Chromosomes duplicate to
produce two sister chromatids.
 There is synthesis of new
organelles e.g. golgi apparatus,
centrioles, mitochondria,
ribosomes.
 There is build up of energy to Nuclear
use in cell division. Chromatin membrane
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2. Prophase.
 The two chromatids shorten
and thicken, join at the
centromere hence appear as
visible chromosomes.
 Homologous chromosome pair
up.
 The centrioles move to the
opposite sides/ends of the
animal cell and spindle fibres
begin to form.
 The nuclear membrane begins
to break down while the
nucleolus disappears.

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3. Metaphase.
 The nuclear membrane
disappears hence chromosomes
are free in the cytoplasm.
 The chromosomes arrange
themselves at the
centre/equator of the cell.
 The chromosomes are attached
to spindle fibres at the
centromere.
 This is important to ensure
even distribution of
chromosomes between the
daughter cells.

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4. Anaphase.
 Chromatids separate at
the centromere and
migrate to the opposite
poles of the cell due to
shortening of the spindle
fibres.
 The spindle fibres begin
to disappear.
 In animal cells the cell
membrane begins to
constrict.
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5. Telophase.  The chromosomes

 The chromatids collect become less distinct and
together at the ends of regain their threadlike
the cell and duplicate to (chromatin) appearance.
form chromosomes. N/B. In animal cells,
 The nuclear membrane division of cytoplasm is by
forms around each set of constriction of cell
chromosomes. membrane while in plant
cells a cell plate forms
 The cytoplasm divides within the cytoplasm and
into two leading to the grows to separate the two
formation of two cells.
daughter cells.
Early Late telophase
telophase
12 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

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Significance/ importance of B. MEIOSIS

mitosis.  This is the process of cell
division which reduces the
1. It leads to growth of an number of chromosomes in a
organism. cell by half.
2. It is the basis of asexual  This forms
reproduction/it is involved in gametes/reproductive cells.
asexual reproduction.  It involves two divisions
3. It ensures that the genetic/
resulting into four daughter
cells.
chromosomal constitution of
 It takes place in reproductive
the offspring remains the same organs e.g. testes, ovaries,
as that of the parent. anther e.t.c.
4. It leads to replacement of
damaged or dead cells.
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Principle of meiosis. 1ST MEIOTIC DIVISION.

 It consists of 2 successive  It leads to separation of
divisions: homologous
i. 1st meiotic division- chromosomes.
homologous  The stages include:
chromosomes separate 1. Interphase I.
from each other.
2. Prophase I.
ii. 2nd meiotic division-
chromatids separate. 3. Metaphase I.
4. Anaphase I.
5. Telophase I.

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1. Interphase 1
 Chromosomes appear as
chromatin and
replicate/duplicate.
 The cell builds up the
energy used in meiosis.
 There is synthesis of new
organelles.

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2. Prophase 1  As prophase continues, chromatids

 The nucleolus disappears. of the two homologous
chromosomes coil around each
 Centrioles become arranged at the other and remain contact at points
opposite sides of the cell. called chiasmata (singular-
 Chromosome condense and shorten chiasma). This is called chiasma
hence become visible. formation.
 Spindle fibres begin to form.  During separation of homologous
 Homologous chromosomes lie side chromosomes, the chromatids
by side in the process called separate at chiasmata and exchange
synapsis and forming pairs called the genetic materials. This is called
bivalent. crossing over which leads to
variation.

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iii. Metaphase I.
 The nuclear membrane has
disappeared and spindle fibres
are fully formed.
 The homologous chromosomes
still as bivalents arrange
themselves at the centre/
equator of the cell.
 They attach to the spindle fibres
by their centromeres.

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iv. Anaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes
separate.
 They move to the opposite
sides of the cell due to
shortening of the spindle
fibres.

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v. Telophase I.
 The spindle fibres
disappear.
 The cell divides into two.
 Each cell goes into a
short resting stage
(interphase II) directly
goes into prophase II.

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i. Prophase II.
 The new spindle fibres are
formed.
 Chromosomes become visible.
 There is no crossing over.

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ii. Metaphase II.

 The chromosomes arrange
at the centre of the cell.
 They attach to the spindle
fibres by their centromeres.

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iii. Anaphase II
 The sister chromatids
separate from each other and
move to the opposite sides of
the poles.
 This is due to shortening of
the spindle fibres.

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iv. Telophase II.

 The spindle fibres disappear.
 The nucleolus reappears and
the nuclear membrane is
formed around each set off
chromosomes.
 The sister chromatids
duplicate and form
chromosomes. They uncoil
and regain their thread like
form.
 The cytoplasm divides
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Significance of meiosis. Similarities between mitosis

1. It leads to gamete and meiosis.
formation. 1. Both take place in plant and
2. It ensures that each gamete animal cells.
has half the number of 2. Both involve division/
chromosomes as those found multiplication.
in the original cell/ it helps
to restore a constant diploid
chromosomal constitution in
a species after fertilization.
3. It leads to new combinations
of genes in gamete cells. This
leads to variation due to
crossing over.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND
MEIOSIS.
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Mitosis . Meiosis .
1. Two daughter cells are formed. 1. Four daughter cells are formed.
2. The number of chromosomes is retained/ 2. The number of chromosomes is halved/
diploid cells are formed. haploid cells are formed.
3. Daughter cells are identical to the mother/ 3. Daughter cells are not identical with the
parent cell. parent/ mother cell.
4. Homologous chromosomes do not associate 4. Homologous chromosomes associate with
with each other. each other.
5. There is no chiasma formation hence no 5. There is chiasma formation hence crossing
crossing over/variation. over/variation.
6. Occurs in somatic cells leading to growth. 6. Occurs in reproductive cells leading to gamete
7. Takes place in only one nuclear division of formation.
four stages. 7. Takes place in two nuclear divisions each with
four stages.
Asexual reproduction.
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 Asexual reproduction is the 1. Binary fission in amoeba,

production of offspring from a single plasmodium and bacteria.
organism without the fusion of  The first step in binary fission is molecular
gametes. division where there is internal
Types of asexual reproduction. reorganization of the molecules necessary
1. Binary fission. for structural construction.
2. Spore formation/sporulation.  The molecules are re-aggregated and
utilized in the formation of the new cell.
3. Budding in yeast.
 The nucleus undergoes mitotic division to
give rise to two nuclei with the same
number of chromosomes.
 The cytoplasm then starts dividing into two
cells which separate from each other.

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2. Spore formation /sporulation.  The horizontal hyphae are called stolons and
 A spore is a small reproductive unit which is the vertical hyphae are called
usually microscopic and unicellular. sporangiosphores.
 When detached from the parent organism and  The tips of sporangiosphores swell to form
under favorable conditions, a spore germinates sporangia (singular- sporangium).
and grows into new individuals.  Sporangium contains many spores and as the
 It occurs in bacteria, fungi (e.g. Rhizopus/ sporangium matures and ripens it turns
Mucor/Mould, yeast, mushroom), mosses and black.
ferns.  When the sporangium is fully mature, it
Note- Spores are produced in large numbers to bursts and releases the spores which are
increase the chances of survival and growth. dispersed and grows into new mycelium.
a) Rhizopus/ Mucor/ Mould.  Spores are dispersed by wind, insects and
animals.
 Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus which grows on
a substrate e.g. bread, rotting fruits and other
decaying matter.
 The vegetative body/ whole organism is called
mycelium which consists of many branched
threads called hyphae.
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Process of reproduction in Process of reproduction in

Rhizopus/ Mould/ Mucor mushroom.
 The fungus reproduces asexually by  The fungus reproduces asexually by
sporulation/ producing spores. sporulation/ producing spores.
 Spores develop from a single cell in  Spores develop in the gill which
the sporangium, which bursts on bursts on maturity releasing spores.
maturity releasing spores.  Spores are dispersed by air
 Spores are dispersed by air currents/ wind, falling on suitable
currents/ wind, falling on suitable medium they germinate to form
medium they germinate to form new generation.
new generation forming a
mycelium.

Sporangiosphore

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Study question. c) State the mode of

A student left a piece of bread on an open place reproduction exhibited by
accidentally. 3 days later he observed some black the organism named above.
substance developing.  Sporulation/ spore
a) Suggest the identity of the black substance that formation.
grew on the bread. d) State the kingdom to which
 Rhizopus. the organism belongs.
b) Explain how the black substance was formed.  Fungi
 Spores of bread mould deposited on the damp
bread which germinated into hyphae.When
mature the hyphae grew into
sporangiosphores. Sporangia developed on
the tip of the sporangiosphores containing
the spores.The sporangia matured and dried
up and turned black.

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3. Budding in yeast.
 Yeast is an example of a fungus
 This is a form of asexual
reproduction in which a new
individual is produced as an
outgrowth (bud) of the parent cell
and is later released as self
supporting individual and identical
copy of the parent plant
 It occurs in yeast under favorable
conditions e.g. plenty of sugar,
moisture, oxygen and optimum
temperature.

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Process of budding/ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS.

reproduction in yeast.  It involves the formation of male and female gametes
 Yeast reproduces asexually by which fuse to form a fertilized egg called zygote.
budding.  Gametes are produced in reproductive structures
 The parent cell forms an called flowers.
outgrowth/ projection/ bud Parts of a flower.
followed by division of nucleus
into two.  It is attached to the stem of a plant through the
pedicel/flower stalk. The top part of the pedicel
 One of the nuclei moves into the is called receptacle. All the floral/flower parts are
new bud which grows and attached to the receptacle.
develops into a new cell.
 The flower/floral parts are divided into four groups
namely:
i. Calyx/sepals.
ii. Petals/corolla.
iii. Stamens/androecium.
iv. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium.

Structure and function of a flower.
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FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT 2. Stamen/androecium-

PARTS OF A FLOWER. They form the male part of
1. Sepals/Calyx- Sepals the flower. Stamen consists of
collectively form calyx which are anther and filament.
leaf-like structures. Stamens collectively form
Androecium.
 Sepals protect the inner parts of
the flower in the bud/before the  The anther produces pollen
flower opens from pest attack and grains which contain male
from drying. gametes and the filament holds
the anther in position.
 Some flowers e.g. hibiscus have
sepal-like structures below the  One stamen consists of 4
sepals that are called epicalyx. pollen containing sacs which
are fused to form anther.

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3. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium- This is 4. Petals/corolla- Petals

the female part of the flower. Carpel collectively form the corolla.
consists of stigma, style and ovary.  They are large and brightly
Carpels collectively make up pistil colored and conspicuous to attract
(gynoecium). insects for pollination.
 Inside the ovary, there are several
ovules. The egg cell or female gamete is
formed within the ovule.
 The stigma receives the pollen grains.
The style holds the stigma in position.
 Note: Calyx(sepals) and
corolla(petals) are called non-
essential parts while androecium
(stamens) and pistil/ gynoecium
are called essential parts of the
flower.
Pore
Anther
Connective
Filament

Fig. stamen
Fig. Pistil
Stigma
Style
Ovary

TYPES OF FLOWERS
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1. Gamepetalous flower- the Types of unisexual/ incomplete flowers.

corolla/petals are fused.
a) Staminate flower-has only
2. Polypetalous- the
corolla/petals are separate. stamens/androecium/male parts only.
3. Complete b) Pistillate/carpellate flower- has
flower/bisexual only pistil/carpels/female parts.
flower/hermaphrodite
flower- a flower with all c) Dioecious plant- plant with
floral parts. unisexual flower separately but on
4. Unisexual flower/ different individual plants e.g. pawpaw
incomplete flower- this is plant.
a flower with either male or
female parts only. d) Monoecious plant -plant with
unisexual flower separately but on the
same plant e.g. maize plant.

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5. Epigynous/inferior ovary/flower- the 11. Polycarpous gynoecium/ pistil-

ovary is located below other floral parts e.g. the pistil has two or more carpels.
apple flower. 12. Apocarpous gynoecium/ pistil-
6. Hypogynous/superior ovary/flower- refers to polycarpous pistil with free
ovary is located above other floral parts e.g. carpels e.g. rose flower.
hibiscus flower. 13. Syncarpous gynoecuim/ pistil-
7. Perigynous ovary/flower- all floral polycarpous pistil with fused carpels
parts are located at the same level e.g. rose e.g. hibiscus flower.
flower. 14. Actinomorphic/regular flower-
8. Monocarpous gynoecium/ pistil- the a radially symmetrical flower and can
pistil has one carpel. be divided into two equal halves by
9. Solitary flower- flower which occurs any vertical section through the
singly. centre.
10. Inflorescence- consists of flowers that 15. Zygomorphic/irregular flower –
grow in clusters. bilaterally symmetrical flower and can
only be divided into two equal halve
only in one particular plane.

Epigynous flower/inferior ovary
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Hypogynous flower /superior ovary
49

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Perigynous flower Monocarpous flower

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Apocarpous flower Syncarpous flower

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Solitary flower

Inflorescence
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POLLINATION
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 This is the transfer of pollen grains from 2. Cross pollination- transfer of

the anther to the stigma of a flower on the pollen grains from the anther to
same or on a different plant of the same
species. the stigma of another flower of
Types of pollination. different plant but of the same
species. This leads to cross
1. Self pollination- transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of fertilization.
the same flower or from the anther of Advantages of cross pollination.
one flower to the stigma of another
flower on the same plant. This leads to i. It causes genetic variation hence
self fertilization. better adaptations of organisms to
Disadvantages of self-pollination. harsh environmental conditions.
i. Lack of variation.  Pollination is brought about by agents
ii. Loss of hybrid vigor. which include:
iii. Undesirable characteristics are 1. Insects.
retained/ transmitted to the offspring.
2. Wind.
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Adaptations of insect pollinated 5. Anthers produce pollen grains

(entomophilous) flowers. which are large, spiky/ sticky to
attach/ stick to the insect’s body.
1. The flowers are large, conspicuous
with brightly colored petals, 6. The stigmas are small, sticky and
inflorescence or bracts (modified occur inside the flower so that
leaf e.g. in bougainvillea) to attract pollen grains from the body of
insects. insect stick onto them.
2. They have nectary guides that direct 7. They have special shaped corolla
insects into nectaries which secrete tube to enable insects land.
nectar.
3. They are scented and produce nectar
to attract insects.
4. Anther are located inside the flowers
to ensure that they get into contact
with insect.

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Adaptations of wind pollinated 4. Pollen grains are small, light and

(anemophilous) flowers e.g. maize. smooth and hence can easily be
1. The flowers are small with blown by air currents without
inconspicuous petals,dull coloured sticking together.
bracts or inflorescence. 5. The pollen grains are dry so that
2. They lack nectaries and are not sweet they are easily picked up and
scented, lacking the scent bait to blown over greater distances by
attract insects. wind.
3. Have stigma which are large, long, 6. Flowers are irregular in shape
feathery and hang outside the flowers with male parts exposed for
to increase the surface area for easy transfer of pollen grains by
trapping pollen grains in air. wind.
7. Anthers are large and loosely
attached to the filament so that
the slightest air movement can
shake them to disperse the
pollen grains.
© Sam obare
25-Feb-21
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSECT AND WIND POLLINATED
FLOWERS.
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Insect pollinated Wind pollinated

1. Flowers are large with brightly 1. Flowers have dull petals.
colored petals/corolla. 2. They are unscented.
2. They are usually scented. 3. They do not produce nectar
3. They produce nectar. 4. They have large and feathery
4. They have small and sticky stigma stigma hanging outside the
found inside the flower. flower.
5. Anthers are small and firmly 5. Anthers are large and loosely
attached to filament. attached to the filament.
6. Fewer pollen grains are 6. Many pollen grains are produced.
produced.
7. Pollen grains are small, smooth
7. Pollen grains are large, heavy and and light so that they float in air.
sticky so that they stick to insects.
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Features and mechanisms that 3. Protogny- this is a situation where the

promote cross pollination/ hinder stigma matures earlier and is ready to
self pollination and fertilization. receive pollen grains before the anthers
1. Monoecism- plants have the male are ripe enough to shed the pollen
and female flower parts at different grains e.g. maize.
parts of the same plant e.g. maize 4. Self - sterility or incompatibility -
plant. This is where pollen grains from the
 There are risks of self pollination but anthers fail to germinate on the stigma
they have natural mechanisms of of the same plant e.g. maize. This
preventing self-pollination. ensures that self fertilization does not
occur.
2. Protandry- this is a situation where
the male parts/ stamens mature
earlier and anthers release pollen grains
before the stigma is mature enough to
receive them e.g. in sunflower.
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5. Dioecism- plants have male and

female flowers on different plants
e.g. pawpaw plant.
6. Heterostyly- this is where the
stigma is above the anthers so that
pollen grains do not reach them.
Ways in which plants promote self
pollination.
1. Having both male and female parts
on the same flower.
2. Anthers and stigma mature at the
same time.
3. Flowers remain closed and open
after fertilization.

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Fertilization in plants.
 Fertilization is the fusion of a male
nucleus and female nucleus to form a
zygote.
 In the male gamete is contained in
the pollen grain produced in the
anther while the female gamete (egg
cell) is found in the ovules found
within the embryo sac.
 The synergids provide nourishment
to the egg cell.

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The process of fertilization in  As the pollen tube continues to

flowering plants. grow downwards, the generative
 Pollen grain lands and sticks onto the nucleus divides mitotically into two
stigma. male gamete nuclei.
 The surface of the stigma produces a  The pollen tube grows through the
sticky chemical substance which ovary wall, reaches the ovules and
stimulates the pollen grains to enters the embryo sac through the
germinate and form a pollen tube. micropyle.
 The pollen tube grows down the style,  At this stage, the tip of the pollen
carrying with it the male gametes tube bursts open and the tube
(tube nucleus and generative nucleus) nucleus disintegrates to release the
and it gets nutrients from the two male nuclei which enter
surrounding tissues. embryo sac.
 As the pollen tube germinates, the
tube nucleus occupies a position at the
tip of growing pollen tube while the
generative nucleus follows behind the
tube nucleus. © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
© Sam obare
25-Feb-21
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 One male nucleus / one of the male Changes /events that take place after
nuclei fuses with the egg cell nucleus fertilization.
and forms the diploid zygote. The  The zygote undergoes mitotic division to
other male gamete nucleus fuses with from the embryo which differentiates into
the two polar nuclei to form a the plumule (which grows to from a
triploid endosperm nucleus. The shoot) and radicle (which grows to
process is called double fertilization. form a root).
 The triploid primary nucleus
Roles/ functions of pollen tube undergoes mitosis to form endosperm
1. It is a pathway through which male tissue for storage of food.
gametes reach the embryo sac to enhance  The fertilized ovary develops into a fruit, the
fertilization. ovary wall becomes the fruit wall (pericarp).
2. It prevents other pollen grains from  The ovules develop into seeds.
germinating/ developing into pollen  The integuments form the testa/seed coat.
tubes hence preventing multiple  Style, stigma and stamens dry up and fall off.
fertilization.  The calyx persists or it may dry up and fall
off.
 The style leaves a scar on the fruit wall.
Embryo sac

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Study question.  Flower Q produced seeds while P

 The diagram below represents an did not. Account for the results.
experimental set-up used by  The flower/plant is self
students to investigate a certain sterile/not successfully self
process. pollinated.
 The covering prevents
pollination in flower P while
flower Q received pollen grains
from other plants/ cross
pollination leading to
fertilization.

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FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION.  The integuments form a

a) Development of the seed testa/seed coat which surround
the cotyledons.
 The diploid zygote undergoes
mitosis to form an embryo. The  The testa has a scar called hilum
embryo has three parts: plumule which is the point of attachment
(young shoot), radicle (young to the placenta
root) and one or two cotyledons.  The embryo then completely
 The triploid primary endosperm
separates from the endosperm by
nucleus undergoes mitosis to a membrane leaving an opening
form the endosperm tissue. called micropyle which allows
entry of water into the seed.
 The ovule becomes a seed and the
ovary becomes the fruit.  It loses water, dries and hardens
ready for dispersal.

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b) Development of fruit. Differences between a seed

 The ovary forms the fruit. and fruit.
 The ovary wall develops to form the 1. A seed is covered by a
pericarp which differentiates into testa/seed coat while a fruit is
epicarp/exocarp, mesocarp and covered with pericarp.
endocarp. 2. A seed has one scar/hilum
 Some fruits e.g. pineapples and bananas while a fruit has two scars
develop without fertilization. This is (where it was attached to the
called parthenocarpy fruit stalk and style.
 A true fruit is formed from the ovary 3. A seed is formed from ovule
e.g. mangoes and beans. while the fruit is formed from
 A false fruit is formed when other ovary.
flower parts e.g. receptacle enlarges and
encloses the ovary or ovaries e.g. apple,
pineapple, straw berry.

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Coleorhiza
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Study questions. 2. Name three structures

1. Name four changes that occur that wither off after
in the flower after fertilization. fertilization.
 Ovary form a fruit.
 Petals/ corolla.
 Ovule develops into a seed.
 Stamens (filament and
anther).
 Ovary wall forms pericarp.
 Style.
 Integuments form a seed
coat/ testa.
 Zygote forms embryo.
 Primary endosperm nucleus

develops into endosperm.

73
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. b) Drupe- Has thin epicarp,

 They are broadly classified as
fleshy and fibrous mesocarp,
succulent fruits and dry fruits. hard stony endocarp
enclosing a seed/ contain
1. SUCCULENT FRUITS- one seed for example
They are juicy/fleshy. They mangoes, coconut and
include: avocados.
a) Berry- Has fleshy/
succulent pericarp (epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp)
with many/ several seeds e.g.
tomatoes, oranges, mangoes,
bananas, pineapples, passion,
pumpkin, .
a) Berry.
74

b) Drupe.
75
Seed
76
2. DRY FRUITS- They have low b) Indehiscent fruits-They

moisture content. They are further do not split open and release
classified into Dehiscent fruits and the seeds even if they are
Indehiscent fruits. dry.
a) Dehiscent fruits- They are
dry fruits that split open and
release seeds when mature.

Types of dehiscent fruits.
77
1. Legumes/pod- Has two

lines of weaknesses/sutures
hence split and open into
two halves e.g. beans, peas,
crotalaria.

78
2. Capsules- Has a dry pericarp and

dehisces along many lines of
weaknesses/sutures e.g. Cotton,
Datura stramoniun, poppy.

79
3. Schizocarp- A ripe fruit

breaks up into small one
seeded parts/fragments
called mericarps e.g. castor
oil and desmodium.

Types of indehiscent fruits
80
1. Caryopsis- In this the

seed coat and the
pericarp are fused to
form the testa e.g. maize
grain wheat grain, rice
grain e.t.c.

81
2. Nuts- A nut is one

seeded fruit whose
pericarp is stony/hard
and separate from seed
coat e.g. cashew nuts.

82
3. Cypsela- It is one seeded

fruit where the seed is free
from the pericarp e.g. Black
jack (Bidens pilosa).
 It is produced by many
composite flowers.
 The calyx persists in form of
spines or hairs that help in
animal dispersal.

83
PLACENTATION.
 This is the arrangement of
seeds/ovules in the
ovary/seed.
Types of placentation.
1. Marginal placentation-
The placenta appears as one
ridge/ridge and the
seeds/ovules are arranged in
one row e.g. beans in a pod.

84
2. Basal placentation-
In this the placenta is
formed at the base of
the ovary and seeds
attached to it e.g. in
sunflower.

85
3. Parietal placentation-
Seeds are attached to the
placenta on the periphery
of the fruit wall e.g.
pawpaw, passion fruits.

86
4. Axial/ axile placentation- In this

the seeds/ovules are attached to the
placenta located at the centre e.g.
tomatoes, oranges, lemons, banana.

87
5. Free placentation- In
this, seeds/ovules are
almost free in the fruit
e.g. tomatoes.

88
FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL. Methods of fruit and seed

 Dispersal is the process by which seeds dispersal.
and fruits are spread from parent plant to a  They include:
new location. A. Wind dispersal.
Advantages of dispersal. B. Water dispersal.
i. It prevents overcrowding that leads to C. Animal dispersal.
competition for light, water, space etc.
D. Self mechanism/self
ii. It ensures that seeds reach new explosive mechanism.
environments which may be suitable for
their growth.
Disadvantages of dispersal.
 Some seeds/fruits may be dispersed to
areas unsuitable for germination.
89
A. Wind dispersal. 2. Seeds and fruits are small and light

 In this, wind acts as an agent of fruit
(e.g. Nandi flame seed) to be easily
and seed dispersal. carried by air currents.
Adaptations of seeds and fruits to 3. Some fruits have open/perforated
wind dispersal. capsules attached on long stalks
which are swayed by wind
1. Some seeds have developed hairy scattering the seeds (e.g. sycamore
structures, feather-like seeds).
projections (e.g. cotton seed),
wing-like structures (e.g.
Jacaranda seed, Nandi flame
seed) which increase their
surface area to be carried away
by wind/ to be blown about by
wind.

Examples of seeds dispersed by wind.
90
g. Milk weed seed
h. Sycamore seed

91
B. ANIMAL DISPERSAL- 4. Some fruits are brightly colored (e.g.

 Animals are used as agents of dispersal. tomatoes) to attract/be easily seen by
animals.
Adaptations of fruits/seeds to animal
dispersal. 5. Some seeds have a hard/ tough testa
(seed coat) with sticky/ mucoid/ slimy
1. Some fruits have hooks/spikes (e.g. secretions (e.g. passion seeds and guava
black jack) to stick/attach to the animal’s seeds) making them resistant to digestive
body. enzymes hence pass out through the gut
2. Some fruits are succulent/ fleshy/juicy undigested/pass out with faeces.
(e.g. tomatoes, oranges) hence they 6. Some fruits have sweet smell/aroma/are
attract animals which eat them and carry scented (e.g. bananas) to attract animals.
them away from the parent plant.
3. Some fruits are in clusters (e.g. straw
berries)/large/ conspicuous ( e.g.
avocado) to attract/be easily seen by
animals.
Examples of fruits/seeds dispersed by animals.

92
Tomato fruit
Avocado fruit
Black jack(Bidens pilosa)

Lemon/orange
93
C. WATER DISPERSAL- 3. Some fruits (e.g. water lily)

 Water acts as an agent of
produce seeds whose seed
dispersal. coats trap air bubbles making
them float on water.
Adaptations of seeds/fruits
to water dispersal. 4. Fruits and seeds e.g. coconut
have water proof pericarp and
1. Some fruits and seeds are seed testa respectively hence
light to float on water. remain afloat without
2. Some fruits (e.g. coconut) sinking/soaking.
have fibrous spongy
mesocarps to accumulate/
trap air making them buoyant
or for floating on water.

94
D. SELF DISPERSAL
MECHANISM/ self explosive
mechanism/ explosive
mechanism- Some fruits (e.g.
legumes/pods) have lines of
weakness (sutures) which split open
when dry scattering/ throwing away the
seeds.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS.
95
 It involves fusion of male gamete/sperm A. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION.

and female gamete/egg/ovum forming a  It occurs in amphibians (e.g. frogs/
zygote/fertilized egg. toads) and fish
 Male gametes/sperms are formed in the
 It takes place in water. The female lays
testes while female gametes/ova are eggs and the male sheds sperms on the
formed in the ovaries. eggs as they are laid to fertilize them.
 The nucleus of sperm fuse with the This leads to fertilization outside the
nucleus of ovum to form a diploid zygote. body.
This process is called fertilization.
Types of fertilization.
A. External fertilization in amphibians and
fish.
B. Internal fertilization.

96
 Many/ large number of eggs  The eggs are laid in a jelly like
are laid to increase the chances substance which:
of survival because some eggs i) Protects the eggs.
could be eaten by animals of
attacked by bacteria. ii) Prevents the predators from
feeding on the eggs.
 During mating season in frogs
and toads, the males croak at iii) Separates the eggs from each
night to attract the females. other allowing good aeration.
 While mating the males mount iv) Attaches the eggs to water
on female and sheds sperms as plant and makes them
female lays eggs. This is to buoyant.
increase the chances of
fertilization.

97

98
B. Internal fertilization. Disadvantages of internal

 It takes place in reptiles, birds fertilization.
and mammals. 1. Pregnant mother are
 Male and female gametes fuse/ susceptible to predators
fertilization takes place inside 2. Mothers may die during
the body of female. giving birth
 The female produces fewer 3. The disease affecting the
number of eggs than males mother may be transmitted to
because there are higher the young ones
chances of fertilization as the 4. Young ones may deplete the
sperms are deposited into the mother’s nutrients
female body and protection of
gametes and fertilized eggs/
zygotes are higher.

99
Study questions. 2. Give reasons why frog eggs

1. Explain why a female frog have the jelly-like substance.
lays many eggs.  For protection.
 This is to increase the chances of  Prevents the predators from feeding
survival because many eggs may die on the eggs.
through predation, drying. Some  Separates the eggs from each other
eggs may rot due to bacterial attack allowing good aeration.
and others fail to be fertilized.
 Attaches the eggs to water plant and
makes them buoyant.

Differences between external and internal fertilization.
100
External fertilization Internal fertilization

1. It occurs outside the body. 1. It occurs inside the body of
female animals.
2. Many eggs are laid. 2. Fewer eggs are released.
3. There is usually less contact 3. There is close contact between
between males and females. males and females through
copulation.
4. Fertilized and unfertilized eggs
4. Both fertilized and unfertilized are enclosed hence highly
eggs are exposed to danger e.g. protected inside the body of
predation, desiccation. females.

101
REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS. c) Viviparity- the embryo develops

 Fertilization occurs internally and within the mother and obtains
the egg is either laid or develops nourishment directly from the
within the female’s body in the mother’s body. The young ones are
uterus/ womb. born alive e.g. human beings.
a) Oviparity- the embryo develops  In some mammals, embryo
outside the body of females e.g. in develops to a certain stage and then
duck-billed platypus. released into a structure called a
pouch where it develops fully e.g. in
b) Oviviparity- the embryo kangaroo.
develops within the female’s body
and is nourished by the egg yolk.
The young ones are born alive e.g.
some fish and reptiles.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
102

105
Adaptations of parts of female 3. Uterus/womb- It has

reproductive system. muscular walls (myometrium)
that contract facilitating
1. Ovary- it has secretory cells that parturition.
secrete female sex hormones e.g.
oestrogen and progesterone.  The muscular walls are also able
to expand as the embryo develops
 It has a germinal epithelium which and return to its original size after
produces the eggs/ ova. birth.
2. Fallopian tube/ oviduct- this is  It has endometrium/inner wall
where fertilization takes place. with dense network of capillaries
 It is funnel shaped to receive the to facilitate implantation and
ovum after ovulation. nourishment of the embryo.
 It has cilia which waft the ovum
moving it towards the uterus.
 It has smooth muscles which contract
to help in movement of the ovum.
106
4. Cervix- It is a muscular ring Ways in which sperms move within

which close to keep the fetus the female reproductive system.
within the womb. i. By help of a tail in the fluid medium
 It secretes a plug of mucus which of the female reproductive system.
prevents entry of pathogens into the ii. They are attracted by the chemical
uterus during pregnancy. produced by the ovum.
5. Vagina/birth canal and iii. Muscular/peristaltic contraction of
vulva- the vagina is tubular/ uterine walls.
hollow thus allows passage of the
foetus during parturition. Ways in which the ovum moves
within the fallopian tube.
 The walls of vulva have vestibular
glands (Bartholin's glands) i. The cilia beats/wafts the egg
that secrete mucus when the female facilitating movement.
is sexually for lubrication of vagina ii. By contraction of smooth muscles
during copulation. of the fallopian tube.

25-Feb-21
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

107
Foreskin
Glans
© Sam obare
Foreskin

Adaptations of parts of male
reproductive system
109
1. The penis is made up of spongy tissue  The testes also have

and blood vessels which fill with blood interstitial cells which
causing it to erect to facilitate copulation. produce male hormones called
androgens. The main
2. The testes are protected by scrotum
androgen is testosterone.
and are made up of several and highly
coiled seminiferous tubules which 3. The Epididymis is highly
provide a large surface area for sperm coiled to provide a large
production. surface area for storage of
sperms.
 The testes have sertoli cells that
nourish the sperms. The testes are located
to hang outside the body to provide a
cooler environment for sperm production.

110
4. The Seminal vesicle 6. The Cowper’s gland (located

(connected to the sperm below the prostate gland) secretes
duct a short distance from an alkaline fluid to neutralize the
where the sperm duct acidity along the urethra (caused by
enters the urethra)secretes pH variations of urine).
an alkaline fluid which  The alkaline fluid and sperms form
contains nutrients for the semen.
sperms.
7. The Sperm duct/ vas deferens
5. The Prostate gland (is is tubular connecting the
located at the junction epididymis and urethra and is used
between the sperm duct and for passage of sperms/ acts as
urethra) secretes an alkaline ejaculatory duct.
fluid to neutralize the
vaginal fluids and activate 8. The Urethra is tubular to expel
the sperms. urine and semen (hence said to
have urino-genital role).

Spermatozoa (sperms)
111
©Sam obare 25-Feb-21

112
ADAPTATIONS OF THE SPERM 4. The long tail which lashes side

CELL. by side to propel the sperm
1. The head contains a large haploid forward.
nucleus which carries genetic 5. The shot neck has centrioles for
material. controlling axial filaments
2. Acrosome contains lytic enzymes,
which digest the membranes of the
egg for the sperm to penetrate and
effect fertilization.
3. The middle piece contains
numerous mitochondria which
provide energy for the propulsion of
the sperm to reach the egg.
Ovum/egg cell/female gamete.
113

114
ADAPTATION OF AN 4. It has large cytoplasm

OVUM/EGG CELL. which contains stored food
1. It has follicle cells to substances that nourish the
nourish the ovum. embryo before implantation.
2. It has vitelline 5. It has cell membrane
membrane which thickens which encloses contents of
after penetration of the first the egg and allows selective
sperm preventing entry of movement of substances in
other sperms. and out of ovum.
3. It has nucleus which
contains genetic material
and fuses with the nucleus of
sperm to form zygote.

115
Development of the ovum.  During puberty primary

 Egg formation in the ovary is
follicles develop into Graafian
called oogenesis. follicle that contains mature
ovum.
 Egg formation begins in the
ovary of the foetus before  Ova are at different levels of
birth. At birth, there are about development such that one
70,000 potential eggs in the Graafian follicle matures every
ovary of a baby girl but only month.
500 ova eventually develop  At ovulation the Graafian
after puberty. follicle bursts to release the
 At birth eggs are enclosed by a
mature egg surrounded by a
layer of primary follicles which layer of follicle cells.
provide nourishment.

Mature ovum

Differences between the sperm and ovum.
117
Sperm. Ovum.
1. It has a tail and 1. It lacks a tail and
acrosome. acrosome.
2. It is smaller in size. 2. It is relatively larger in
size.
3. It has less food reserve.
3. Has more food reserve.
4. It is motile/mobile 4. It is immotile/non-
5. Has prominent nucleus motile
and negligible 5. Has large amount of
cytoplasm cytoplasm
118
The process of fertilization in man.  The vitelline membrane then

 Fertilization is the fusion of male undergoes a change which stops any
and female gametes and it occurs in other sperm from entering the
the oviduct/fallopian tube. ovum.
 When the sperm comes into  Once the head is in the cytoplasm,
contact with the egg, the acrosome it bursts to release the male nucleus
bursts open and releases lytic which fuses with the female nucleus
enzymes, which dissolve the to form a diploid zygote.
vitelline/ egg membrane and also  After ovulation, the ovum can
disperse the follicle cells remain viable for 8-24 hours before
surrounding the egg cell. it dies while the sperms can remain
 The acrosome forms a fine filament viable for 2-3 days within the
that is used to penetrate the egg female reproductive system before
hence head of the sperm enters the they die.
ovum and the tail is left outside the
ovum.

121
The significance of producing a large Reason why fertilization must

number of sperms yet it is only one take place in the fallopian
that fertilizes the ovum. tube/ oviduct but not in the
 This is because many die before reaching uterus.
the ovum due to:  The ovum can take up to 7 days
1. Inappropriate temperature for to travel through the oviduct to
production in the testes and storage the uterus. By then it would be
in the epididymis. dead because it survives for 8-
24 hours after release from the
2. Inappropriate pH (e.g. acidity) in the ovary.
female reproductive tract.
3. Others deplete their energy before
reaching the ovum because the
distance between the vagina and
oviduct is long.
4. The egg produces a chemical that
inactivates the sperms.
123
Changes that take place after  The attachment of the

fertilization. blastocyst to the wall of the
uterus/endometrium is called
(a) Zygote. implantation.
 It moves along the oviduct to the
 After implantation the
uterus by help of cilia and blastocyst develops into
contraction of the oviduct smooth embryo.
muscles.
 The embryo uses the villi to
 It undergoes mitotic division
absorb nutrients from the
forming a hollow structure with endometrium.
several cells called blastocyst.
 The villi and endometrium
 The blastocyst develops fingerlike
develop into placenta
projections called villi which attach
it to the endometrium.

124
 The movement of the zygote from FORMATION OF PLACENTA.

the oviduct until it is implanted
lasts for about 7 days.  During implantation, the
blastocyst differentiates into 3
 Sometimes the zygote fails to
layers;
move down the oviduct to the
uterus but instead gets implanted 1. Chorion- the outermost
into the walls of the oviduct. This membrane which develops
is called ectopic pregnancy chorionic villi which grow
which is deadly if it is not into the endometrium.
surgically removed as soon as
 During early stages of embryo
possible.
development the villi form
(b)Uterus sites for exchange of materials
 The uterus lining/ endometrium between the embryo and
thickens. maternal blood vessels in the
 There is increased blood supply. uterine lining.

125
2. Amnion- which surrounds the b) Umbilical artery – which

embryo forming amniotic cavity brings blood to the placenta
in which the embryo lies. from the foetus with high
 The amnion secretes amniotic fluid amount carbon (IV) oxide and
which fills the amniotic cavity. nitrogenous wastes e.g. urea
but low nutrients and oxygen.
3. Allantois- together with
chorionic villi and endometrium  Carbon (IV) oxide in the foetal
it forms the placenta which is blood diffuses across the
connected to foetus by placenta into maternal blood,
umbilical cord. it accumulates in the uterine
vein which transports it away
 The umbilical cord has: from the uterus.
a) Umbilical vein- which carries
blood into the foetus rich in
oxygen and nutrients.

127
Role of amniotic fluid. 4. Prevents the foetus from

1. Protects the foetus against drying.
mechanical damage/ 5. It ensures constant
injury/acts as a shock temperature within the
absorber. womb.
2. Provides a medium for 6. Equalize pressure around the
foetus to move about/ foetus.
suspends the embryo Materials that are not
providing it with support. allowed to pass through the
3. It is a source of nourishment placenta.
for the foetus within the 1. All blood cells.
first 3 months of pregnancy.
2. Plasma proteins.
3. Most bacteria.

128
Materials that pass from foetus 3. Vitamins.

to mother. 4. Mineral salts.
1. Carbon (IV) oxide. 5. Hormones.
2. Nitrogenous waste products/ 6. Water.
urea.
7. Antibodies and antigens.
Materials that pass from mother
8. Drugs, alcohol and some
to foetus.
chemicals from cigarette.
1. Oxygen
2. Digested food substances
(glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, glycerol)
129
Role of the placenta Adaptations of the placenta to its

function. / How is the placenta
1. It allows passage of nutrients from the suited to its functions?
mother to the foetus for growth and
development. 1. Has numerous capillaries/highly
vascularized to increase
2. It allows diffusion of gases between the concentration gradient for
mother and foetus. efficient exchange of materials.
3. It secretes hormones e.g. progesterone, 2. It has a thin membrane for faster
oestrogen, human chorionic diffusion of materials/reduce the
gonadotrophin (HCG) distance travelled by substances.
4. Prevents destruction of delicate blood 3. It has numerous (chorionic) villi
vessels of the foetus and prevents entry to increase the surface area of
of pathogens into the foetus. diffusion of substances.

130
4. It has selective membrane Note.

which allows selective  The foetal blood does not mix with
diffusion of substances. maternal blood in the placenta
5. It is glandular to secrete because there is no direct
hormones e.g. connection between the foetal
progesterone, oestrogen. blood system and that of the
mother. This is important because:
6. Has counter current flow
of maternal and foetal 1. It ensures that no agglutination
blood to maintain steep occurs in foetal red blood cells
concentrated gradient due to incompatible blood
groups of the mother and foetus,
hence efficient diffusion of
both ABO and Rhesus antigens.
substances.

131
2. It ensures that the foetus delicate TERMS RELATED TO

blood vessels are not REPRODUCTION.
destroyed/do not burst by the 1. Gestation period: this is a
high pressure in the mother’s/ period between conception and
maternal circulatory system. birth.
3. It prevents the transfer of 2. Miscarriage: This is natural
pathogens from mother into termination of pregnancy before
foetus. completion of six months. The
4. It prevents the transfer of waste baby will not survive.
products from maternal blood 3. Abortion: Intentional
into the foetus termination of pregnancy either
chemically or physically.

132
4. Premature birth: If birth occurs after 6. Siamese twins: these are identical
7 months but before the full term, the twins who develop without separating
birth is called premature birth. completely so that they are born with
 The baby can survive if it has attained a some parts fused
certain weight or else it will be cared for 7. Dizygotic or fraternal twins:
in incubators. These are as a result of simultaneous
5. Monozygotic or identical twins: release of two or more ova, which are
These are as a result of a fertilized egg that fertilized independently.
divides into two independent parts in the  Such twins may be of the same or of
early stages of development, which different sex. They are genetically
proceed to develop into two separate
embryos. different and have the same degree of
resemblance as that of other brothers
 Such twins are of the same sex. They are and sisters born at different times.
genetically identical and are completely
alike.

PREGNANCY/GESTATION PERIOD.
136
 This is a period between conception and birth.  The heart and blood vessels are among the
It lasts for 9 months (38-40 weeks). first organs to form in the embryo because
 The signs of pregnancy include: blood is needed in all the developing body
parts to supply oxygen, nutrients and also
1. Laboratory test for the presence of Human remove metabolic wastes.
Chorionic Gonadotrophin hormone (HCG)
in blood.  The corpus luteum (yellow body) in
the ovary persists and continues to secrete
2. Failure of menstruation after sexual progesterone during the first 4 months of
intercourse. pregnancy.
3. Morning sickness/ nausea/ vomiting.  After 4 months, the placenta takes over
4. Gradual enlargement of breasts. producing the hormone. Therefore even if
the ovaries are removed after 4 months,
 During this time, the zygote develops into an
there would be no effect on pregnancy.
embryo and further into foetus (at 3
months when all organs and tissues are
fully developed), the foetus then develops
into a baby ready to be born.
137
 Progesterone keeps pregnancy by  At 9 months, the head is directly above

maintaining a thickened and highly
vascularized inner lining the cervix/facing downwards and
(endometrium) hence providing dilation of cervix hence a sign of near
nourishment to the foetus. parturition.
 Menstruation should stop during  During pregnancy, the pregnant
pregnancy to ensure that the inner wall
(endometrium) remains intact which is mother should avoid the following
essential for the development of the which may damage the foetus:
foetus.
i. Vigorous physical exercises.
 If menstruation occurs it will lead to
miscarriage. ii. Smoking (cigarette).
 The pregnant mother should have a iii. Intake of alcohol.
balanced diet with plenty of proteins
for growth and development of
embryo, calcium and phosphorus
for bone formation and iron for
formation of haemoglobin.
PARTURITION/BIRTH.
138
 It is brought about by Dilation of  This is accompanied by some pains

cervix and strong contractions hence called labour pains.
of the uterus and abdominal  Oxytocin also stimulates milk let down
walls. by the mammary glands.
 At delivery the pituitary glands also  The placenta also secretes Relaxin
secrete prolactin hormone hormone prior to labour which causes
which stimulates the secretion of the ligaments within the pelvic girdle to
milk by the secretory cells of the loosen, providing a more flexible
mammary glands. passage for the baby during delivery.
 The contraction of the myometrium
 Towards the end of pregnancy, the is accompanied by dilation of the
level of progesterone falls. This cervix, rapture of amnion and
causes the pituitary gland to chorion releasing the amniotic fluid.
secrete oxytocin hormone.
 Oxytocin stimulates the
myometrium to contract providing
the force to expel the foetus from
the uterus.
139
 The contraction of uterus pushes  After birth, the baby cries

the foetus downwards, head first immediately because of fall in body
through the widened cervix into the temperature. Crying is important
birth canal. because it stimulates the breathing
 After birth the umbilical cord is tied system and expands the lungs so
and cut to separate the baby from that the baby starts breathing.
the placenta. The placenta is later
expelled as after birth.
 Incase of difficult in normal
delivery, surgical operation is done
on the abdominal and uterine walls
for delivery of the baby. This is
called caesarean delivery.

PARENTAL CARE.
140
3. It contains antibodies which provide

 It is the attention given to the new passive immunity to the foetus.
born by providing food/ milk
4. Reduces chances of infections since
protection and providing favourable no preparation is needed.
conditions for growth.  Various stimuli e.g. cry of the baby,
 At delivery the pituitary glands also smell, suckling and sight of the baby
stimulates hypothalamus of the
secrete prolactin hormone which mother to send impulse to the
stimulates the secretion of milk by the pituitary gland which secretes
secretory cells of the mammary glands. oxytocin hormone.
 Oxytocin hormone stimulates
 Mother's milk is the best food for the contraction of muscles of mammary
offspring because: glands allowing milk let-down to the
nipple where the baby sucks from.
1. It does not require mechanical
 Milk let-down is inhibited by
breakdown for it is in a liquid form distraction, embarrassment, anxiety
that is easy to swallow. of fatigue.
2. It contains all nutrients required for
growth and in the right amounts. © Sam obare 25-Feb-21
ROLE OF HORMONES IN DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY
SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS.
141
 The presence of vagina and penis is used to 1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- which
differentiate between a baby boy or girl. stimulates synthesis and maturation of sperms.
These physical characteristics are called 2. Luteinizing hormone (LH)/interstitial cell
primary sexual characteristics. stimulating hormone (ICSH)- stimulates the
 At puberty (at age of 12 years in girls and interstitial cells to produce male hormones called
14 years in boys), other features develop androgens and the main androgen is
that distinguish males and females. Testosterone.
 They are controlled by oestrogen hormone  Testosterone stimulates the development of
in females and androgens in males hence secondary sexual characteristics which include:
called secondary sexual a) Deepening of voice.
characteristics.
Secondary sexual characteristics in b) Growth of beards and hair in pubic area
males. c) Enlargement of testes and penis.
 In males secondary sexual characteristics d) Broadening of shoulders.
begin to show at the age of 14 years. The e) Enlargement of muscles around the chest and
sex hormones / gonadotrophins produced shoulders.
are:
f) Production of sperms.

142
Secondary sexual characteristics in b) Follicle stimulating hormone

females. (FSH)- which stimulates the ovary
to release the hormone oestrogen.
 In females secondary sexual characteristics Oestrogen stimulates the
begin to show at the age of 10-12 years. development of Graafian follicle in
the ovary and development of
The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary secondary sexual characteristics.
gland to release gonadotrophins which  Secondary sexual characteristics in
include: females include:
a) Luteinizing hormone (LH)- which i) Enlargement of pelvic girdle.
stimulates mature Graafian follicle to ii) Widening of hips.
release a mature ovum in the process iii) Growth of hair in pubic and armpit
called ovulation. regions.
iv) The ovaries mature and start
releasing eggs and the girls begin to
menstruate.
B. ROLE OF HORMONES IN MENSTRUATION IN
FEMALES.
143
 Gamete production in females is cyclical Role

after every 28 days hence called  After/ at the onset of menstruation, (the
menstrual cycle. anterior lobe of) pituitary gland secretes
 It begins with menses i.e. discharge of Follicle Stimulating Hormone
blood and tissue debris from the uterus (FSH) which:
which takes place for 5-7 days. Before 1) Causes/ stimulates the Graafian
menses the females experience follicle to develop in the ovary. The
abdominal pain, back pains and nausea. graafian follicle contains the ovum.
 The events of menstrual cycle involves 2) Stimulates the ovary tissues to secrete
the ovaries (ovarian cycle) and in the Oestrogen hormone.
uterus (uterine cycle) controlled by
pituitary gonadotrophins.

144
 Oestrogen hormone has the following  Luteinising hormone has the

effects: following effects:
1) Brings about/ causes/ stimulates 1) It stimulates the maturation of
repair and healing of endometrium/ Graafian follicle.
uterine lining (after menstruation).
2) It stimulates or causes
2) Its concentration increases to a level
which stimulates the (anterior lobe
ovulation/stimulates the Graafian
of the) pituitary gland to secrete follicle to burst releasing the ovum.
Luteinizing hormone. 3) It stimulates the remains of
3) Its concentration increases to a level Graafian follicle to form a yellow
which stops further secretion of body (Corpus luteum) in the ovary.
Follicle stimulating hormone. 4) It stimulates the corpus luteum to
secrete progesterone.
145
 Progesterone has the following effects:  Degeneration of corpus luteum

1) It stimulates thickening of reduces the amount of progesterone.
endometrium/ inner lining of uterine  The sudden drop in secretion of
wall in readiness for implantation. progesterone causes the
2) As the level of progesterone increases it endometrium to slough off/
inhibits the pituitary gland from menstruation occurs. The cycle is
secreting follicle stimulating hormone. then repeated.
3) Further increase in progesterone level
inhibits the pituitary gland from
secreting Luteinizing hormone.
4) Further increase in progesterone level
causes the corpus luteum to
degenerate.

146
 Ovulation and hormonal  The hormone is excreted

imbalance causes a rise in through urine. The presence of
temperature during this hormone in urine is used to
menstruation. confirm pregnancy during a
 During pregnancy the implanted pregnancy test.
embryo produce another
hormone called human
chorion gonadotropic
hormone (HCG) which is sent
to ovary to sustain corpus
luteum.

Study question
149
 The figure shows changes that take a) Name the hormone whose
place during menstrual cycle in concentrations are represented by
humans. curves F and G.
 F- Oestrogen.
 G- Progesterone.
a) State the effects of the hormones
named in (a) above on the lining of
the uterus.
 Oestrogen-Promotes healing and
repair.
 Progesterone -Causes thickening and
increased blood supply
/vascularisation.
150
c) (i) Name the hormone which is d) State the fertile period during the
released by the pituitary gland in menstrual cycle.
high concentration on the 14th  12th-16th.
day of the menstrual cycle.
e) State the dietary requirements that
 Luteinizing hormone.
maintain the menstrual cycle.
(ii) State two functions of the  Iron for the formation of
hormone named in (c) (I ) above. haemoglobin.
 Causes / stimulates
 Vitamin K for blood clotting to
ovulation. prevent prolonged bleeding.
 Stimulates graafian
 Vitamin C to heal the uterine wall
follicle to become corpus
and absorption of iron.
luteum.
 Stimulates corpus luteum
to release progesterone.
151
f) State the factors that change the menstrual Symptoms

cycle.
1. Night sweat.
 Change in diet. 2. Random hot flashes during the day.
 Stress. 3. Changes in mood that shows depression.
 Disease infection. 4. Fatigue.
 Emotions. 5. Vaginal dryness.
Menopause 6. Loss of minerals e.g. Calcium. This
leads to softening of bone, a condition
 This is the permanent end of menstruation called osteoporosis.
and fertility. It may begin between the age of
40 and 50.
 It is a gradual process signified by :
i) Decrease in number of graafian follicles,
ii) The follicles become less sensitive to
follicle stimulating hormone,
iii) Secretion of oestrogen declines.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES.
1. HIV and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome)
152
a) Cause.Caused by the HIV c) Symptoms.

(Human Immunodeficiency i. Swollen lymph glands.
Virus).
ii. Diarrhoea, fever, sweating and
b) Mode of transmission. body fatigue.
 Sexual intercourse with an infected iii. Sudden weight loss.
person.
iv. Persistent cough.
 Sharing of contaminated needles
with infected people. v. Generalized skin infections.
 Blood transfusion with infected

blood.
 From infected mother to child
during birth or through breast milk.

153
Prevention and control of HIV and 4. Screening of blood before

AIDS transfusion.
1. Abstaining from sexual 5. Use of antiretroviral (ARV)drugs
intercourse before marriage. by those affected.
2. Correct and consistent use of 6. Sex education to enlighten the
male and female condoms. public on socio-economic effects
3. Have one faithful sexual HIV/ AIDS.
partner/ avoid multiple sexual 7. Public health interventions to
partners curb/ stop the spread of HIV.

154
8. Avoid risky cultural practices e.g. 11. Avoid sharing surgical and piercing
female genital mutilation, instruments e.g. ear piercing and sharing
traditional male circumcision and of needles by drug users.
wife inheritance. 12. Promote male circumcision to reduce
9. Use of bottle feeding instead of the risk of contracting HIV.
breast feeding for babies. 13. Encourage people to know their HIV
10. Enforce laws that make it an status hence minimize the spread.
offence to spread HIV intentionally.

155
Study question 4. Commercial sex/ prostitution due to

unemployment.
a) Give the possible reasons
why HIV/AIDS is still 5. Pervasive behavior e.g. homosexuality and
rampant despite a lot of rape.
awareness creation. 6. Long incubation behavior of HIV makes people
complacent.
1. Many adolescents engage in sexual
activity through excitement, wrong 7. Many traditionalists have opted not to believe
advice, peer pressure, or ignorance. HIV hence continuation of wife inheritance,
traditional circumcision tattooing etc.
2. Many people especially youths misuse 8. Presence of quack , bush doctors and conmen/
their leisure time through engaging in women who cheat people about cure drugs or
erotic dances, reading and watching miracle cures of HIV/AIDS condition.
pornography.
3. Lack of strict policy on drug abuse.

156
b) Offer possible solutions to c) A child born of a HIV

these problems. positive mother tested HIV
1. Avoid bad company. positive after birth.
However , after a few
2. Proper use of leisure time by avoiding months the child tested
reading erotic magazines, watching HIV negative. Explain.
pornography and not attending night
clubs.  At birth, the child tested HIV positive
because of the presence of HIV
3. Abstain from misuse of drugs/ drug antibodies which passed through the
addiction. placenta. After a few months the
4. Public awareness of HIV/AIDS e.g. lack antibodies are removed from the blood
of cure, no miracle cure of the disease. hence the child tested HIV negative.
5. Abstaining from commercial/
indiscriminate sexual behavior.
6. Avoiding risky behaviors e.g. wife
inheritance.
2. Syphilis.
157
 It affects the genital organs of both Symptoms.

males and females.
1. Painless sore appearing on
 Caused by the bacterium Treponema
pallidum. or around the sex organs.
Transmission. 2. Skin rashes.
1. Through sexual intercourse 3. Flu like symptom i.e.
with infected person. Fever, sore throat, bone
2. Transfusion with infected and joints pain.
blood.
3. Transmission from infected 4. Headache.
mother to the child during 5. Insanity.
birth or through the
placenta before 7th month Prevention.
of delivery
i. Avoid indiscriminate sex.
ii. Use of condoms.
3. Gonorrhoea.
158
 It is a disease affecting genital organs 4. Yellow or green discharge in

caused by the bacterium Neisseria males.
gonorrhoea. 5. Tenderness and pain in the
Transmission testicles in males.
1. Sexual intercourse with 6. Inflammation of the foreskin
infected person. in males
2. During birth when a mother is Control and prevention
infected. 1. Public education on dangers of
Symptoms. indiscriminate sex.
1. Pain when passing urine. 2. Use of condoms during sexual
intercourse.
2. Bleeding in between the
periods in women. 3. Treatment using antibiotics.
3. Females have unusual
vaginal discharge which is
watery, yellow or greenish
in color.
4. Genital herpes.
159
 It is caused by the virus Symptoms.

Herpes simplex. 1. Lesions on the skin and
Transmission. mucous membrane of
the mouth/ buccal
1. Sexual intercourse cavity, vaginal canal and
with an infected conjunctiva in females.
person.
2. Painless lesions on the
2. Kissing infected head of the penis
person. Control and prevention.
3. Sharing of 1. Avoid indiscriminate sex
contaminated needles and contaminated
and syringes. needles and syringes.
5. Hepatitis B.
160
 It is a condition that describes Symptoms.

inflammation of the liver. i. Loss of appetite.
 It is caused by a virus which attacks ii. Jaundice.
liver cells eventually causing damage in
the liver. iii. Headache and muscle ache.
Transmission. iv. Vomiting.
i. Sexual contact with an infected v. Dark urine .
person. Prevention.
ii. Sharing contaminated instruments i. Screening of blood before
used by barbers and dentists. transfusion.
iii. Sharing contaminated syringes and ii. Avoiding indiscriminate sex.
needles (by drug addicts).
iii. Avoiding sharing needles.
iv. Blood transfusion with infected
blood. iv. Using condoms during sexual
intercourse.
v. Kissing an infected person.
vi. Infected mother to unborn child.
6. Trichomoniasis.
161
 Caused by a protozoa called Control and prevention.

Trichomoniasis vaginalis.
1. Use protective methods
Transmission during sexual
i. Through sexual intercourse. intercourse/ avoid
ii. Contaminated clothes or indiscriminate sex.
beddings. 2. Avoid sharing linen/
Symptoms. clothes.
1. Yellow smelly discharge in 3. High personal hygiene in
females. the genitals.
2. Burning sensation when
urinating.
3. Itching in the urethra and
vagina.

7. Candidiasis.
162
 Caused by a fungus, Candida albicans. Control and prevention.

Transmission. i. Avoid indiscriminate sex.
 Through sexual contact with ii. Using condoms during sex.
infected person. iii. Proper hygiene (e.g. wiping
Symptoms. oneself from front to back after
i. Itching and burning sensation in using the toilet, use of pure
the genital area. cotton and loose pants in
females).
ii. White discharge from the vagina
which does not smell. iv. Proper treatment using
antibiotics.

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© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Types of reproduction. Disadvantages of asexual reproduction.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

B. Sexual reproduction- it Disadvantages of sexual

 This refers to the division or  In the body/somatic cells chromosomes

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Types of cell division Stages of mitosis

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

1. Interphase. Centrioles Nucleolus

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

5. Telophase.  The chromosomes

12 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Significance/ importance of B. MEIOSIS

Principle of meiosis. 1ST MEIOTIC DIVISION.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

2. Prophase 1  As prophase continues, chromatids

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

ii. Metaphase II.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

iv. Telophase II.

Significance of meiosis. Similarities between mitosis

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 Asexual reproduction is the 1. Binary fission in amoeba,

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Process of reproduction in Process of reproduction in

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

35 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Study question. c) State the mode of

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Process of budding/ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT 2. Stamen/androecium-

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

3. Carpels/pistil/gynoecium- This is 4. Petals/corolla- Petals

43 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

45 © Sam obare 25-Feb-21

1. Gamepetalous flower- the Types of unisexual/ incomplete flowers.

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

5. Epigynous/inferior ovary/flower- the 11. Polycarpous gynoecium/ pistil-

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Perigynous flower Monocarpous flower

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

Apocarpous flower Syncarpous flower

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21

 This is the transfer of pollen grains from 2. Cross pollination- transfer of

Adaptations of insect pollinated 5. Anthers produce pollen grains

© Sam obare 25-Feb-21