CBSE Term II Physics XII
CHAPTER 07
Semiconductor
Electronics
(Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits)
In this Chapter...
! Semiconductors
! p-n Junction Diode
Classification of Conductors,
Semiconductors and Insulators
On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity
(! ) or resistivity (" # 1 / ! ), the solids are broadly classified as
!
Conductors They possess very low resistivity (or high
conductivity).
" ~10 $ 2 -10 $ 8 %-m, ! ~10 2 -10 8 Sm $ 1
!
Semiconductors They have resistivity or conductivity
intermediate to metals and insulators.
" ~10 $ 5 - 10 6 %-m, ! ~10 & 5 - 10 $ 6 Sm $ 1
!
Insulators They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
" ~1011 - 1019 %-m, ! ~10 $ 11 - 10 $ 19 Sm $ 1
Energy Bands in Solids
According to Bohr’s atomic model and concept of electronic
configuration in an isolated atom, the electrons have certain
definite discrete amounts of energy corresponding to
different shells and sub-shells, i.e. there are well-defined
energy levels of electrons in an isolated atom.
But in a crystal due to interatomic interaction, valence
electrons are shared by more than one atom. Due to this,
splitting of energy level takes place. The collection of these
closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band. These
bands are formed due to the continuous energy variation in
different energy levels.
131
! Diode as a Rectifier
! Special Purpose p-n
Junction Diodes
These different energy levels in different electrons are
formed because inside the crystal, each electron has a unique
position and no two electrons are exactly at the same pattern of
surrounding charges.
Valence Band
The energy band, which includes the energy levels of the
valence electrons is called valence band. This band may be
partially or completely filled with electrons but is never
empty.
Conduction Band
The energy band above the valence band is called conduction
band. At room temperature, this band is either empty or
partially filled with electrons. Electrons can jump from
valence band to conduction band and contribute to the
electric current.
Energy Band Gap
The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from
valence band to conduction band is called energy band gap
( Eg ). It can be zero, small or large depending upon the
material.
If ' is the wavelength of radiation used in shifting the
electron from valence band to conduction band, then energy
band gap,
E g # h( # hc / '
where, h is called Planck’s constant and c is the velocity of
light.
132 CBSE Term II Physics XII

Difference between Conductor, Insulator and Semiconductor on the basis of Energy Bands

Conductor (Metal) Insulator Semiconductor

No energy gap between the conduction band The valence band is completely filled and The valence band is totally filled and the
and valence band or the conduction band and the conduction band is completely empty. conduction band is empty but the energy gap
valence band overlap each other. The energy gap is quite large. between conduction band and valence band,
So, electrons from below the fermi level can Electrons are bound to valence band and are unlike insulators is very small.
shift to higher energy levels above the fermi not free to move. Hence, electric conduction At room temperature, some electrons in the
level in the conduction band and behave as is not possible in this type of material. valence band acquire thermal energy greater
free electrons. Empty conduction band than energy band gap and jump over to the
conduction band, where they are free to
Conduction Conduction move under the influence of even a small
Electron band band
energy E Eg ! 0 EC electric field and acquire small conductivity.
Electron energy

C
Overlapped

EV Conduction

Electron energy
Valence Eg > 3 eV EC
Valence band
band
band
area

Eg < 3 eV
EV Valence
For metals
band
EV
Valence band

Fermi Energy !
Thermally excited electrons at T ) 0 K, partially occupy the
conduction band. They have come from the valence band
It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free
electrons of a material at absolute zero temperature (i. e. 0 K). leaving equal number of holes there.
The value of fermi energy is different for different materials.
EC EC Electrons

Semiconductors
Electron energy

Eg Eg
The materials whose conductivity lie between metals and
insulators are known as semiconductors. EV EV Holes
At absolute zero temperature, all states in valence band are
filled and all states in conduction band are empty. At low
temperature, pure semiconductors are insulators.
On the basis of purity, semiconductors are of two types (a) (b)
Fig. (a) an intrinsic semiconductor at T # 0K behaves like
Intrinsic Semiconductors insulator and Fig. (b) is representing four thermally
generated electron-hole pairs at T ) 0K
This type of semiconductor is also called an undoped
semiconductor or i-type semiconductor. It is a pure
semiconductor without any significant presence of dopant Extrinsic Semiconductors
species. Those semiconductors in which some impurity atoms are
Some characteristics of these semiconductors are as given embedded are known as extrinsic or impurity
below semiconductors.
!
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of excited When some desirable impurity is added to intrinsic
electrons is equal to number of holes, i.e. n h # n i , where semiconductors deliberately, then this process is called doping
n i is called intrinsic carrier concentration. and the impurities are called dopants.
!
Under the action of an electric field, holes move towards There are two types of dopants used in doping
negative potential giving hole current I h . The total !
Trivalent (valency 3) atoms: e.g. Indium (In), Boron (B),
current I is the sum of the electron current I e and the aluminium (Al), etc.
hole current I h . i.e. I # I e & I h . !
Pentavalent (valency 5) atoms: e.g. Arsenic (As), Antimony
!
At equilibrium, the rate of generation is equal to rate of (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.
recombination of charge carriers. The recombination Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types
occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole. !
n-type semiconductors
!
An intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator at !
p-type semiconductors
T # 0 K.
CBSE Term II Physics XII
n-Type Semiconductors
This type of semiconductor is obtained, when pentavalent
impurity is added to Si or Ge.
Therefore, major conduction in n-type semiconductors is due
to electrons. So, electrons are known as majority carriers and
the holes are known as the minority carriers.
This means, n e )) n h ; I e )) I h .
p-Type Semiconductors
This type of semiconductor is obtained, when a trivalent
impurity is added to Si or Ge.
In p-type semiconductor, the holes movement results in the
formation of the current. In this type of semiconductor,
majority charge carriers are holes, i.e. positively charged and
minority charge carriers are electrons.
i.e. n h )) n e ; I h )) I e .
Hence, these conductors are known as p-type
semiconductors or acceptor type semiconductors.
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in
thermal equilibrium is given by n e n h # n i2 .
p-n Junction Diode
It is an arrangement made by a close contact of n-type
semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.
It is basically a p-n junction and it is a two terminal device.
p n
It is represented by the symbol
The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of
current.
Formation of Depletion
Region in p-n Junction
During the formation of p-n junction and due to the
concentration gradient across p and n-sides, holes diffuse
from p-side to n-side ( p * n) and electrons diffuse from
n-side to p-side ( n * p ). The diffused charge carriers
combine with their counterparts in the immediate vicinity of
the junction and neutralise each other.
Electron diffusion
Electron drift
p n
Depletion region
Hole diffusion
Hole drift
p-n junction formation process
This sets up potential difference across the junction and an
internal electric field E i directed from n-side to p-side. The
region on either side of the junction which becomes depleted
(free) from the mobile charge carriers is called depletion
region or depletion layer. The width of depletion region is of
the order of 10 $6 m.
133
The potential difference developed across the depletion
region is called the potential barrier (V0 ).
It depends on dopant concentration in the semiconductor
and temperature of the junction.
Due to this potential barrier, following currents arises in
semiconductor
!
Due to the diffusion of holes from p-side to n-side and
electrons from n-side to p-side at the junction, a current
rises from p-side to n-side, which is called diffusion
current.
!
If an electron-hole pair is created on the depletion region
due to thermal collision, the electrons are pushed by the
electric field towards the n-side and the holes towards the
p-side, which gives rise to a current from n-side to p-side
known as drift current.
!
In steady state, diffusion current = drift current.
Forward Biasing and Reverse
Biasing of Junction Diode
Biasing is the method of connecting external battery or emf
source to a p-n junction diode.
Forward Biasing
A junction diode is said to be forward biased, when the
positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the
p-side and negative terminal to the n-side of the diode.
When an external voltage V is applied in forward biasing,
then
(i) The effective barrier height under forward bias is
(V0 $ V ).
(ii) Due to external electric field, electron-hole
recombination occur and a covalent bond breaks near
p-region producing more electron and hole that moves
to the external battery terminals. Thus, the total
forward current is the sum of hole diffusion current
and conventional current due to diffusion of electrons.
Hole Junction Electron
p-region n-region
Ei
+ –
E
V
+ –
Battery
Forward biasing of junction diode
Reverse Biasing
A junction diode is said to be reverse biased, when the
positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the
n-side and negative terminal to the p-side of the diode.
When an external voltage V is applied across the ends of
diode in reverse biasing, then
134 CBSE Term II Physics XII

p n
The direction of applied voltage is same as the direction of Reverse voltage (V)
barrier potential, so effective barrier height will be V0 & V. –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0

Reverse current ("A)

There is almost no flow of current due to majority charge –
V
+ O
+ C 2
carriers, a very small current due to minority charge carriers
"A
flows across the junction. This current is called reverse – 4
current. Breakdown
6
Junction voltage
Battery 8
Hole – +
p-region n-region Electron D
(a) (b)
– Ei + Reverse biased characteristic of a diode
!
In reverse biased, the applied voltage supports the flow
E
of minority charge carriers across the junction. So, a very
small current flows across the junction due to minority
charge carriers.
V
– + !
The reverse current is voltage independent upto certain
Battery
voltage known as breakdown voltage and this voltage
independent current is called reverse saturation current.
Reverse biasing of junction diode
Note If the reverse bias is equal to the breakdown voltage, then the
reverse current through the junction increases very rapidly (CD
I-V (Current-Voltage) Characteristics of portion of the graph), this situation is called avalanche
breakdown and the junction may get damaged due to excessive
p-n Junction Diode heating, if this current exceeds the rated value of
The graphical relations between voltage applied across p-n p-n junction.
junction and current flowing through the junction are called In diodes, a resistance is offered by the junction which
I-V characteristics of junction diode. depends on the applied voltage, which is called dynamic
resistance. It is the ratio of small change in voltage to the
Forward Biased Characteristics small change in current produced.
The circuit diagram and graph plotted between voltage and +V
Dynamic resistance, rd # .
current for diode are shown in Figs. (a) and (b). +I
p n
7
Diode as a Rectifier
Forward current (mA)

B
6
–
+ – 5 The process of converting alternating voltage/current into
mA V
+
direct voltage/current is called rectification.
4 Ge
3 Principle
2 Diode allows current to pass only, when it is forward
1 A biased. So, if an alternating voltage is applied across a
+ – O diode, the current flows only in that part of the cycle when
Battery 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 the diode is forward biased.
(a) Forward voltage (V)
(b)
Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier
!
At the start when applied voltage is low, the current through
In the half-wave rectifier, the AC voltage to be rectified is
the diode is almost zero. It is because of the potential barrier,
connected to the primary coil of a step-down transformer
which opposes the applied voltage. and secondary coil is connected to the diode through
!
With further increase in applied voltage, the current resistor R L across, which output is obtained.
increases very rapidly and diode behaves like a conductor. Transformer A X
The forward voltage beyond which the current through the
junction starts increasing rapidly with voltage is called knee
voltage or threshold voltage. Primary Secondary RL
Reverse Biased Characteristics
The circuit diagram and graph plotted between voltage and Y
B
current for reverse biased diode are shown in Figs. (a) and (b).
Circuit diagram of half-wave rectifier
CBSE Term II Physics XII 135

Working Role of Filters

During positive half cycle of the input AC, the p-n junction
is forward biased. Thus, the resistance in p-n junction
becomes low and current flows. Hence, we get output in the
load. During negative half cycle of the input AC, the p-n
junction is reverse biased. Hence, no output is in the load.
In order to get the steady DC output from the pulsating
voltage normally, a capacitor is connected across the output
terminals (parallel to load R L ). They are called filters.
DC component
X

Rectifier
Voltage at A

+
Input AC AC C RL DC
–

+ +
Y
– – t (a)
Voltage across R L

input filter AC input

Output AC t

Output with
+ +

capacitor
t
Input and output waveforms
(b)
Diode as a Full Wave Rectifier
A full wave rectifier with capacitor filter Fig. (a) and
In the full wave rectifier, two p-n junction diodes D1 and D 2 are input and output voltage of rectifier in Fig. (b).
used. This arrangement is as shown in the diagram below
Centre tap
transformer
D1 Special Purpose p-n
A

Centre
Junction Diodes
tap
X Photodiode
B
It is a special type of junction diode used for detecting
RL Output
D2 optical signals. It is a reverse biased p-n junction made from
Y
a photosensitive material. Its symbol is

Circuit diagram of full wave rectifier

p
+

n
Working
In full wave rectifier, we get output in the load resistance Construction
!
In positive half cycle by D1 . A photodiode fabricated with a transparent cover to allow
!
In negative half cycle by D 2 . light to fall on the diode and operates under reverse bias.
waveform at A

(h# > Eg )
Input

O
t
"A
p-side n-side
waveform at B
Input

O – +
R
t
V
Due to Due to Due to Due to A reverse biased photodiode illuminated with light
D1 D2 D1 D2
Output waveform

Working
(across RL)

O When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons),

t
with energy greater than the energy gap of the
semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated due to
the absorption of photons. These charge carriers contribute
Input and output waveforms to the reverse current.
136 CBSE Term II Physics XII

V-I Characteristics metal contact acts as negative electrode. When an external

load is connected across metal electrodes, a photocurrent
We observe from the figure that, current in photodiode changes
flows.
with the change in light intensity I, when reverse bias is applied.
mA I-V Characteristics I Open circuit
I-V characteristics is drawn voltage (Voc)
Reverse bias in the fourth quadrant of the V
volt coordinate axes because a O
Reverse

I1
current

I2 solar cell does not draw

ISC
I3 current but supplies the Short circuit current
I4 same to the load. I-V characteristics of a solar cell
I4 > I3 > I2 > I1 "A
V-I characteristics of photodiode at different intensities Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Solar Cell It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which h#
converts electrical energy into light energy.
It is a p-n junction diode, which converts solar energy into This diode emits spontaneous radiation,
+ –
electrical energy. p n
under forward biasing. Its symbol is
h#
Working
On recombination of electron and hole, the energy is given
Top Metallised
surface finger electrode out in the form of heat and light.
n
p
p p R
n n
p n B
p
Back contact
Forward biased LED
p-n junction of solar cell

Its symbol is
+ V-I Characteristics
h#
The colour of light emitted by a given LED, depends on its
p
band gap energy. The photon emitted by an LED is of
n energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap energy.
Forward current conducted by the junction determines the
intensity of light emitted by LED.
–
I (mA)
30 Silicon
Construction
It consists of a silicon or gallium-arsenide p-n junction diode 20
packed in a can with glass window on the top. 15
RL 10
IL
h# –10V
V (volt)
0 0.5 0.8
I ("A)

p n
V-I characteristics of LED

Depletion region LEDs Advantages over Incandescent

A typical illuminated p-n junction solar cell Low Power Lamps
LED’s advantages over incandescent low power lamps
Working
which are as given below
When photons of light (of energy h( ) Eg ) falls at the junction, !
Fast action and no warm up time required.
electron-hole pairs are generated near the junction and they
move in opposite directions due to junction field. They will be !
The bandwidth of emitted light is from 100 Å to
collected at the two sides of the junction, giving rise to a 500 Å, so it is nearly (not exactly) monochromatic.
photovoltage between the top and bottom metal electrodes. !
Long life and ruggedness.
The top metal contact acts as positive electrode and bottom !
Low operational voltage and less power consumed.
CBSE Term II Physics XII 137

Solved Examples
ND
Example 1. The maximum wavelength at which solid and ne # # 25. , 1021
begin to absorb energy is 10000 Å. Calculate the 2
energy gap of a solid (in eV). So, n final # nh & ne
hc / n final . , 1021
0 n e 0 25 (! n e )) n h)
Sol. The energy band gap is given by, Eg # h( # 21 15
' n final $ n initial 25
. , 10 $ 14 , 10
Factor # #
where, h # Planck’s constant, c # speed of light n initial 14 , 1015
and ' # wavelength at which solid absorbs energy.
. , 1021
25
On putting the values of h, c and ', we get 0 # 1.8 , 105
14 , 1015
(6.626 , 10$34 J- s)(3 , 108 m / s)
Eg #
(10000 , 10$10 m) Example 4. (a) Calculate the value of V 0 and i, if the
# 1.98 , 10$19 J silicon and germanium diode start conducting at
1.98 , 10$19 0.7 V and 0.3 V, respectively.
# eV Ge
1.6 , 10$19
# 1.24 eV i V0
Si
Example 2. In an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor, the 12 V RL 5 k$
number of conduction electrons is 7 , 1019 per
cubic metre. Find the total number of current
carriers (electrons and holes) in the same
semiconductor of size 1 cm , 1 cm , 1mm. (b) If the Ge diode connection is now reversed, what
Sol. In an intrinsic semiconductor, n e # n h will be the new values of V 0 and i?
where, n e # number of conduction electrons Sol. (a) Ge diode will start conducting before the silicon diode
does so. The effective forward voltage across Ge diode is
and n h # number of holes per unit volume.
(12 $ 0.3) V =11.7 V. This will appear as the output
Given, n e # 7 , 1019 per m 3
voltage across the load, i.e.,
- n h # n e # 7 , 1019 per m 3
Vo # 11.7 V
So, total current carrier density The current through R L,
n e & n h # 7 , 1019 & 7 , 1019 11.7
i# A # 2.34 mA
# 14 , 1019 per m 3 5 , 103
Now, total number of current carrier (b) On reversing the connection of Ge diode, it will be
# number density , volume reverse biased and conduct no current. Only Si diode will
# ( 14 , 1019 per m 3 ) , ( 10$2 m , 10$2 m , 10$3 m conduct. Therefore,
Vo # ( 12 $ 0.7) V # 11.3 V
# 1.4 , 1013
11.3
and current, i # A # 2.26 mA
Example 3. The concentration of hole-electron pairs in 5 , 103
pure germanium at T # 300 K is 7 , 1015 per cubic Example 5. A p-n photodiode is made of a material
metre. Antimony is doped into germanium a with a band gap of 1.5 eV. What is the minimum
proportion of 1 atom 10 7 Ge atoms. Assuming that wavelength of radiation that can be absorbed by the
half of the impurity atoms contribute electron in material?
the conduction band, calculate the factor by which hc
the number of charge carriers increases due to Sol. Energy, E # h( #
'
doping the number of germanium atoms per cubic The minimum wavelength of radiation
metre is 5 , 10 28 . hc (6.4 , 10$34 J - s) , (3 , 108 ms$1 )
'# #
Sol. In pure semiconductor electron-hole pair # 7 , 1015 m $3 E 1.5 , 1.6 , 10$19 J
Total charge carrier, n total initial # n h & n e # 14 , 10.5 # 8.3 , 10$7 m # 830 nm
1.5 , 1.6 , 10$19 J
5 , 1028 # 0 1.2 , 106 Hz
After doping donor impurity, N D # # 5 , 1021 6.6 , 10$34 J - s , 3 , 108 ms$2
107
138 CBSE Term II Physics XII

Chapter
Practice
PART 1
Ec Ec
Objective Questions (c) Eg (d) Eg
Ev Ev
!
Multiple Choice Questions
Electrons
1. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
increase in temperature, because [NCERT Exemplar] 5. The substance which is doped in an intrinsic
(a) number density of free current carriers increases semiconductor to make p-type semiconductor is
(b) relaxation time increases (a) phosphorus (b) antimony
(c) Both number density of carriers and relaxation time (c) aluminium (d) arsenic
increase
(d) number density of carriers increases, relaxation time 6. In n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority
decreases but effect of decrease in relaxation time is charge carriers but it does not show any negative
much less than increase in number density charge. The reason is
(a) electrons are stationary
2. Correct order of relative values of electrical (b) electrons neutralise with holes
conductivity ! for different types of solid is (c) mobility of electrons is extremely small
(a) ! semiconductor " ! insulator " ! metal (d) atom is electrically neutral
(b) ! metal " ! semiconductor " ! insulator
(c) ! semiconductor " ! metal " ! insulator 7. Pure silicon at 300 K has equal electron ( n e ) and
(d) ! insulator " ! semiconductor " ! metal hole ( n h ) concentration of 1.5 # 1016 m $ 3 . Doping
3. Which of the following correctly represents the by indium increases n h to 4.5 # 10 22 m $ 3 . The n e
hole in semiconductor? in doped silicon is (in m $3 )
(a) An anti-particle of electron (a) 9 # 105 (b) 5 # 109
(b) A vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent (c) 2.25 # 1011 (d) 3 # 1019
bond
(c) Absence of free electrons 8. When an electric field is applied across a
(d) An artificially created particle semiconductor,
4. Energy band gap Eg diagram for an intrinsic (a) electrons move from lower energy level to higher energy
semiconductor at temperature T " 0 K is level in the conduction band
(b) electrons move from higher energy level to lower energy
(Here, E C is energy for conduction band and E V is level in the conduction band
energy for valence band.) (c) holes in the valence band move from lower energy level
Electrons to higher energy level
Holes (d) None of the above
Ec 9. The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on
Ec
[CBSE 2014]
(a) Eg Electrons (b) Eg Electrons (i) type of semiconductor material
Ev Ev
(ii) amount of doping
(iii) temperature
CBSE Term II Physics XII 139

Which one of the following is correct? (c) would be like a half-wave rectifier with negative cycles in
output
(a) Both (i) and (ii) (b) Only (ii)
(d) would be like that of a full wave rectifier
(c) Both (ii) and (iii) (d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
14. The wavelength and intensity of light emitted by a
10. In figure given below, V 0 is the potential barrier LED depend upon
across a p-n junction, when no battery is connected (a) forward bias and energy gap of the semiconductor
across the junction, then [NCERT Exemplar] (b) energy gap of the semiconductor and reverse bias
1
2
(c) energy gap only
V0 3 (d) forward bias only
15. The I-V characteristic of an LED is
R YG B
(a) 1 and 3 both correspond to forward bias of junction R
G
(b) 3 corresponds to forward bias of junction and 1 (a) I (b) Y
corresponds to reverse bias of junction R
(c) 1 corresponds to forward bias and 3 corresponds to
reverse bias of junction O R V O V
Y
(d) 3 and 1 both correspond to reverse bias of junction G V O
B Red
11. A 220 V AC supply is connected between points A (c) I
(d) Yellow
R Green
and B (figure). What will be the potential Y
Blue
G
difference across the capacitor? [NCERT Exemplar] O V B
A
!
Assertion-Reasoning MCQs
200 AC C V
Direction (Q. Nos. 16-20) Each of these questions
B contains two statements Assertion (A) and Reason (R).
(a) 220 V (b) 110 V Each of these questions also has four alternative
(c) 0 V (d) 220 2 V choices, any one of which is the correct answer. You
have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given
12. V-I characteristics of a silicon diode is as shown. below.
I (mA)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
30
explanation of A
Silicon (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
20
explanation of A
15
(c) A is true, but R is false
10
(d) A is false and R is also false

–10 V
16. Assertion The energy gap between the valence
0.8
0 0.5 0.7 V (volts) band and conduction band is greater in silicon than
1 !A in germanium.

The ratio of resistance of diode at I D % 15 mA and Reason Thermal energy produces fewer minority
V D % $ 10 V, is carriers in silicon than in germanium.
$3 $4 $5 $6
(a) 10 (b) 10 (c) 10 (d) 10 17. Assertion The total current I in a semiconductor is
13. The output of the given circuit in figure given the sum of electron current and hole current.
below [NCERT Exemplar] Reason In a semiconductor, I h arises due to the
motion of holes towards positive potential and free
electrons under an applied electric field.
Vm sin "t 18. Assertion The resistivity of a semiconductor
decreases with temperature.
Reason The atoms of a semiconductor vibrate
(a) would be zero at all times with larger amplitudes at higher temperature
(b) would be like a half-wave rectifier with positive cycles in thereby increasing its resistivity.
output
140 CBSE Term II Physics XII

19. Assertion A hole on p-side of a p - n junction moves (ii) In figure, the input is across the terminals A and C
to n-side just an instant after drifting of charge and the output is across B and D. Then, the output
carriers occurs across junction. is
B C
Reason Drifting of charge carriers reduces the
concentration gradient across junction.
20. Assertion Light Emitting Diode (LED) emits A D
spontaneous radiation. (a) zero (b) same as the input
Reason LED are forward biased p-n junctions. (c) half wave rectified (d) full wave rectified
(iii) Which of the following is not true about a rectifier
!
Case Based MCQs circuit?
(a) It can convert DC to AC. (b) It can convert AC to DC.
21. Direction Read the following passage and answer (c) It can shift voltage level. (d) None of these
the questions that follows
(iv) In the given circuit,
Full Wave Rectifier
The process of converting alternating
voltage/current into direct voltage/current is called Rectifier RL DC
AC
rectification. Diode is used as a rectifier for C
converting alternating current/voltage into direct
current/voltage.
Capacitor C is used
Diode allows current to pass only, when it is (a) for storing potential energy
forward biased. So, if an alternating voltage is (b) as a bypass to DC component to get AC in R L
applied across a diode, the current flows only in (c) to remove sparking
that part of the cycle when the diode is forward (d) as a bypass to AC component to get DC in R L
biased. This property is used to rectify the (v) The ratio of output frequencies of half-wave
current/voltage. rectifier and a full wave rectifier, when an input of
Centre tap frequency 200 Hz is fed at input, is
transformer
D1 (a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1
A
(c) 4 : 1 (d) 1 : 4
Centre
tap
B
X
PART 2
RL Output
D2

Y
Subjective Questions
Circuit diagram of full wave rectifier
!
Short Answer (SA) Type Questions
1. Carbon and silicon both have four valence
(i) If in a p-n junction, a square input signal of 10 V is electrons each, then how are they distinguished?
applied as shown [Delhi 2011C]
+5 V 2. Draw energy band diagram of n-type and p-type
RL semiconductors at temperature T " 0K. Mark the
donor and acceptor energy level with their
–5 V energies. [Foreign 2014]
Then, the output across R L will be 3. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic
10 V
semiconductors. [All India 2015]
(a) (b)
4. The number of conduction electrons (in per cubic
–10 V
metre) present in a pure semiconductor is
6.5 # 1019 . Calculate the number of holes in a
5V
(c) –5 V (d) sample having dimensions 1 cm # 1 cm # 2 mm ?
CBSE Term II Physics XII 141

5. Why are elemental dopants for silicon or 12. In half-wave rectification, what is the output
germanium usually chosen from group XIII or frequency. If the input frequency is 50 Hz, what is
group XV? [NCERT Exemplar] the output frequency of a full wave rectifier for the
6. As we know that, a p-type semiconductor has large same input frequency? [NCERT]

number of holes but it is still electrically neutral. 13. Explain briefly how a photodiode operates.
Why? [CBSE 2018C]

7. The impurity levels of doped semiconductor are 14. Three photodiodes D1 , D 2 and D 3 are made of
30 eV below the conduction band. semiconductors having band gaps of 2.5 eV, 2 eV
Determine whether the semiconductor is n-type or and 3 eV, respectively. Which one will be able to
p-type. detect light of wavelength 6000 Å?
[NCERT Exemplar]
At the room temperature, thermal collisions occur
as a result of which, the extra electron loosely 15. Mention the important considerations required
bound to the impurity ion gets an amount of energy while fabricating a p-n junction diode to be used as
kT and hence this electron can jump into a Light Emitting Diode (LED). What should be the
conduction band. What is the value of T? (Take, k is order of band gap of an LED, if it is required to
Boltzmann constant ! 8.62 " 10 #5 eV/K) emit light in the visible range? [Delhi 2013]
8. Write differences between forward bias and reverse 16. (i) Explain with the help of a diagram the formation
bias. [All India 2020] of depletion region and barrier potential in a p - n
9. There are two semiconductor materials junction.
A and B which are made by doping germanium (ii) Draw the circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier
crystal with indium and arsenic, respectively. As and explain its working. [All India 2016]
shown in the figure, the junction of two is biased 17. Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier
with a battery. Will the junction be forward bias or and explain its working. Also, give the input and
reverse bias? output waveforms. [Delhi 2019]
A B
18. (i) In the following diagram, which bulb out of B1
and B 2 will glow and why?
D1 D2
10. The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is as shown
in the figure. Calculate the resistance of the diode
at (i) I = 5 mA and (ii) V ! #20V. [Delhi 2020] +9 V
B1 B2
I (mA)

30

20
Silicon (ii) Draw a diagram of an illuminated
15 p-n junction solar cell.
10 (iii) Explain briefly the three processes due to which
–20 V generation of emf takes place in a solar cell.
0 0.5
[All India 2020, 17]
I ("A) 0.7 0.8 V
19. What is photodiode ? Breifly explain its working
11. Assuming that, the two diodes D1 and D 2 are used and draw its V-I characteristics. [Delhi 2020]
in the electric circuit shown in the figure are ideal.
Find out the value of the current flowing through
!
Long Answer (LA) Type Questions
1$ resistor. 20. The number of silicon atoms per m 3 is
D1 2!
5 " 10 28 . This is doped simultaneously with
D2 5 " 10 22 atoms per m 3 of arsenic and 5 " 10 20 atoms
2!
per m 3 of indium. Calculate the number of
1! electrons and holes. Given that, n i ! 1.5 " 1016 m # 3 .
+ –

6V
Is the material n-type or p-type? [NCERT]
142 CBSE Term II Physics XII

21. Predict the effect on the electrical properties of a
silicon crystal at room temperature, if every
millionth silicon atom is replaced by an atom of
indium. Given, concentration of silicon atoms
! 5 " 10 28 m #3 , intrinsic carrier concentration
! 1.5 " 1016 m #3 , % e ! 0.135 m 3 / V - s and
% h ! 0.048m 3 / V-s.
22. A potential barrier of 0.4V exists across p-n junction.
(i) If the depletion region is 4.0 " 10 #7 m wide, what
is the intensity of the electric field in this region?
!
(ii) If an electron with speed 4 " 105 m/s approaches
the p-n junction from the n-side, find the speed
with which it will be p- side.
23. Assuming an ideal diode, draw the output
waveform for the circuit given in the figure, explain
the waveform. [NCERT Exemplar]
R
(ii) Which semiconductors are preferred to make
LEDs and why?
(iii) Give two advantages of using LEDs over
conventional incandescent low power lamps.
[All India 2011]
27. (i) What is the advantage of using GaAs for
synthesis of solar cells?
(ii) Draw V-I characteristics of solar cell and
mention its significance.
Case Based Questions
Direction Read the following passage and answer the
questions that follows
28. Photodiode
Photodiode is a special type of junction diode used
for detecting optical signals. It is a reverse biased
p-n junction made from a photosensitive material.
Its symbol is

–
p
+
n
20 sin $t
5V A photodiode fabricated with a transparent cover to
allows light to fall on the diode and operated under
reverse bias. A photodiode is used in sensor
24. Draw V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode. circuits.
Answer the following questions giving reasons. (h# > Eg )
(i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost
independent of the applied potential upto a
critical voltage? "A
p-side n-side
(ii) Why does the reverse current show a sudden
increase at the critical voltage? R
– +
25. If each diode in figure has a forward bias resistance V
of 25 $ and infinite resistance in reverse bias, what A reverse biased photodiode
will be the values of the currents I1 , I 2 , I 3 and I 4 ? illuminated with light

I4 125 ! (i) The current in the forward bias is known to be

A B
more (~mA ) than the current in the reverse bias
125 !
C
I3
D
(~%A ). What is the reason to operate the
125 !
photodiode in reverse bias? [Delhi 2012]
I2
E F (ii) Three photodiodes D1 , D 2 and D 3 are made of
I1 25 ! semiconductors having band gaps of 15 . eV ,
G H
2.5 eV and 35. eV, respectively. Which of them
5V
[NCERT Exemplar] will not be able to detect light of wavelength
450 nm?
26. (i) Describe the working of Light Emitting Diodes
(LEDs). (iii) Write main use of photodiode.
Chapter Test
Multiple Choice Questions Short Answer Type Questions
1. In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the 6. Draw the circuit diagram showing how a p - n
p-region to n-region because junction diode is
(a) free electrons in the n - region attract them
(i) forward biased and (ii) reverse biased.
(b) they moves across the junction by the potential difference
(c) hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to hole How is the width of depletion layer affected in the
concentration in n-region two cases?
(d) All of the above 7. Assuming that the resistances of the meters are
2. Which of these graphs shows potential difference between negligible, what will be the readings of the
p- side and n-side of a p-n junction in equilibrium? ammeters A1 and A2 in the circuit shown in figure?
20 !
A1
(a) p-side n-side (b) p-side
n-side
Junction Junction %V 20 !
plane plane A2

8. How do you obtain steady DC output from the

(c) p-side (d) p-side pulsating voltage?
n-side n-side 9. Give two advantages of LED’s over the conventional
Junction Junction incandescent lamps.
plane plane
Long Answer Type Questions
3. Which is reverse biased diode? 10. (i) Can a slab of p-type semiconductor be physically
joined to another n-type semiconductor slab to
(a) (b) – 20 V form p-n junction? Justify your answer.
5V
–10 V (ii) In a p-n junction diode, the forward bias
resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias
(c) 15 V (d) 20 V resistance. Give reason.
11. (i) Explain the formation of energy bands in
10 V –5 V crystalline solids.
4. The diode shown in the circuit is a silicon diode. The (ii) Draw the energy band diagrams of (a) a metal
potential difference between the points A and B will be and (b) a semiconductor.
2! A S B 12. Explain with help of circuit diagram, the action of a
forward biased p-n junction diode which emits
spontaneous radiation. State the least band gap
energy of this diode to have emission in visible
6V
region.
(a) 6 V (b) 0.6 V (c) 0.7 V (d) 0 V
13. Write two characteristics features to distinguish
5. The current through an ideal p-n junction shown in the
between n-type and p- type semiconductors.
following circuit diagram will be
14. A photodiode is operated under reverse bias
p n 100 !
although in the forward bias, the current is known to
be more than the current in the reverse bias. Explain,
1V 2V giving reason.
15. Describe the working principle of a solar cell.
Mention three basic processes involved in the
(a) zero (b) 1 mA (c) 10 mA (d) 30 mA generation of emf.

Answers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a)
144
EXPLANATIONS
PART 1
1. (d) The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
increase in temperature because the number density of
current carriers increases, relaxation time decreases but
effect of decrease in relaxation time is much less than
increase in number density.
2. (b) The values of conductivity and resistivity for different
types of solids are as follows
(i) Metal & ~10#2 -10#8 $-m
' ~102 -108 Sm #1
(ii) Semiconductor
& ~10#5 -106 $-m
' ~105 - 10#6 Sm #1
(iii) Insulator
& ~1011 - 1019 $-m
' ~10#11 - 10#19 S m #1
As 108 ( 10#6 ( 10#19 , so ' metal ( ' semiconductor ( &insulator .
3. (b) The concept of hole describes the lack of an electron at a
position, where one could exist in an atom or atomic lattice.
If an electron is excited into a higher state, it leaves a hole in
its old state.
Thus, hole can be defined as a vacancy created when an
electron leaves a covalent bond.
4. (d) In an intrinsic semiconductor, at T ( 0K, due to thermal
energy some electrons from the valence band excites to
conduction band and partially occupy it. Some electrons are
in the conduction band, these have come from valence band
leaving equal number of holes there.
5. (c) In an intrinsic semiconductor, when an impurity of
trivalent group such as aluminium, boron, etc., mixed in
very small quantity, then the resultant crystal will be p-type
semiconductor.
6. (d) The n-type semiconductor, region has (negative)
electrons as majority charge carriers and an equal number of
fixed positively charged donor ions. Again, the material as a
whole is neutral. That is a reason, atom is electrically
neutral.
7. (b) In an extrinsic semiconductor,
n e n h ! n i2
) n e " 4.5 " 1022 ! (1.5 " 1016 ) 2
2.25 " 1032
ne !
4.5 " 1022
) n e ! 5 " 109 m #3
8. (a) When an electric field is applied across a semiconductor,
the electrons in the conduction band get accelerated and
acquire energy. They move from lower energy level to higher
energy level. While the holes in valence band move from
higher energy level to lower energy level, where they will
be having more energy.
9. (d) Barrier potential depends on the material used to make
p-n junction diode (whether it is Si or Ge). It is also depends
on amount of doping due to which the number of majority
CBSE Term II Physics XII
carriers will change. It also depends on temperature due to
which the number of minority carriers will change.
10. (b) When p-n junction is forward biased, it opposes the
potential barrier junction, when p-n junction is reverse
biased, it supports the potential barrier junction, resulting in
increase in potential barrier across the junction.
So, 3 corresponds to forward bias of junction and 1
corresponds to reverse bias of junction.
11. (d) As p-n junction conducts during positive half cycle only,
so the diode connected here will work in positive half cycle.
Potential difference across C ! peak voltage of the given AC
voltage
V0 ! Vrms 2 ! 220 2 V
12. (d) From the graph, given in question at I ! 20 mA, V is
0.8 V and at I ! 10 mA, V ! 0.7 V
+V 0.8 # 0.7 0.1 V
* rf b ! ! !
+I 20 # 10 10 mA
0.1 V
! ! 10 $
10 " 10#3 A
Also, at V ! # 10 V, I ! # 1 %A
10 V 10 V
rrb ! ! ! 1 " 107 $
1 %A 1 " 10#6 A
r 10
* Ratio ! f b ! 7 ! 10#6
rrb 10
13. (c) Due to forward biased during positive half cycle of input
AC voltage, the resistance of p-n junction is low. The current
in the circuit is maximum. In this situation, a maximum
potential difference will appear across resistance connected
in series of circuit. This result into zero output voltage
across p-n junction.
Due to reverse biased during negative half cycle of AC
voltage, the p-n junction is reverse biased. The resistance of
p-n junction becomes high which will be more than
resistance in series. That is why, there will be voltage across
p-n junction with negative cycle in output.
14. (a) LED is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which emits
spontaneous radiation, under forward biasing. The colour
(wavelength and intensity) of the emitted radiation depend
on its band gap energy.
15. (a) An LED operates in forward bias mode, so its I-V
characteristics is similar to a forward biased p-n junction
diode. Secondly, the threshold voltage increases with
decrease in wavelength. Thus, option (a) is correct.
16. (b) The energy gap between valence band and conduction
band in germanium is 0.76 eV and the energy gap between
valence band and conduction band in silicon is 1.1 eV.
Also, it is true that thermal energy produces fewer minority
carriers in silicon than in germanium.
Therefore, both A and R are true but R is not the correct
explanation of A.
17. (c) In a semiconductor at T ( 0K, electrons originally set
free are not involved in the process of hole motion. These
free electrons moves completely as conduction electron and
CBSE Term II Physics XII 145

give rise to an electron current Ie , under an applied electric
field. However, motion of hole is only a convenient way of
describing the actual motion of bound electrons wherever
there is an empty bond anywhere in the crystal. Thus, under
the action of an electric field these holes move towards
negative potential giving the hole current Ih.
The total current I is thus the sum of the electron current Ie
and hole current Ih,
I ! Ie , Ih
Therefore, A is true but R is false.
18. (c) Resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with rise in the
temperature. The atoms of a semiconductor vibrate with
larger amplitudes at higher temperature, thereby increasing
its conductivity not resistivity.
Therefore, A is true but R is false.
19. (d) In a p-n junction, due to diffusion of electrons, a positive
space-charge region on n-side of the junction and a negative
space charge region on p-side of the junction is formed. Due
to this, an electric field directed from positive charge
towards negative charge develops (electric field is from
n-side to p-side). Due to this field, an electron on p-side of
the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the
junction moves to p-side. This motion of charge carriers due
to the electric field is called drift. Thus, a drift current,
which is opposite in direction to the diffusion current starts.
However, concentration gradient is due to the doping of
sides. It is not affected by drift of charge carriers.
Therefore, A is false and R is also false.
20. (a) When a junction diode is forward biased as shown in
figure, energy is released at the junction due to
recombination of electrons and holes. In the junction diode
made of gallium arsenide or indium phosphide, the energy
is released in visible region.
Light
p orbit while that of silicon in third orbit. So, energy required
RL
n carbon.
– +
Such a junction diode is called light emitting diode or LED.
It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode, so the radiations
emitted are spontaneous in forward biasing.
Therefore, both A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A.
21. (i) (d) As it is forward biased, so it takes positive value.
Hence, option (d) is correct.
(ii) (d)
B 10.04 eV
D1
D2
A C
RL
D3
D4
AC input is applied across A and C and output is taken
across BD.
V0
D1D4 D2D3 D1D4 D2D3
When positive cycle is fed to AC, D1 and D4 conduct and
when negative cycle is fed to AC, D3 and D2 conduct in
the same direction. Output across BD is thus full wave
rectified.
(iii) (a) A rectifier can convert AC to DC. It can also shift or add
voltage level in the output but it cannot convert DC to AC.
(iv) (d) In the given circuit, for the first half-cycle of rectified
output when the voltage across C will rise, it gets charged.
Then, in the presence of R L, it gets discharged through it
and the voltage begins to fall.
In the next half-cycle of rectified output, it again gets
charged to peak value and will similarly gets discharged
through R L. Thus, a steady DC output from pulsating
voltage is obtained. In other words, capacitor helps to filter
out the AC ripple and give a pure DC voltage or bypass AC
component to get DC.
(v) (a) Output frequency of full wave rectifier is twice the
output frequency of half-wave rectifier.
f half -wave 1
* !
f full wave 2
PART 2
1. The four valence electrons of carbon are present in second
to extricate an electron from silicon is much smaller than
Therefore, the number of free electrons for conduction in
silicon is significant on contrary to the carbon. This makes
silicon’s conductivity much higher than carbon. This is the
main distinguishable property.
2. The required energy band diagram is as shown below
Conduction band
Acceptor energy level
Valence band
(a) p-type
Conduction band
10.045 eV

D Donor energy level

Valence band
(b) n-type
146 CBSE Term II Physics XII

3. Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors 9. As, semiconductor A is doped with indium, so it behaves as
is as given below p-type semiconductor and B is doped with arsenic, so it
behaves as n-type semiconductor. Thus, the figure shows
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
that, it is forward bias condition.
It is a pure It is prepared by doping a small 10. (i) From the given curve, we have
semiconductor material quantity of impurity atoms to the
with no impurity atoms in pure semiconductor. Voltage, V ! 0.5 V for current of 10 mA
it. 0 .5
So, for 5 mA, V ! " 5 ! 0.25 V
10
The number of free The number of free electrons
V 0. 25
electrons in the and holes is never equal. There * Resistance, R ! ! ! 50$
conduction band and the is an excess of electrons n e ( n i I 5 " 10#3
number of holes in in n-type semiconductors and (ii) For V ! #20 V, we have
valence band is exactly excess of holes in p-type I ! #1 %A ! #1 " 10#6 A
equal. semiconductors.
20
ne ! nh ! ni nh ( ni ) R! ! 2.0 " 107 $
1 " 10#6
4. Given, number of conduction electrons, n e ! 6.5 " 1019 m #3 11. According to the question, D2 is reverse biased, so do not
Volume of the sample ! 1 cm " 1 cm " 2 mm ! 2 " 10#7 m 3 conduct.
Number of holes in the sample, n h ! Number of electrons in D1 2!
the sample, n e A B
! n e " V ! 65. " 1019 " 2 " 10#7
D2 2!
! 1 .3 " 1013 D C
5. The size of the dopant atom should be such that their
presence in the pure semiconductor does not distort the 1!
+ –
semiconductor but easily contribute the charge carriers on E F
forming covalent bonds with Si or Ge atoms, which are 6V
provided by group XIII or group XV elements. R EF ! 2 , 1 ! 3 $
6. p-type semiconductor is formed by doping it with trivalent V 6
IEF ! ! ! 2A
impurities. These impurities or dopant takes the atoms in R EF 3
the crystal and its three electrons take part in chemical 12. A half-wave rectifier rectifies only the half of AC input, i.e.
bonding with three electrons of intrinsic semiconductor or it conducts once during an AC input cycle while a full-wave
pure semiconductor, whereas the last bond are left free. rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the AC input, i.e. it
Since, as whole atom is electrically neutral, so p -type conducts twice during a cycle.
semiconductor is also neutral. * The output frequency for half-wave rectifier is 50 Hz
7. The separation of impurity energy level from conduction and the output frequency of a full wave rectifier is
band is less in case of n-type semiconductor and more in 2 " 50 ! 100 Hz.
case of p-type semiconductor. As, energy separation of 13. A junction diode made from light sensitive semiconductor is
impurity is 30 " 10#3 eV is much smaller than energy gap of called a photodiode.
pure semiconductor, i.e. E - 1 eV. Therefore, the doped A photodiode is a p-n junction diode arranged in reverse
semiconductor is n-type. biasing.
Eg ! 30 " 10#3 eV ! kT h#

#3
Eg 30 " 10
) T! ! ! 348.02 K
k 8. 62 " 10#5
8. Differences between forward and reverse biasing are as "A
given below p-side n-side
Forward bias Reverse bias
R
Positive terminal of battery is Positive terminal of battery
The number of charge carriers increases when light of
connected to p -type and is connected to n-type and
negative terminal to p-type suitable frequency is made to fall on the p-n junction,
negative terminal to n-type because new electron-hole pairs are created by absorbing
semiconductor. semiconductor.
the photons of suitable frequency. Intensity of light controls
Depletion layer is very thin. Depletion layer is thick. the number of charge carriers. Due to this property,
p-n junction offers very low p-n junction offers very photodiodes are used to detect optical signals.
resistance. high resistance. 14. Given, wavelength of light,
An ideal diode have zero An ideal diode have infinite . ! 6000 Å ! 6000 " 10#10 m
resistance. resistance. *Energy of the light photon,
CBSE Term II Physics XII 147

hc 6.6 " 10#34 " 3 " 108 VP VP

E! ! eV ! 2.06 eV 1 2
. 6000 " 10#10 " 1.6 " 10–19
The incident radiation which is detected by the photodiode
having energy should be greater than the band gap, so it is T
only valid for diode D2 . Then, diode D2 will detect this 0 t 0 T/2 T t
radiation.
15. For LEDs, the threshold voltages are much higher and
Hence, AC voltage can be rectified in the pulsating and
slightly different for different colours. The reverse
unidirectional voltage.
breakdown voltages of LEDs are low generally around 5V. It
is due to this reason, the care is taken that high reverse 17. A rectifier is used to convert alternating current into direct
voltages do not appear across LEDs. There is very little current, whose labelled circuit is as given below
resistance to limit the current in LED. Therefore, a Centre tap transformer
D1
resistor must be used in series with the LED to avoid any A
damage to it. Centre
The semiconductor is used for fabrication of visible LEDs tap
X
must at least have a band gap of 1.8eV (spectral range of B
visible light is from about 0.4 %m to 0.7 %m i.e. from about 3 R2 Output
D2
eV to 1.8 eV).
16. (i) The small region in the vicinity of the junction which is Y
depleted of free charge carriers and has only immobile
ions is called depletion region. Circuit diagram of full wave rectifier
Fictitious battery Working During the positive half-cycle of the input AC, the
Junction VB Electron diode D1 is forward biased and the diode D2 is reverse
Acceptor ion Donor ion
biased. The forward current flows through diode D1.
Hole
During the negative half-cycle of the input AC, the diode D1
is reverse biased and diode D2 is forward biased. Thus,
current flows through diode D2 . Thus, we find that during
both the halves, current flows in the same direction.
waveform at A

p-type n-type
Depletion layer
Input

'Electron diffusion O
Electron drift( t
p n (a)
waveform at B

'Depletion region
Input

Hole diffusion(
'Hole drift O
V t
(b)
VB
Due to Due to Due to Due to
waveform (across RL)

X1 X2
D1 D2 D1 D2
Output

The accumulation of negative charges in the p-region and

positive charge in the n-region sets up a potential O
difference across the junction. This acts as a barrier and is t
called barrier potential VB.
(ii) Transformer
P1 A 18. (i) D1 diode is forward biased, hence current will flow in B1
bulb and D2 is reverse biased, so there will be no current
~ RL in B2 . Hence, B1 will glow.
P2 B (ii) The diagram of illuminated p-n junction solar cell is as
shown below
Circuit diagram of half-wave rectifier
Working R
h#
(a) During positive half-cycle of input alternating voltage,
the diode is forward biased and a current flows through Depletion
layer
the load resistor R L and we get an output voltage.
(b) During other negative half-cycle of the input
alternating voltage, the diode is reverse biased and it
p n
does not conduct (under breakdown region).
148 CBSE Term II Physics XII

(iii) Processes involved due to generation of emf in a solar cell 21. As, concentration of Si atom ! 5 " 1028 / m 3
are given below
The doping of indium is 1 atom in 106 atoms of Si. But
(a) When light photon reach the junction, the excited
indium has three valence electrons and each doped indium
electrons from the valence band to conduction band
atom creates one hole in Si crystal. Hence, it acts as an
creating equal number of holes and electrons.
acceptor atom.
(b) These electron-hole pairs move in opposite direction
* Concentration of acceptor atoms,
due to junction field. Their movement in opposite
direction creates potential difference (photovoltage). n h ! 5 " 1028 " 10# 6
(c) When load is connected in the external circuit, ! 5 " 1022 / m 3
current starts flowing through it due to photovoltage. Intrinsic carrier concentration,
19. Photodiode n i ! 1.5 " 1016 / m 3
It is a special type of junction diode used for detecting * Hole concentration is increased,
optical signals. It is a reverse biased p-n junction made from n 5 " 1022
! h!
a photosensitive material. Its symbol is n i 1.5 " 1016
Working ! 3.33 " 106
When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons), New electron concentration,
with energy greater than the energy gap of the
n 2 (1.5 " 1016 ) 2
semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated due ne ! i !
to the absorption of photons. These charge carriers nh 5 " 10 22
contribute to the reverse current. ! 0.45 " 1010 / m 3
Circuit diagram of illuminated photodiode in reverse bias Electron concentration has been reduced
is as shown below n 1.5 " 1016
! i !
n e 0.45 " 1010
! 3.33 " 106 / m 3
This means that, the hole concentration has been increased
p-side n-side "A
over its intrinsic concentration by the same amount with
which the electron concentration has been decreased.
The conductivity of doped silicon is given by
I (mA)
' ! e( n e% e , n h% h )
! 1.6 " 10#19 (0.45 " 1010 " 0.135 , 5 " 1022 " 0.048)
Reverse bias ! 384 S/m
1 1
V Resistivity, & ! ! ! 0.0026 $-m
I1
' 384
I2
I3 Conductivity of pure Si crystal,
I4 ' ! en i( % e , % h )
I4 > I3 > I2 > I1 I ("A) ! 1.6 " 10#19 " 1.5 " 1016 (0.135 , 0.048)
20. For each atom doped with arsenic, one free electron is ! 0.4392 " 10#3S / m
received. Similarly, for each atom doped of indium, a 1 1
vacancy is created. So, number of free electrons introduced Resistivity, & ! ! ! 2276.8 $ - m
by pentavalent impurity, ' 0.4392 " 10#3
N As ! 5 " 1022 m #3 Thus, we see that the conductivity of Si doped within
become much greater than its intrinsic conductivity and the
The number of holes introduced by trivalent impurity resistivity has become much smaller than the intrinsic
added, N I ! 5 " 1020 m #3 resistivity.
So, net number of electrons added, 22. Given, V ! 0.4 V
n e ! NAs # N I
(i) d ! 4.0 " 10#7 m
! 5 " 1022 # 5 " 1020 V 0.4
Electric field, E ! ! ! 1 " 106 V/m
! 4.95 " 1022 m #3 d 4 " 10#7
We know that, n e n h ! n i2 (ii) v1 ! 4 " 105 m/s, v2 ! ?
n i2 (1.5 " 1016 ) 2 Suppose v1 be the speed of electron, when it enters the
So, n h ! ! depletion layer and v2 be the speed, when it comes out of
ne 4.95 " 1022 the depletion layer.
! 4.54 " 109 m #3 According to principle of conservation of energy,
As, n e ( n h (number of holes). So, the material is n-type KE before entering the depletion layer ! Gain in PE
semiconductor. , KE after crossing the depletion layer
CBSE Term II Physics XII 149

1 1 electrons in the p-side are accelerated due to the reverse

) mv12 ! e " V , mv22
2 2 bias voltage.
1 #31
These minority carriers acquire sufficient kinetic energy
) " 9. 1 " 10 " ( 4 " 105 ) 2 from the electric field and collide with a valence electron.
2
1 Thus, the bond is finally broken and the valence
! 1.6 " 10#19 " 0.4 , " 9.1 " 10#31 " v22 electrons move into the conduction band resulting in
2
enormous flow of electrons and thus formation of
* v2 ! 1.39 " 105 m/s electron-hole pairs.
23. When the input voltage is equal to or less than 5 V, diode Thus, there is a sudden increase in the current at the
will be reverse biased. It will offer high resistance in critical voltage.
comparison to resistance R in series. Now, diode appears as 25. Given, forward biased resistance ! 25 $
open circuit. The input waveform is then passed to the Reverse biased resistance ! /
output terminals. The result with sine wave input is to dip
As the diode in branch CD is in reverse biased, which have
off all positive going portion above 5 V.
infinite resistance.
If input voltage is more than , 5 V, diode will be conducting
So, I3 ! 0
as if forward biased offering low resistance in comparison to
R. But there will be no voltage in output beyond 5 V, as the Resistance in branch AB ! 25 , 125 ! 150 $ (say R1 )
voltage beyond , 5 V, will appear across R. Resistance in branch EF ! 25 , 125 ! 150 $ (say R 2 )
When input voltage is negative, there will be opposition to AB is parallel to EF.
5 V battery. In p- n junction, if input voltage becomes more 1 1 1
than # 5 V, the diode will be reverse biased. It will offer So, resultant resistance, ! ,
high resistance in comparison to resistance R in series. Now, R 0 R1 R 2
junction diode appears as open circuit. The input waveform 1 1 2
! , !
is then passed on to the output terminals. 150 150 150
The output waveform is as shown below ) R0 ! 75 $
Voltage
Total resistance, R ! R 0 , 25 ! 75 , 25 ! 100 $
+5 V V 5
Current, I1 ! ! ! 0.05 A
R 100
O I1 ! I4 , I2 , I3 (here, I3 ! 0)
T 2 T 3T 4T Time So, I1 ! I4 , I2
4 4 4 4
–5V Here, the resistances R1 and R 2 are same.
24. V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode is as shown below i.e. I4 ! I2
* I1 ! 2I2
Forward
bias I 0.05
Current (mA) ) I2 ! 1 ! ! 0.025 A and I4 ! 0.025 A
2 2
Thus, I1 ! 0.05 A, I2 ! 0.025 A, I3 ! 0
and I4 ! 0.025 A
Voltage (V)
Reverse 26. (i) Working of LED LED is a forward biased p- n junction
bias
which converts electrical energy into optical energy of
infrared and visible light region. Being in forward bias,
(i) Under the reverse bias condition, the holes of p-side thin depletion layer and low potential barrier facilitate
are attracted towards the negative terminal of the diffusion of electron and hole through the junction.
battery and the electrons of the n-side are attracted When high energy electron of conduction band combines
towards the positive terminal of the battery. This with the low energy holes in valence band, then energy is
increases the depletion layer and the induced potential released in the form of photon, which may be seen in the
barrier is also increased. However, the minority charge form of light.
carriers are drifted across a junction producing a small (ii) Semiconductors with appropriate band gap Eg close to
current. At any temperature, a number of minority 1.5 eV are preferred to make LED, e.g. GaAs.
charge carriers is constant, so there is the small current The other reasons to select these materials are high
at any applied potential. optical absorption, availability of raw material and low
This is the reason for the current under reverse bias cost.
known as reverse saturation current, which is almost (iii) Uses of LEDs
independent of applied potential. At the certain level of
voltage, avalanche breakdown takes place which results (a) LED can operate at very low voltage and consumes
less power in comparison to incandescent lamps.
in a sudden flow of large current.
(ii) At the critical voltage, (the voltage at which breakdown (b) Unlike the lamps, they take very less operational time
takes place), the holes in the n-side and conduction and have long life.
150 CBSE Term II Physics XII

27. (i) The energy of maximum intensity of the solar radiation is (c) In V-I curve, the point B indicates the maximum current
1.5 eV. In order to excite electrons, the energy of ISC which can be obtained by short-circuiting the solar
radiation h1 must be greater than energy band gap Eg , cell without any load resistance. ISC is called the
i.e. h1 ( Eg . Therefore, the semiconductor like GaAs is short-circuit current.
preferred because it has a band gap lower than 1.5 eV. It 28. (i) When photodiode is illuminated with light due to
captures significantly higher number of electron than any breaking of covalent bonds, equal number of additional
other material. electrons and holes come into existence whereas
(ii) V-I characteristics of a solar cell fractional change in minority charge carrier is much
I higher than fractional change in majority charge
Open circuit voltage (VOC)
carrier.
A Since, the fractional change of minority carrier current
(VOC) V is measurable significantly in reverse bias than that of
forward bias. Therefore, photodiodes are connected in
B reverse bias.
Isc
(ii) Given, . ! 450 nm
Short circuit current 1240 1240
Energy, E ! Å! eV ! 2.66 eV
Significance : . 450
(a) V-I curve is drawn in the fourth quadrant, because a So, diodes D2 and D3 will not detect light wave of
solar cell does not draw current but supplies current to wavelength 450 nm.
the load.
(iii) Main use of photodiode The photodiode are
(b) In V-I curve , the point A indicates the maximum voltage
extensively used in high speed reading of computer,
VOC which is being supplied by the given solar cell when
no current is being drawn from it. VOC is called the open punched cards, light-detection systems, light-operated
switches, counting of objects interrupting a light beam,
circuit voltage.
etc.