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TIT-CSE Bhopal TtttttttttLecture No -1
Mathematics-III [BT-401&BT-301] UNIT-I

E-Notes
Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 1

E-Notes
Lecture No -01
CHAPTER – 1
SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC AND TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS
𝟏. 𝟏 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚,
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ------------- + an xn , with an ≠ 0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 n. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑜𝑓
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐, 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐, 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
𝟏. 𝟐 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔:

(𝑖). 𝐵𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑
(𝑖𝑖). 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑖 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑
(𝑖𝑖𝑖). 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑
(𝑖𝑣). 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑
𝟏. 𝟑 𝑩𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅:
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
1. 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓 (𝑎) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝑏) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛.
𝑆𝑎𝑦 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓 (𝑎) = – 𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ( 𝑏 ) = + 𝑣𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. f (a). f (b)  0
 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (𝑎, 𝑏).
[𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: (𝒊). 𝒇 (𝒂) = – 𝒗𝒆 , 𝒇 (𝒃) = + 𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 f (a). f (b)  0 𝒂𝒏𝒅
(𝒊𝒊). 𝒇 (𝒂) = + 𝒗𝒆, 𝒇 (𝒃) = – 𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 f (a). f (b)  0 ]
ab
2. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑠 x0 
2
(i). 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 (x0) = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 x0 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
(ii). 𝐼𝑓 f (x0)  0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓(x0) < 0 or f(x0) > 0
Case 1: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 f(x0) < 0 and f (a) > 0
𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 f(x0). f (a) < 0
 Roots lies between (a, x0)
x0  a
 x1 
2

E-Notes
Case 2: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 f(x0) > 0 and f (b) < 0
So that f(x0). f (b) < 0
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 (x0, b)
x0  b
 x1 
2
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 f(x1) < 0 or f(x1) > 0
Here, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑝. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 which we have recently
𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑.
3. If f(x1) = 0 then x1 is root of the given equation. Otherwise, repeat above process until we
obtain solution of the given equation.
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 − 𝟏 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅

𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇
decimal: x3 – 3x – 5 = 0.
Solution: Suppose f ( x)  x3  4 x  9
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔, f (2)  23  3  2   5   3  ve 
𝐴𝑛𝑑 f (3)  33  3  3  5  13  ve 

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3.
1st Approximation:
23
x1   2.5
2
and f (2.5)  (2.5)3  3(2.5)  5  3.125   ve 
 Roots lie between 2 and 2.5.

2nd Approximation
2  2.5
x2   2.25
2
and f (2.25)  (2.25)3  3(2.25)  5   0.3593  ve 
 Roots lie between 2.25 and 2.5.

3rd Approximation
2.25  2.5
x3   2.375
2

E-Notes
and f (2.375)  (2.375)3  3(2.375)  5  1.2714   ve 

4th Approximation
2.25  2.375
x4   2.3125
2
and f (2.3125)  (2.3125)3  3(2.3125)  5  0.4289  ve 
5th Approximation
2.25  2.3125
x5   2.28125
2
and f (2.28125)  (2.28125)3  3(2.28125)  5  0.02810  ve 
6th Approximation
2.25  2.28125
x6   2.265625
2
and f (2.265625)  (2.265625)3  3(2.265625)  5   0.16729  ve 
7th Approximation
2.265625  2.28125
x7   2.27343
2
and f (2.27343)  (2.27343)3  3(2.27343)  5   0.07010  ve 

8th Approximation
2.27343  2.28125
x8   2.27734
2
and f (2.27734)  (2.27734)3  3(2.27734)  5   0.02110  ve 
 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2.27343 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.28125.
9th Approximation

E-Notes
2.27734  2.28125
x9   2.27929
2
and f (2.27929)  (2.27929)3  3(2.27929)  5  0.003412   ve 
10th Approximation
2.27734  2.27929
x10   2.27831
2
and f (2.27831)  (2.27831)3  3(2.27831)  5   0.008914  ve 

11th Approximation
2.27831  2.27929
x11   2.2788
2
and f (2.2788)  (2.2788)3  3(2.2788)  5   0.002752  ve 
Therefore, required root at three decimal places is 2.278.
Answer.
Problem 2 Find a real root of the equation x3 – 2x – 5 = 0 using bisection method. Carry
out the computation up to 3rd stage. [RGPV Dec. 2019]
Solution: Suppose f ( x)  x3  2 x  5 … (1)
Putting, x  2, f (2)  23  2  2   5   1 ve 
x  3, f (3)  33  2  3  5  16  ve 
Clearly f (2). f (3)  0
 root lies between 2 and 3. Say a = 2 and b = 3
1. First Approximation:
ab 23
x0    2.5
2 2
Putting in equation (1), we get
f  2.5   2.5  2  2.5  5  5.625  ve 
3
Clearly f (2). f (2.5)  0

 root lies between 2 and 2.5.

E-Notes
2. Second Approximation:
a  x0 2  2.5
x1    2.25
2 2
f  2.25   2.25  2  2.25  5  1.89  ve 
3
Clearly f (2). f (2.25)  0

3. Third Approximation:
a  x1 2  2.25
x2    2.125
2 2
f  2.125   2.125  2  2.125  5  0.3457  ve 
3
Clearly f (2). f (2.125)  0

Answer
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
Solve the following differential equation:

1. Explain Bisection method for solving Algebraic and Transcendental equations.
2. Using Bisection method, find the root of the equation x3 + x – 1 = 0 near x = 0. (upto three
iteration only).
[Answer: 2.125]
3. Find a real root of the equation f (x) = x3 – 4x – 9 = 0, using bisection method in four stages.
[Answer: 2.6875]
4. Find the root of the equation x log10 x = 1.2, that lies between 2 and 3.
[Answer: 2.741]

E-Notes
Lecture No- 02
𝟏. 𝟒 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝑭𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒊 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 ( 𝑭𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅):
Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 b
such that f (a ) and f (b) has opposite sign. Therefore root lies in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒, 𝑓 (𝑎) =  𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝑏) = + 𝑣𝑒
1st Iteration:
a f (b)  b f (a)
x1 
f (b)  f (a)
Let, f (x1) = ve. Therefore a roots lies between (x1, b)
2nd Iteration:
x1 f (b)  b f ( x1 )
x2 
f (b)  f ( x1 )
Let, f (x2) = ve. Therefore a roots lies between (x2, b)
3rd Iteration:
x2 f (b)  b f ( x2 )
x3 
f (b)  f ( x2 )
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 − 1 Give convergence values of Regula Falsi, Secant method and Newton
Raphson method.
Solution:
 ( x  a) 
(i). Convergence of 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎 False method p=1 ei  1  er  r f ( R ) 
 f ( R) 
Where R is some point in the interval xi and a. the convergence is Linear.
(ii). Convergence of Secant Method p = 1.618
(iii). Convergence of Newton 𝑅𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠𝑜𝑛 p=2

E-Notes
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 − 𝟐 Find the real root of the equation x3 – 5x – 7 = 0 which lies between 2
and 3 by the method of false position. (Upto 3 iteration).
Solution: Given: f ( x)  x3  5x  7
Since root lies between 2 and 3, then
Taking x=2 f (2)  23  5  2   7   9  ve 
and x=3 f (3)  33  5  3  7  5  ve 

Therefore, the root lies between 2 and 3.
1st Approximation:
Say, a = 2, b = 3 and f (2) = –9, f (3) = 5, by False position formula,
a f (b)  b f (a) 2 f (3)  3 f (2)
x1  
f (b)  f (a) f (3)  f (2)
2  5   3  9 
 x1   2.6429
 5   9 
 f (2.6429)   2.6429  5  2.6429  7   1.7547  ve 
3
So, the root lies between 2.6429 and 3.
2nd Approximation:
Say, x1 = 2.6429, b = 3 and f (2.6428) = –1.7547, f (3) = 5, by False position formula,
x1 f (b)  b f ( x1 ) 2.6429 f (3)  3 f (2.6429)
x2  
f (b)  f ( x1 ) f (3)  f (2.6429)
2.6429  5   3  1.7547 
 x2   2.7356
5   1.7547 
 f ( 2.7356)   2.7356  5  2.7356  7   0.2054  ve 

3
3rd Approximation:
Say, x2 = 2.7356, b = 3 and f (2.7356) = –0.2054, f (3) = 5, by False position formula,
x2 f (b)  b f ( x2 ) 2.7356 f (3)  3 f (2.7356)
x3  
f (b)  f ( x2 ) f (3)  f (2.7356)
2.7356  5   3  0.2054 
 x3   2.7461
5   0.2054 
 Required root after three approximations is 2.7461.

E-Notes
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 − 𝟑 Find the real root of the equation x log10 x  1.2 by the method of false
position correct to four place of decimal.
Solution: Given: f ( x)  x log10 x  1.2
Therefore, testing for interval where a real root lies, we get
f (2)  2log10 2 1.2   0.59794  ve 
And f (3)  3log10 3 1.2  0.23136  ve 
Therefore, the root lies between 2 and 3.
1st Approximation:
Say, a = 2, b = 3 and f (2) = -0.59794, f (3) = 0.23136, by False position formula,
a f (b)  b f (a) (2) f (3)  3 f (2)
x1  
f (b)  f (a) f (3)  f (2)
(2) (0.23136)  3(0.59794)
 x1   2.72101
(0.23136)  (0.59794)
 f (2.721017)  (2.721017)log10 (2.721017) 1.2   0.01709  ve 
2nd Approximation:
Say, x1 = 2.721017, b = 3 and f (2.721017) = -0.01709, f (3) = 0.23136, by False position
formula,
x1 f (b)  b f ( x1 ) (2.72101) f (3)  3 f (2.72101)
x2  
f (b)  f ( x1 ) f (3)  f (2.72101)
(2.72101) (0.23136)  3(0.01709)
 x2   2.74021
(0.23136)  (0.01709)
 f (2.74021)  (2.74021)log10 (2.74021)  1.2   0.00038  ve 
3rd Approximation:
Say, x2 = 2.74021, b = 3 and f (2.74019) = -0.00038, f (3) = 0.23136, by False position
formula,
x2 f (b)  b f ( x2 ) (2.74021) f (3)  3 f (2.74021)
x3  
f (b)  f ( x2 ) f (3)  f (2.74021)
(2.74019) (0.23136)  3(0.00038)
 x3   2.74064
(0.23136)  (0.00038)

E-Notes
 f (2.74064)  (2.74064)log10 (2.74064) 1.2   0.00001 ve 
4th Approximation:
Say, x3 = 2.74064, b = 3 and f (2.74021) = –0.00001, f (3) = 0.23136, by False position
formula,
x2 f (b)  b f ( x2 ) (2.74064) f (3)  3 f (2.74064)
x3  
f (b)  f ( x2 ) f (3)  f (2.74064)
(2.74064) (0.23136)  3(0.00001)
 x3   2.74065
(0.23136)  (0.00001)
Clearly, x3 ~ x4 = 2.7406
Hence, the root of the equation is 2.7406, correct to four decimal places.
Answer
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
Solve the following differential equation:

1. Find a real root of the equation x3 – 2x – 5 = 0 by the method of false position correct to three
decimal places.
[Answer: 2.094]
2. Find a real root of the equation x ex = 3cos x by Regula false method correct to three decimal
places.
[Answer: 0.848]
3. Find the roots of equation x ex = cos x using Regula- falsi method, correct to four decimal
places.
[Answer: 0.5176]
4. Find the root of the equation x log10 x = 1.2, that lies between 2 and 3.
[Answer: 2.741]

E-Notes
Lecture No-03
𝟏. 𝟓 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕:
Let f (x) = 0 be any equation and taking two consecutive values x sat a and b such that f
(a ) and f (b) has opposite sign. Therefore root lies in the interval (a, b).
Now we chose x0 = (a + b)/ 2 and find f (x).
Ist Approximation:-
f (x0 )
x1 = x0 
f  (x0 )
IInd Approximation:-
f (x1 )
x2 = x1 
f (x1 )
nth Approximation:-
f (xn )
xn +1 = xn  .
f (xn )
Problem -1 Find a real root of the equation x4  x 13  0 by Newton Rapshon method
correct to three decimal places.
Solution: Given: f ( x)  x4  x 13

Taking x = 1, f (1)  14  1  13   12  ve 
and x = 2, f (2)  24  2  13  1 ve 
Therefore a root lies between 1 and 2.
Now, f ( x)  4x3 1
1 2
Taking x0   1.5  1, 2  , such that f (1.5)  0
2
1st Approximation:
f  x0 
x1  x0 
f   x0 
( x0 ) 4  4( x0 )  13 (1.5) 4  4(1.5)  13
 x1  x0   1.5   2.255
4( x0 )3  1 4(1.5)3  1
2nd Approximation
f  x1 
x2  x1 
f   x1 

E-Notes
( x1 ) 4  4( x1 )  13 (2.255) 4  4(2.255)  13
 x2  x1   2.255   2.0186
4( x1 )3  1 4(2.255)3  1
3rd Approximation
f  x2 
x3  x2 
f   x2 
( x2 ) 4  4( x2 )  13 (2.0186)4  4(2.0186)  13
 x3  x2   2.0186   1.9689
4( x2 )3  1 4(2.0186)3  1
4th Approximation
f  x3 
x4  x3 
f   x3 
( x3 ) 4  4( x3 )  13 (1.9689)4  4(1.9689)  13
 x4  x3   1.9689   1.9669
4( x3 )3  1 4(1.9689)3  1
5th Approximation
f  x4 
x5  x4 
f   x4 
( x4 ) 4  4( x4 )  13 (1.9669) 4  4(1.9669)  13
 x5  x4   1.9669   1.9669
4( x4 )3  1 4(1.9669)3  1
Clearly, x5 ~ x4  1.9669
Therefore, required root to three decimal places is 1.9669. Ans
Problem- 2 Using Newton-Raphson method find a real root of the equation x log10 x  1.2  0
correct four decimal places.
Solution: Given: f ( x)  x log10 x  1.2
Taking x = 2, f (2)  2 log10 (2)  1.2   0.597940   ve
and x = 3 f (3)  3 log10 (3)  1.2  0.231363   ve
Therefore a root lies between 2 and 3 and it is nearer to 3.
Now, f ( x)  x  log10 e   log10 x  0.434294  log10 x
1
x 
23
Taking x0   2.5 , such that f (2.5)  0
2
The nth iteration formula of Newton-Raphson method is,

E-Notes
f ( xn )
xn  1  xn 
f ( xn )
( xn ) log10 ( xn )  1.2
 xn  1  xn  …… (1)
0.434294  log10 ( xn )
1st Approximation:
( x0 ) log10 ( x0 )  1.2
x1  x0 
0.434294  log10 ( x0 )
(2.5) log10 (2.5)  1.2
 x1  2.5   2.74650
0.434294  log10 (2.5)
2nd Approximation:
( x1 ) log10 ( x1 )  1.2
x2  x1 
0.434294  log10 ( x1 )
(2.74650) log10 (2.74650)  1.2
 x2  2.74650   2.740649
0.434294  log10 (2.74650)
3rd Approximation:
cos( x2 )  3 x2  1
x3  x2 
sin( x2 )  3
(2.740649) log10 (2.740649)  1.2
 x3  2.740649   2.740646
0.434294  log10 (2.740649)
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
Solve the following equation:

1. Use the Newton’s method find the real root of x3 – 3x – 5 = 0
[Answer: 2.27901]
2. Solve the equation cos x + 1 = 3x by using Newton – Raphson method.
[Answer: 0.6071]
3..Evaluate (12)1/ 3 to four decimal places by Newton-Raphson method
[Answer: 3.4641]

E-Notes
Lecture N0-04
CHAPTER – 2
DIFFERENCE OPERATOR AND INTERPOLATION FOR EQUAL INTERVAL
2.1 Concept of Finite Difference:

Suppose y = f (x) be any function, then independent variable x is called Argument and
dependent variable y is called Entry.
2.2 Types of difference operators:

There are two types of difference operator such as
(i) Equal difference operator
(ii) Unequal difference operator
2.3 Equal difference operators:

Suppose y = f (x) be any function and h being interval in the arguments such as
x : a a+h a + 2h a + 3h … a + nh
f (x) : f (a) f (a + h) f (a + 2h) f (a +3 h) … f (a + nh)
yx : y0 y1 y2 y3 … yn
S.No. Name of Operator Notation Formula

Forward difference or
1  f ( x)  f ( x  h)  f ( x)
ascending difference operator
Backward difference or
2 descending difference  f ( x)  f ( x)  f ( x  h)
operator
E f ( x)  f ( x  h) and
3 Shifting operator E
E 1 f ( x)  f ( x  h)
 h  h
4 Central difference operator  f ( x)  f  x    f  x  
 2  2
1  h  h 
 f ( x)  f x  f  x  
2 
5 Average operator
 2  2 
6 D-operator D E  ehD

E-Notes
2.4 Relation between the operators
(i) Relation between  and E :   E 1
(ii) Relation between  and E :   1  E 1
(iii) Relation between ,  and E E
(iv) Relation between  and E :   E1/2  E 1/2
2.5 Factorial notation for polynomial function:

The product of n factors in which first term is x and remaining terms having differences
h, is called the factorial notation and it is denoted by x( n)
x( n)  x( x  h)( x  2h)( x  3h) .....  x  (n  1)h
such that, x(0)  1 and x(1)  x

.
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
 2  x E e x
1. Prove that:   e . 2 x  e x , the interval of difference being h. [RGPV Dec. 2018]
 E   e
  f  x  
2. Prove that:  log f  x   log 1   [RGPV Dec. 2019]
 f  x  
3. Show that .    

4. Prove that: ( E1/2  E 1/2 ) (1  )1/2  2  
5. Prove that:    E 1  E 1  1  E 1
6. Prove that: (1  ) (1  )  1

E-Notes
Lecture No-05
2.6 Concept of interpolation:
The estimating the values of a function for any intermediate value of the argument when
the values of the function corresponding to a number of values of the argument are given is
called interpolation.
2.7 Assumption for interpolation:

1. The function is a polynomial function of the argument.
2. There are no sudden jumps or fall in the values of function, during the period of
consideration.
3. The rise or fall in the values of the function should be uniform.
2.8 Extrapolation
It is the operation of estimating the values of function outside the given range of values of
argument.
2.9 Method of interpolation for equal interval

Method-1 Missing terms Technique or Newton’s Binomial Expansion:-
Suppose we find out the one missing term from interpolation table and we have (n + 1)
argument and their corresponding n entry then we can expressed y as a polynomial in x of
degree n such that
1. n yx  0 (for one missing values)
2. n  1 yx  0 (for two missing values)

E-Notes
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 − 𝟏 Estimate the missing term in the following:
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
f (x) 2 4 8 - 32 64 128
Explain why the result differs from 24.

Solution: Since we have 6 entries corresponding to 7 arguments and one missing term is
required, then
6 f  x   0 … (1)
By Difference table: Suppose the missing value is y4
x y y 2y 3y 4y 5y 6y
1 2
2
2 4 2
4 y4 – 14
3 8 y4 – 12 66 – 4y4
y4 - 8 52 – 3 y4 –158 +
4 y4 40 – –92 + 10y4 322 - 20y4
32 – y4 2y4 – 40 + 3y4 6y4
5 32 164 – 10y4
32 y4 32 – y4 72 –
6 64 4y4
64 32
7 128
Taking, h = 1 (First argument of difference table) then from equation (1) we get
 6 f 1  0
322
 322 – 20y4 = 0  y4   16.1
20
Answer
We know that the interpolation based on polynomial function, but 2 n is not a polynomial
function because it’s exponent function that why the reason the value is differ from that.

E-Notes
Problem 2 Find the missing terms,
x 10 15 20 25 30 35
f (x) 43 - 29 32 - 77
Solution: By Difference table: Suppose the missing value are y15 and y30
x y y 2y 3y 4y
10 43
y15 – 43
15 y15 –2y15 + 72
29 – y15 3 y15 – 98
20 29 y15 – 26 y30 – 4 y15 + 89
3 y30 - y15 – 9
25 32 y30 – 35 – 4 y30 + y15 +
y30 – 32 –3 y30 + 153
30 y30 – 2 y30 + 144
77 – y30 109
35 77
Since four entries are given, then

4 f  x   0 … (1)
Case 1: Taking h = 10 then from (1) we get
 4 f 10   0
 y30  4 y15  89  0
 y30  4 y15   89 … (2)
Case 2: Taking h = 15 then from equation (1) we get
 4 f 15   0
 4 y30  y15  153  0
 4 y30  y15  89 … (3)
Solve equation (2) and (3), we get
y15  33.93 and y30  46.73
Thus, f 15  33.93 and f  30  46.73 Answer

E-Notes
Problem -3 Find the first term of the series whose second and subsequent terms are 8, 3,
0, –10.
Solution: Here the entries are given but not arguments, then we assume table in which first term
is unknown, such that:
x 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) – 8 3 0 –10
By Difference table: Suppose the missing value is y1
x y y 2y 3y 4y 5y
1 y1
8 –
2 8 y1 –13 + y1
15 – y1
3 3 –5 2 y1 – 15
0 – y1 + 6
4 0 –3 2 –9
–9
5 –10 –10 –7
Since five entries are given, then 5f (x) = 0

 – y1 + 6 = 0  y1  6 Answer

E-Notes
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. Interpolate f (2) from the following data:
x 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) 7 - 13 21 37
Explain why the value is different from that putting x = 2 in the expression 2x + 5.
[Answer: f (2) = 9.5]
2. Estimate the missing term in the following data: [RGPV Dec.
2002, 2008]
x 0 1 2 3 4
f (x) 1 3 9 - 81
Explain why the value is different from 33 = 27

[Answer: f (3) = 31]
3. Interpolate f (2.1) and f (2.4) from the following table: [RGPV June
2004]
x 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
f (x) 0.135 - 0.111 0.100 - 0.082 0.074
[Answer: f (2.1) = 0.123 and f (2.4) = 0.0904]

4. Find the missing value in the following table: [RGPV June
2005]
x 0 5 10 15 20 25
f (x) 6 10 - 17 - 31
[Answer: f (10) = 13.25 and f (20) = 22.5]

E-Notes
Lecture No-06
Method-2 Newton - Gregory forward difference interpolation Formula
Statement: Suppose y = f (x) be any function and h being interval in the arguments such as
x : a a+h a + 2h a + 3h … a + nh
yx : y0 y1 y2 y3 yn
p p ( p  1) 2 p ( p  1)( p  2) 3
then, f (a  ph)  f (a)  f (a)   f (a )   f (a)  ...
1 2 3
p ( p  1) ( p  2 ) - - - ( p  n  1) n
  f (a)  ...
n
x  x0 x  a
Where, p  
h h
# This formula is used usually for interpolating the values of f (x) when x is slightly greater or
less than a i.e. near the beginning of x = a
# The above formula can be writing as,
f (a  ph)  y0  p
C1 y0  p
C2  2 y0  p
C3 3 y0  ...  p
Cn  n y0  ...
Problem 1 Given that: sin 450 = 0.7071, sin 500 = 0.76600, sin 550 = 0.8192, sin 600 =
0.8660, find the value of sin 520. [RGPV Dec.
2019]
Solution: Given the table:

Angle (x0) 450 500 550 600
y = sin x0 0.7071 0.7660 0.8192 0.8660
Since x = 520 is nearest the first argument in above table,

then we using the Newton’s Forward difference
interpolation.
The Forware difference table is,

E-Notes
(x0) y = sin y 2y 3y

x0
450 0.7071
0.0589
500 0.7660 0.0057
0.0532 
 0.0064 0.0007
0
55 0.8192
0.0468
600 0.8660
Here, x0 = 450, x = 520 (given), h = 50

x  x0 520  450
So that, p    1.4
h 5
By Newton’s forward difference interpolation formula is,
p p  p  1 2 p  p  1 p  2  3
f ( x)  y0  y0   y0   y0  ...
1 2 3
1.4 1.4 1.4  1 1.4 1.4  11.4  2 
 f (52)  0.7071   0.0589    0.0057    0.0007 
1 2 6
 f (52)  0.7880
Thus, sin 520  0.7882 Answer

E-Notes
Problem 2 Estimate from the number of students who obtained marks between 40 and
45:
Marks 30 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 60 60 – 70 70 – 80
No. of 31 42 51 35 31
students
Solution: Let us calculate the number of students whose marks between 40 and 45.
x  x0 45  40
We have x0 = 40, x = 45 (given), h = 10, therefore p    0.5 and x0 + ph = 45
h 10
p p  p  1 2 p  p  1 p  2  3 p  p  1 p  2  p  3 4
f ( x0  ph)  y0  y0   y0   y0   y0  ...
1 2 3 4
… (1)
Since the table given in the continuous interval form, then we convert in the below form such
that. The difference table is,
x y y 2y 3y 4y
Marks (No. of
Below students)
40 31
42
50 73 9
51 –25
60 124 –16 37
35 12
70 159 –4
31
80 190
Putting the values in equation (1), we get
0.5  0.5  1 0.5  0.5  1 0.5  2  0.5  0.5  1 0.5  2  0.5  3
 f (45) = 31  0.5  42   9   25  37 
2 6 24
  31+21  1.125  1.5625  1.4453125  47.8671875  48(Approximated)
Hence, the number of students whose marks between 40 and 45 is,
= f(45) – f(40) = 48 – 31 = 17 Answer

E-Notes
Problem 3 Find the cubic polynomial which takes the following values:
x. 0 1 2 3
y 1 2 1 10
Solution: The difference table is,

x y y 2y 3y
0 1
1
1 2 -2
–1 12
2 1 10
9
3 10
x  x0 x  0
We have x0 = 0, h = 1, therefore p    x and x0 + ph = x
h 1
p p  p  1 2 p  p  1 p  2  3
f ( x0  ph)  y0  y0   y0   y0  ...
1 2 3
x x  x  1 x  x  1 x  2 
 f ( x)  1  1   2   12 
1 2 3
 f ( x)  1  x  x2  x  2 x3  6 x2  4 x  2 x3  7 x2  6x  1
Thus the required polynomial is,
f ( x )  2 x3  7 x 2  6 x  1 Answer

E-Notes
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. Given y20 = 24, y24 = 32, y28 = 35, y32 = 40, find y22 by using Newton-Gregory forward
interpolation formula.
[Answer: y22 = 29.0625]
2. Find the lowest degree polynomial f (x) that will fit the data:
x 0 2 4 6 8
f (x) 5 9 61 209 501
[Answer: f (x) = x – 2x + 5]
3
3. Find the number of men getting wages between Rs. 10 and Rs. 15 from the following table.
Wages in Rs. : 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency : 9 30 35 42
[Answer: f (15) = 24, 15]

E-Notes
Lecture No-07
Method-3 Newton Gregory Backward difference formula
Statement: Suppose y = f (x) be any function and h being interval in the arguments such as
x : a a+h a + 2h a + 3h … a + nh
yx : y0 y1 y2 y3 yn
p p( p  1 ) 2
then, f (a  ph  nh)  f (a  nh)  f (a  nh)   f (a  nh)  ...
1 2
p ( p  1) ( p  2)... ( p  n  1) n
..   f (a  nh)  ...
n
x  (a  nh) x  xn
Where p  
h h
# This formula is used usually for interpolating the values of f (x)

when x is slightly less than a + nh i.e. near the ending of x = a + nh
# The above formula can be written as
p p( p  1 ) 2 p( p  1 ) ( p  2 ) ... ( p  n  1 ) n
y x  yn  yn   yn   yn  ...
1 2 n

E-Notes
Problem 1 Given that: sin 450 = 0.7071, sin 50 = 0.7660, sin 550 = 0.8192, sin 600 = 0.8660,
0
find the value of sin 570.

Solution: Given the table:
Angle 450 500 550 600
(x0)
y = sin x0 0.7071 0.7660 0.8192 0.8660
Since x = 570 is nearest the last value
of above table, then we using the Newton’s Backward difference
interpolation.
The Backward difference table is,
(x0) y = sin y 2y 3y
x0
450 0.7071
0.0589
50 0
0.7660 0.0057
0.0532 
0
55 0.8192  0.0007
0.0468 0.0064
0
60 0.8660
We have xn = 600, x = 570 (given), h = 50,

x  xn 570  600
therefore p     0.6 and xn  x0  nh  600
h 5
By Newton’s backward difference interpolation formula is,
p p  p  1 2 p  p  1 p  2  3
f ( xn  ph)  yn  yn   yn   yn  ...
1 2 3
0.6 0.6  0.6  1 0.6  0.6  1 0.6  2 
 f (570 )  0.8660   0.0468   0.0064    0.0007 
1 2 3
 sin 570  0.8660  0.02808  0.000768  0.00000392  0.83872
Thus sin 570  0.83872 Answer

E-Notes
Problem 2 The populations of a country in the decennial censuses were as under. Estimate the
population for the year 1925.
Year (x) 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Population y 46 66 81 93 101
(1000’s)
Solution: Since year 1925 is nearest to last given year 1931, therefore we using Newton’s
backward difference interpolation formula. The Backward difference table is,
Year (x) Sale (y) yn 2yn 3yn 4yn
1891 46
20
1901 66 5
15 2
1911 81 3 3
Here 12 1 xn = x0 + nh =
1931, x 1921 93 4 = 1925 and h = 10
 8
1931 = xn 101 = yn
x  xn 1925  1931 6
p     0.6
h 10 10
By Newton’s backward difference interpolation formula is,
p p  p  1 2 p  p  1 p  2  3 p  p  1 p  2  p  3 4
f ( xn  ph)  yn  yn   yn   yn   yn  ...
1 2 3 4
f (1925)  101   0.6  8 

 0.6 0.6  1  0.6  0.6  1 0.6  2
  4    1
2 3
 0.6 0.6  1 0.6  2  0.6  3
  3
4
 f (1925)  101  4.8  0.48  0.056  0.1008  96.8368 thousands Answer

E-Notes
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. Estimate the sale for 1966 using the following data.

Year : 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981
Sale ( 1000’s ) : 12 15 20 27 39 52
[Answer: 32thousand populations]
2. Evaluate f (22) and f (42) from the following data.

x : 20 25 30 35 40 45
f (x) : 354 332 291 260 231 204
[Answer f (22) = 352, f (42) = 219]
3. Given that :
x : 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) : 2 5 10 17 26. Find the value of  2y5
[Answer:  2y5 = 2]

E-Notes
Lecture No-08
Method 4 Lagrange’s interpolation formula
Suppose y = f (x) be any function and the argument x0, x1, x2 ----- xn are not equally spaced such
that
x : x0 x1 x2 x3 … xn
f (x) : f (x0) f (x1) f (x2) f (x3) … f (xn), then
( x  x1 )( x  x2 )...( x  xn ) ( x  x0 )( x  x2 )...( x  xn )
f ( x)  f ( x0 )  f ( x1 )
( x0  x1 )( x0  x2 )...( x0  xn ) ( x1  x0 )( x1  x2 )...( x1  xn )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x3 )...( x  xn )
 f ( x2 )  ...
( x2  x0 )( x2  x1 )( x2  x3 )...( x2  xn )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x2 )...( x  xn  1)
...  f ( xn )  ...
( xn  x0 )( xn  x1 )( xn  x2 )...( xn  xn  1)
Lagrange’s formula may also be written as
f ( x)  f ( x0 ) L0 ( x)  f ( x1) L1( x)  f ( x2 ) L2 ( x)  ....  f ( xn ) Ln ( x)
( x  x1 )( x  x2 )...( x  xn ) ( x  x0 )( x  x2 )...( x  xn )
Where, L0 ( x)  , L1 ( x) 
( x0  x1 )( x0  x2 )...( x0  xn ) ( x1  x0 )( x1  x2 )...( x1  xn )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x3 )...( x  xn ) ( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x2 )...( x  xn  1 )
L2 ( x)  and Ln ( x) 
( x2  x0 )( x2  x1 )( x2  x3 )...( x2  xn ) ( xn  x0 )( xn  x1 )( xn  x2 )...( xn  xn  1 )
Problem 1 From the following table find the value of tan330 by Lagrange’s formula
x tan300 tan320 tan320 tan380
y 0.5774 0.6249 0.7002 0.7813
Solution: Suppose f ( x)  tan x0 , then we have

x0  30 , x1  32 x2  35 x3  38
f ( x0 )  0.5774 f ( x1)  0.6249 f ( x2 )  0.7002 f ( x3 )  0.7813
and x = 33
Lagrange’s interpolation formula is,
( x  x1 )( x  x2 )( x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x2 )( x  x3 )
f ( x)  f ( x0 )  f ( x1 )
( x0  x1 )( x0  x2 )( x0  x3 ) ( x1  x0 )( x1  x2 )( x1  x3 )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x2 )
 f ( x2 )  f ( x3 )
( x2  x0 )( x2  x1 )( x2  x3 ) ( x3  x0 )( x3  x1 )( x3  x2 )
Putting the values in above formula,

E-Notes
(33  32)(33  35)(33  38) (33  30)(33  35)(33  38)
f (33)   0.5774   0.6249
(30  32)(30  35)(30  38) (32  30)(32  35)(32  38)
(33  30)(33  32)(33  38) (33  30)(33  32)(33  35)
  0.7002   0.7813
(35  30)(35  32)(35  38) (38  30)(38  32)(38  35)
(1)(2)(5) (3)(2)(5) (3)(1)(5) (3)(1)(2)
f (33)   0.5774   0.6249    0.7002   0.7813
(2)(5)(8) (2)(3)(6) (5)(3)(3) (8)(6)(3)
f (33)   0.0721775  0.52075  0.2334  0.03255  0.64941
 tan 330  0.64941 Answer

Problem 2 Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula, find the cubic polynomial that takes
the following values.
x 0 1 2 4
y 1 1 2 5
Solution: Given:
x0  0 , x1  1 x2  2 x3  4
f ( x0 )  1 f ( x1)  1 f ( x2 )  2 f ( x3 )  5
and x = 33
Lagrange’s interpolation formula is,
( x  x1 )( x  x2 )( x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x2 )( x  x3 )
f ( x)  f ( x0 )  f ( x1 )
( x0  x1 )( x0  x2 )( x0  x3 ) ( x1  x0 )( x1  x2 )( x1  x3 )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x1 )( x  x2 )
 f ( x2 )  f ( x3 )
( x2  x0 )( x2  x1 )( x2  x3 ) ( x3  x0 )( x3  x1 )( x3  x2 )
Putting the values in above formula,
( x  1)( x  2)( x  4) ( x  0)( x  2)( x  4) ( x  0)( x  1)( x  4) ( x  0)( x  1)( x  2)
 f ( x)  1  1  2 5
(0  1)(0  2)(0  4) (1  0)(1  2)(1  4) (2  0)(2  1)(2  4) (4  0)(4  1)(4  2)
1 1 1 5
 f  x     x3  7 x 2  2 x  8   x3  6 x 2  8 x    x3  5 x 2  4 x    x3  3x 2  2 x 
8 3 2 24
 f  x   x3     
1 1 1 5  7 5 5  1 8 5
    2    x2     2   x  1
 8 3 2 24   8 2 8  4 3 12 
1 3 3 2 5
 f  x   x  x  x 1
12 4 6
Answer

E-Notes
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. Use the Lagrange’s formula to find f (6) from the following table,
x : 2 5 7 10 12
f ( x ): 18 180 448 1210 2028 [Answer: f (6) =
294]
2. Given log10 654 = 2.8156, log10 658 = 2.8182, log10 659 = 2.8189, log10 661 = 2.8202, find
the value of log10 656 by using Lagrange’s formula.
[Answer: log10 656 = 2.8168]
3. Apply Lagrange’s formula to find f (5) and f (6) given that, f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 8, f (7)
= 128, explain why the result differs from those obtained by completing the series of powers of
2.
[Answer f (5) = 32.93 and f (6) = 66.67]

E-Notes
Lecture No-09
Method 5 Newton’s divided difference interpolation formula
Suppose y = f (x) be any function and the argument x0, x1, x2 ----- xn are not equally spaced such
that
x : x0 x1 x2 x3 … xn
f (x) : f (x0) f (x1) f (x2) f (x3) … f (xn), then
f ( x)  f ( x0 )  ( x  x0 ) f ( x0 , x1)  ( x  x0 ) ( x  x1) f ( x0 , x1, x2 ) ( x  x0 ) ( x  x1) ( x  x2 ) f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 )  ...
Problem 1 Use Newton’s divided difference formula or Lagrange’s formula evaluate f (8)
and (15)
from the given table,
x: 4 5 7 10 11 13
f (x): 48 100 294 900 1210 2028
Solution: Given:
x0 = 4, x1 = 5, x2 = 7, x3 = 10, x4 = 11 x5 = 13
and f(x0) = 48, f(x1) = 100, f(x2) = 294,f(x3) = 900, f(x4) = 1210,f(x5) = 2028
Divided difference table is,
2 3 4 5
Arguments Entry f (x) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
x1 x1 , x2 x1 , x2 , x3 x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5
(x)
4 48
100  48
 52
54
5 100 97  52
 15
294  100 74
 97
75 21  15
1
7 294 202  97 10  4
 21
900  294 10  5 11
 202 0
10  7 27  21 11  4
1
10 900 310  202 11  5 00
 27 0
1210  900 11  7 1 1 13  4
 310 0
11  10 33  27 13  5
11 1210 1
409  310 13  7
 33
2028  1210 13  10
 409
13  11
13 2028

E-Notes
By Newton’s divided difference formula, we have 3

2
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
f ( x)  f ( x0 )  ( x  x0 ) f ( x0 )  ( x  x0 ) ( x  x1 ) x1 , x2  ( x  x0 ) ( x  x1 ) ( x  x2 ) x1, x2 , x3 +
x1
4 5
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
( x  x0 ) ( x  x1 ) ( x  x2 ) ( x  x3 ) x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 + ( x  x0 ) ( x  x1 ) ( x  x2 ) ( x  x3 ) ( x  x4 ) x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5
Putting the values from the table, we get

f ( x)  48  ( x  4) (52)  ( x  4)( x  5) (15)  ( x  4)( x  5)( x  7) (1)  0  0
 f ( x)  48  ( x  4) (52)  ( x  4)( x  5) (15)  ( x  4)( x  5)( x  7) … (1)
Putting x = 8 and x = 15 we get
f (8)  48  (8  4) (52)  (8  4)(8  5) (15)  (8  4)(8  5)(8  7)  448 Answer
and f (9)  48  (9  4) (52)  (9  4)(9  5) (15)  (9  4)(9  5)(9  7)  648 Answer
Hence f (8)  448 and f (9)  648
Problem 2 Find a polynomial satisfied by (–4, 1245), (–1, 33), (0, 5), (2, 9) and (5, 1335) by
Newton divided formula.
Solution: Divided difference table is,
3 4
2 f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
Arguments Entry f f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) x1 , x2 , x3 , x4
x1 , x2 x1 , x2 , x3
x1
(x) (x)
–4 1245
33  1245
  404
1  4
–1 33 28  404
 94
5  33 04
  28
0 1
10  94
  14
2  28 24
0 5  10 13  14
95 2 1 3
 2 5 4
20
88  10
 13
442  2 5 1
2 9  88
1335  9 50
 442
52
5 1335
Applying Newton’s divided difference formula,

E-Notes
f ( x)  1245  ( x  4)(404)  ( x  4)( x  1)(94)  ( x  4)( x  1)( x  0)(14)
( x  4)( x  1)( x  0)( x  2)(3)
 f ( x)  1245  404x 1616  94x2  470x  376  14x3  70x2  56x  3x4  9x3  18x2  24x
 f ( x)  3x4  5x3  6 x2  14 x  5 Answer

E-Notes
Lecture No -10
Problem 3 Find the missing term using Newton’s divided difference formula.
x 0 1 2 3 4
f (x) 1 3 9 - 81 r
Solution: Given:
x: 0 1 2 4
y: 1 3 9 81
Divided Difference table:
2 3
x y y y y
0 1
2
1 3 2
6 2
2 9 10
36
4 81
By Newton divided difference formula,

3
f ( x0 ) + …..
2
f ( x)  f ( x0 )  ( x  x0 ) f ( x0 )  ( x  x0 ) ( x  x1 ) f ( x0 )  ( x  x0 ) ( x  x1 ) ( x  x2 )
x1 x1 , x2 x1, x2 , x3
Putting the values from the table, we get
f  3  1   3  0 2  3  03  1 2   3  0 3  13  2  2 
 f (3)  31 Answer

E-Notes
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. Find the polynomial function f (x) by using Newton’s divided difference formula:
x 0 2 3 6
f(x) 648 704 729 792
[Answer: f ( x)   x2  30 x  648 ]
2. Given the values:

x : 5 7 11 13 17
f (x) : 150 392 1452 2366 5202
Hence evaluate f (9) by Newton’s divided difference formula.
[Answer: f (9) = 810]
3. Use Newton’s divided difference formula to find the form of f (x) given
x : 0 2 3 6
f (x) : 648 704 729 792
[Answer f (x) = 648 + 30x – x2]

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TIT-CSE Bhopal TtttttttttLecture No -1

Mathematics-III [BT-401&BT-301] UNIT-I

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 1

𝟏. 𝟏 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝟏. 𝟐 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑨𝒍𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔:

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 2

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 − 𝟏 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅

𝐴𝑛𝑑 f (3)  33  3  3  5  13  ve 

 Roots lie between 2 and 2.5.

 Roots lie between 2.25 and 2.5.

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 3

 Roots lie between 2.25 and 2.375.

 Roots lie between 2.25 and 2.3125.

 Roots lie between 2.25 and 2.28125.

 Roots lie between 2.265625 and 2.28125.

 Roots lie between 2.27343 and 2.28125.

 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2.27343 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.28125.

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 4

 Roots lie between 2.27343 and 2.27929.

 Roots lie between 2.27831 and 2.27929.

Clearly f (2). f (2.5)  0

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 5

Clearly f (2). f (2.25)  0

Clearly f (2). f (2.125)  0

IMPROVE YOUR SELF

Solve the following differential equation:

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 6

(iii). Convergence of Newton 𝑅𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑠𝑜𝑛 p=2

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 7

and x=3 f (3)  33  5  3  7  5  ve 

So, the root lies between 2.6429 and 3.

 f ( 2.7356)   2.7356  5  2.7356  7   0.2054  ve 

So, the root lies between 2.7354 and 3.

 Required root after three approximations is 2.7461.

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 8

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 9

IMPROVE YOUR SELF

Solve the following differential equation:

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 10

Solution: Given: f ( x)  x4  x 13

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 11

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 12

IMPROVE YOUR SELF

Solve the following equation:

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 13

2.1 Concept of Finite Difference:

2.2 Types of difference operators:

2.3 Equal difference operators:

S.No. Name of Operator Notation Formula

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 14

(iv) Relation between  and E :   E1/2  E 1/2

2.5 Factorial notation for polynomial function:

such that, x(0)  1 and x(1)  x

3. Show that .    

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 15

2.7 Assumption for interpolation:

2.9 Method of interpolation for equal interval

Prof. Durgesh Kumar Lakhera 8359030451 / 7987307567 Page 16

Explain why the result differs from 24.