Sample Module-1 Pharmacognosy GDC Prime

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PHARMACOGNOSY : INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY Module-1
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INTRODUCTION
PHARMACOGNOSY
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Pharmakon (Drug)
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Gignosco (To acquire knowledge of )
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 Pharmacognosy is defined as a branch of bioscience which treats in detail medicinal
and related products of crude or primary type obtained from plant, animal and
mineral origins.
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 It is an objective study of crude drugs from natural sources treated scientifically and it
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encompasses the knowledge of the history, distribution, cultivation, collection,

processing for market and preservation, the study of sensory, physical, chemical
and structural characters and the uses of crude drugs.
 It was C. A. Seydler, a medical student at Germany, in 1815, who created the term
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Pharmacognosy in his doctoral thesis titled “Analecta Pharmacognostica”.

 In the nineteenth century, the term ‘Materia Medica’ was used for the subject now
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known as “Pharmacognosy”.
 Dioscorides, known as the “Father of pharmacognosy”, he wrote “De Materia Medica,”
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elaborating on large data about helpful medicinal plants.
SOURCES OF THE CRUDE DRUG

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Natural product medicine obtained from various sources like plant, animals, minerals,
marine sources and plant tissue culture.
 Plant – Nux vomica, Clove, Senna
 Animal- Honey, Bees wax, Shellac
 Microorganism- Penicillins, Tetracyclines, Acarbose
 Mineral – Kaolin, Talc, Bentonite
 Marine- Ara-C, Thelpin, Halotoxin
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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY
SCIENTIST IMAGES CONTRIBUTION

Dioscorides • Father of Pharmacognosy
• Materia Medica (book) - In 19" century covered about
600 plant drug along with some animal & mineral
product
Georg • Payrus Ebers Oldest document containing 700
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medicinal herbs and more than 870 formulae
Ebers
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Seydler • A German scientist, who coined the term
"Pharmacognosy" in 1815 in the title of his work
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"Analecta Pharmacognostica".
Aristotle • Father of Zoology,
• Father of Natural History
• Known for his studies on animal kingdom.
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Theophrastus • Father of Botany
• Known for his studies on plant kingdom.
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Hippocrates Father of Medicine
• Contribution on anatomy and physiology of human
beings.
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Galen • Father of Experimental Physiology

•
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First pharmacist
• Described the different methods of preparation
containing active constituents of crude drugs. The
branch dealing with extraction plant and animal
drugs known as Galenical Pharmacy.
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Swede • Introduce the Binomial nomenclature (system of

naming) of plant in 1707-1778
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Linnaeus
• Classified plants which is still followed.
Shen Nung • Shen Nung introduce Pen-t Sao - The oldest known
herbal (Contain 365 drugs one for each day of the
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year).
• Arranged 50 group of 10 Herbs.
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Charaka
• Well know treatise in Ayurveda are charak Samhita
and sushrutha Samhita [GPAT-2018]
Sushrutha • Father of Cosmetic Surgery
• Arranged 760 herbs in 7 distinct set based on some of
their common properties.
Berg • Published “Anatomical Atlas of crude drug”.
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Tridosha is three pillars of life
Vata Pitta Kapha

(Space and Air ) (Liquid and Energy) (Liquid and Solid)
The factors responsible The factors responsible for The factors responsible for
for movement and digestion, metabolism, tissue strengthening the stomach
sensation in a single building, heat production, and the joints, providing
cell/whole body. blood pigmentation.
firmness to the limbs.
Tridosha exist in human body in seven forms called Saptadhatu.
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3. Panchseel Theory
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Five Important Pharmacological Principles of Drug Substances
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Panchsheel [GPAT-2020]
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Rasa Guna Virya Vipaka Prabhava
(Taste) (Physicochemical (Potency) (Post-digestive effect) (Unique effect
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[GPAT-2020]
properties) of the drug)
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 BRANCHES OF AYURVEDA
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Classified into eight branches

There are a total of eight branches of Ayurveda. These eight branches are also referred to as “the
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eight limbs of Ayurveda” or “Ashtanga Ayurveda”.
 Kaya chikitsa  Medicine

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 Shalya tantra  Surgery

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 Shalakya tantra  ENT treatment

 Bala Chikitsa  Paediatric
 Rasayana  Treat with chemicals
 Vajikarana  Aphrodisiacs therapy
 Aganda tantra  Toxicology
 Bhut-vidya  Psychiatry
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Drugs acting on Adrenergics - Ephedra Antispasmodics Smooth muscle relaxants -

Autonomic Datura, Hyoscyamus
Nervous System Cholinergics - Physostigma, Pilocarpus
Skeletal muscle relaxants -
Anticholinergics - Belladonna, Datura Curare
Anticancer - Vinca, Podophyllum, Taxus Astringents - Myrobalan, Black Catechu
Miscellaneous Antirheumatics - Aconite, Colchicum, Guggul Antimalarial - Cinchona, Artemisia
Anthelmintics - Quassia, Male Fern, Vidang Local anaesthetics -Coca
CHEMOTAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION [GPAT-2021]
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 It is based on the chemical similarity of taxon.
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Tropane alkaloids found in Solanaceae
 Chemical examination of plants find that there member plant
Belladonna
is close link between their chemical constituents
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& taxonomical status.
 Chemotaxonomy establishes a relationship between position N
Datura
of the plant and attempts to utilize chemical facts for more

exact understanding of the biological evolution and Hyoscyamus
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relationships.
 For example,
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1. Tropane alkaloids generally occur among the members of Solanaceae.
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2. The berberine alkaloid in Berberis and Argemone.
3. Rutin in Rutaceae members.
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SEROTAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
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 The application of serology in solving taxonomic problems is called serotaxonomy.

The study of antigen-antibody reactions is called ‘Serology’.
 In this system of classification, plants are classified based on protein they contain.
 Basic Principle: Organisms which are closely related would have similar proteins.
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 It determines the degree of similarity between species, genera, family, etc., by

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comparing the reaction with antigens from various plant taxa with antibodies present
against a given taxon.
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The protein extract of the The experimental animal produces

plant origin i.e. the antigen is specific antibody in response to the
extracted. antigen.
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Blood serum with antibodies is called

The antigen is injected into the antiserum. Antiserum is made to react
blood stream of an in proteins of other taxa, whose
experimental animal to form affinities are to be determined.
antibodies.
Fig; PROCESS OF SEROTAXONOMY
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1. Weak stems: When the stems are thin and long, they are unable to stand erect.
2. Herbaceous or woody stems: These are the normal stems and may be soft or
hard and woody e.g. sunflower, sugarcane, ephedra, etc.
Apex
Margin
 LEAF Midrib
Stipule
Vein
 The leaf is one of the most important parts of a plant. It Base
makes the food for the plant through the process called
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Petiole
photosynthesis. It has stomata which help the plant
Fig; General structure of leaf
breathe and regulate the loss of water during transpiration.
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Types of leaves
 Taking into consideration the nature of the lamina of the
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leaves, they are classified into two main groups:
1. Simple leaves
2. Compound leaves
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Morphology of Leaves
SHAPES
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Linear Oblong Lanceolate Ovate Oval Cordate Reniform
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MARGIN
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Entire Dentate Serrate Crenate Lobed Sinuate
APEX
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Acuminate Obtuse Acute Truncate Emarginate Obcordate

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BASE
Acute Cordate Rounded Symmetrica Assymetrical Decurrent Cordate

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EXAMPLE:-
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Lanceolate- Shape - Ovate lanceolate Shape - Ovate lanceolate
Acute- Apex- Acute Apex- Subacute
Entire flat-Margin- Entire curled

Margin- Crenate or
Less asymmetrical- Base- More asymmetrical Dentete
Indian senna leaf Alexandrian senna leaf Digitalis purpurea leaf
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The chemical pesticides are further classified as:-

Types of pesticides Examples
Rodenticides Warfarin, Strychnine, Arsenic trioxide, Thallium sulphate,
Red squill [GPAT-2020]
Insecticides DDT, Gammaxine, Methoxychlor, Parathion, Malathion,
Sodium arsenate, Pyrethroids, Rotenoids, Carbamates.
Acaricides (Miticide) Tetradifon, Chlorobenzolate.
Fungicides Bordeaux mixture, Chlorophenols, Antibiotics etc.
Herbicides 2, 4-dichlorophenoxy ac etic acid, Calcium arsenate,
Sulphuric acid.
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Chemical fertilizers:-
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 Primary nutrients: Nitrogen(N), Phosphorus(P), Potassium(K)
 Secondary nutrients: Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Sulphur(S)
 Trace elements: Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Boron(B), Molybdenum (Mo),
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Manganese (Mn),Silica(Si), Zinc (Zn)
Function and Deficiency of Fertilizer element and symptoms
Element of
Function Deficiency symptoms Images
fertilizer
Builds up plant proteins Pale yellow appearance
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Nitrogen and chlorophyll. of the plant.
Phosphorus
Stimulant of s eed and
fruit formation, Brings
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retards the plant growth
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early maturity of crops. in general.
Resistanc e of plants Scorching and browning
Potassium against diseases. of tips of leaves.
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Synthesis proteins and Leaves turn to Yellowish

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Sulphur oils, formation of - green colour.

nodules and chlorophyll.
Fertilizers Essenti al constituent of Discoloration of leaves
Magnesium green pl ant pi gment and leaves tend to curve
chlorophyll. upwards.
Detoxifying agents for Drying of pl ants, weaken
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organic acids in pl ants the stem structure,

Calcium
(formation of calcium falling of buds and
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oxalate and CaCO 3). blossoms.

Activator of Brown spots on citrus
reproduction and fruits, yellowing of
Copper
formation of vitamin younger leaves in
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'A'. maize.
For nitrogen utilization Mottling of lower
and nitrogen fixation. leaves, marginal
Molybdenum
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necrosis, in-folding of
leaves.
Manures:-
• Farm Yard Manure (FYM/compost), Castor seed cake, Neem are manure.
• Oil-cake and compost normally consist of 3 – 6% of Nitrogen, 2%
Phosphates and potash 1 to 1.5%.
Biofertilizers:-
Rhizobium, Azotobactor, Azosperillium, Bijericcia, Blue-green algae, Azolla, etc.
are the examples of biofertilizers.
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Unicellular  Lignified trichomes: Nux-vomica, Strophanthus

trichomes  Short, Sharp, Pointed, Curved: Cannabis
 Large, Conical, Strongly Shrunken: Lobelia
 Short, Conical unicellular: Tea, Buchu
 Short, Conical, Warty: Senna
 Long tubular, flattened, twisted: Cotton
(A) Multicellular unbranched trichomes
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Covering or (i) Uniseriate:
Non glandular Bi-cellular, conical - Datura
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o r clothing Three celled long - Stramonium
trichomes Three to four celled long - Digitalis
Four to five celled long – Belladonna
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Multicellular (ii) Biseriate - Calendula officinalis
trichomes
(iii) Multiseriate – Male fern
(B) Multicellularbranched trichomes
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i. Stellate:- Hamamelis, Helicteris isora
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ii. Peltate (Plate like structure):- Humulus
iii.Candelabra - Verbascum thapsus
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iv.T-shaped trichomes:- Pyrethrum, Artemisia
Unicellular
Trichomes – Piper betel, Vasaka
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Glandular Stalk absent

1. Unicellular head and Unicellular stalk
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Trichomes
e.g. Digitalis purpurea.
2. Unicellular head and Uniseriate multicellular stalk
e.g. Digitalis thapsi, Belladonna etc.
3. Biseriate head and Unicellular stalk
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Multicellular e.g. Digitalis purpurea.

Trichomes
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4. Multicellular head, Multicellular, Biseriate stalk

e.g. Santonica, Sunflower
5. Multicellular, Multiseriate cylindrical stalk and
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rosette of secretory cell

e.g. Cannabis sativa
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6. Muticellular multiseriate head and Multicellular

uniseriate stalk
e.g. Indian hemp, Tobacco
7. Secreting head with short stalk formed of rosette
shape cell
e.g. Mentha species
Hydathodes Hydathodes are the glands of secretion or absorption developed in
certain plants.
eg:- Piper betal
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CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT HORMONES
CLASS EXAMPLE
Plant growth promoter Auxin, Cytokinin, Gibberellins
Plant growth inhibitor Ethylene, Abscisic acid
SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
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1. Apical dominance - Apical dominance occurs when the shoot apex inhibits the growth
of lateral buds so that the plant may grow vertically.
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e.g.- Auxin transport, induces apical dominance
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2. Phototropism (Proto-light, tropism-turning) - Ability of the plant to re-orient the shoot
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growth towards a direction of light source.
3. Senescence - Senescence is a process in which cells reach permanent growth arrest without the
death of cells. Function of organ or whole plant naturally decline to death.
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4. Seed dormancy – Condition where seeds cannot germinate even in the presence of favorable
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environmental conditions.
5. Effect of auxin - cytokinin ratio
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6. Parthenocarpy - Parthenocarpy is the natural or artificial development of a seedless fruit without

fertilization.
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 Synthetic auxin
 IBA and NAA used to accelerate rooting of woody and herbaceous cutting.
 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T use as plant growth regulator (in low concentration) and weed
killer (in higher concentration).
 IAA, NAA and 2,4-D in tissue culture of ergot has leads to increase in indole alkaloid.
 2 napthylooxy acetic acid (NOA) used as fruits setting spray.
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 Discovered by Japanese scientist Erichi Kurosawa in 1926, while working
on bakanae (foolish seedling) diseases caused by gibberella fujikuroi.
 At present over 50 gibberellin are known.
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 Most commonly occurring gibberellin is GA3 (Gibberellic acid).
 They have gibbane skeleton having activity in cell elongation. O
 Site Gibberellin synthesis CO OH

OH
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Young leaves, roots, shoot, buds, developing seeds (developing CH CO H 3 2 CH 2
endosperm), Callus tissue, fruits and fungus. Gibberellic acid
 Functions of gibberellins
D Gibbane skeleton
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 Effect on sex expression

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 In cucumber and spinach, GA3 treatment increase proportion of male flower

 In maize, GA3 treatment cause female flower development
 Gibberlline induce activity of gluconeogenic enzymes and some other enzymes like
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- amylase and other hydrolytic enzymes during early stage of seed germination and this
enzyme converts lipid to sucrose which is further help in growth and development of
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embryo.
 In 1955 F Skoog, C. Miller in herring sperm DNA capable of inducing cell

division in tobacco culture named as kinetin (6-furfuryladenine). [GATE-2001]
 Zeatin, the first naturally occurring cytokinin, in 1964 was isolated
from maize seeds and coconut milk.
 Hormones stimulate cell division or cytokinesis.
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Apical
meristem
Intercalary
meristem
Suitable hormones
and other factors
Cell division
Tissue culture
Plant cell
Cell division
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Whole plant
2. Explant - Excised part of plant used in plant tissue culture.

3. Callus - Unorganized/undifferentiated mass plant cell growing on solid substrate.
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4. Protoplast - It is the component of a plant cell that is alive. It consists of cytoplasm and nucleus,
and their cell wall is removed.
5. Adventitious roots - Adventitious roots are plant roots that form from any nonroot tissue.
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  Cybrids - Cell containing nucleus of one but cytoplasm of both parenteral species.
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Explant Callus Protoplast Meristem Adventitious

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7. Meristem
 Found at shoot apical and root apical region
 Undifferentiated plant tissue having the power to divide
 Meristem cell have high metabolic activities and high concentration of auxin, virus
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multiplication is not possible in that area.

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  Somaclonal variation - Variation seen in plants that have been produced by plant tissue
culture. Chromosomal rearrangements are an important source of this variation.
 This is performed to achieve some beneficial properties of plant like diseases resistance, fruit
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quality, yield improvement and stress resistance

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Plant tissue culture

Accumulates
(Genetic variation)
Mother plant
(explant source)
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 In vitro induction of hairy root culture
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 Explants are wounded then inoculated with A. rhizogenes
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 Two or three days later, the explant can be transferred into White’s medium after
that hairy root will be induced within a short period of time.
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D
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PROT OPLAST CULTURE

 Protoplasts are the naked cells of varied origin without cell walls, which are cultivated
in liquid as well as on solid media. [GATE-2001]
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 Protoplast can be isolated by mechanical or enzymatic method from almost all parts of the plant.
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Leaf Cell Cell placed in Cell placed in Cell wall lysis

hypertonic solution enzyme solution
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(Cellulase,
pectinase)
separate protoplasm
by centrifugation
Plant growth protoplasm placed

regulators Callus in solidified
formation culture media
Root and shoot
development
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MEVALONIC ACID PATHWAY [GPAT-2023]

HSCOA CH3 OH OH
H3C COS CoA COS CoA C H2 2NADPH+2H+
Acetyl CoA CH3CO CH2 COS CoA COO- H2 C C COS CoA HO CH2 H2C C CH2 COO-
+ Acetoacetyl CoA CH3 CoASH 2NADP + CH3
CH 3 COS CoA Hydroxymethylglutarate Mevalonate
Acetyl CoA ATP
H2 H2 ADP
OP 2O6 C C C CH2
CH3
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3- Isopentenylpyrophosphate OH
H2O CO2 OH
IPP (5C) H2 H2 C ATP H2 H2 C
OC6P2 C C C H2 COO- OPO3 C C C H2 COO-
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CH3 CH3 CH3
H2
OP 2O6 C C C CH3 5- Pyrophosphomevalonate 5-Phosphomevalonate
H
3,3 Dimethylallylpyrophosphate
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IPP (C5)
[GPAT-2011]
OPP OPP
C15-Farnesyl pyrophosphate* Geranyl pyrophosphate-C*10
(Sesquiterpenoids)
C
(Monoterpenoids)
(GPAT 2023 Shif t II)
IPP (C5)
×2
Diterpene ×2
(C 20)
Gibberllins
and phytol
D CH 3
CH3
OH CH3 OH
CH3
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O O
Tetraterpenes (C40)
CH3 O CH3 O
(Carotenoids)
Artemisin* O O
Polyterpenes CH3 Santonin
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Rubber,gutta (on CH3
H 3C CH3 CH3
addition of number CH2OH
of units of isopentenyl CHO
CH3
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pyrophosphate CH3 H
CH3 CH3
H3C CH 3
CH3 Zingiberene
H3C CH3 H3C CH3
Citral Geraniol
H 3C CH3 Squalene
CH3 CH3
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CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3
HO
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OH
CH3
CH3 H3C H3C CH3
CH2 Menthol
H Lanosterol d-Limonene
H3C
CH3 CH3
OH
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Triterpenes (C30)
H3C CH3 OCH3 O
CH3 CH3
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OH
CH3
Camphor
CH CH2
CH3
Zymosterol CH2
H Eugenol
H3C CH3
CH3
CH3
HO
CH3
Cholesterol*
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BIOSYNTHESIS OF ALKALOIDS
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Fig. Biosynthesis of Alkaloids

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PD
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02 Alkaloids
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INTRODUCTION
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 Alkaloids are basic nitrogen-containing compounds obtained from plant, animal and
microorganism having a marked physiological action.
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 Term alkaloids was coined by Meissner in 1819.
 Term alkaloids derived from word “alkali like”, they are basic in nature, they contain one or
more nitrogen atom (usually in heterocyclic ring).
Isolation of Alkaloids: -
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 Coniine was first alkaloid which synthesized in laboratory in 1889.
ALKALOIDS
Narcotine
YEAR
1803 D ALKALOIDS
Caffeine
YEAR
1819
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Morphine 1803-1806 Colchicine 1820
Emetine 1817 Cinchonine 1820
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Strychnine 1817 Coniine 1826

Quinine 1820 Papaverine 1821
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PROPERTIES OF ALKALOIDS
Physical properties
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1.Alkaloids are Crystalline solid which unite with acids to form salts.
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Exceptions: Emetine(Amorphus gum)

Coniine, Sparteine, Nicotine(Liquid and Volatile)[GPAT-2020]
2.Alkaloids are Colourless compound.
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Exceptions: Betanidin - Red colour.

Berberine - Yellow colour.
Sanguinarine - Copper red colour.
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3.Free bases of alkaloids are soluble in organic non-polar, immiscible solvents and
insoluble in water but Alkaloidal Salts are soluble in water and insoluble in
organic solvent. [GATE-1995, 1998]
Exceptions:Quaternary bases ( Water soluble)
4.Alkaloids are generally optically active, among levo isomers are more active.
[GATE-1995]
Exceptions: Papaverine, Atropine (Optically inactive)
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o Synonyms: - Angel’s trumpet

o Biological source: - Datura consists of the dried leaves and flowering tops of Datura metel.
o Family: - Solanaceae
Acute apex
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Entire or sinuate
margin
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Unequal at base
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Fig : Morphology of Datura leaf
o Microscopy [GATE-1990]
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 Type: Dorsiventral (having distinct upper and lower faces) leaf. Epidermal cells are covered
with thin cuticle.
 Stomata: Anisocytic or cruciferous
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type stomata.
 Trichomes: Glandular and
non-glandular simple trichomes.
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 Palisade: 40% lamina is occupied

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by single layer palisade. Palisade

ratio is 3.5-6.5.
 Spongy parenchymatous cell:
Approx 6-8 layers contains cluster
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crystals (micro-sphenoidal).
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 Stomatal index: Upper surface - 12.7 to 19.5, Lower surface - 21.2 to 24.
o Chemical Constituents: -
 Contains up to 0.5% of total alkaloids.
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 Hyoscine (scopolamine) main alkaloids.

 l-hyoscyamine(scopoline) and atropine (very less amount present).
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o Uses: -
 Parasympatholytic with anticholinergic effects.
 It is used as preoperative medication.
 It is also used in treatment of asthma and cough.
 Hyoscine hydrobromide is used in motion sickness, gastric or duodenal ulcers.
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C.calisaya C. succirubra C. officinalis C. ledgeriana
Diameter is from 12- Diameter is from 20- Diameter is upto 12 Diameter is 12-25 mm
25 mm and thickness 40 mm and thickness mm and thickness is and thickness varies
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from 2-5 mm from 2-5 mm upto 1.5 mm from 2-5 mm
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o Family: - Rubiaceae
o Chemical Constituents:-
 Main alkaloids are Quinine and Quinidine and Cinchonine, Cinchonidine.
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 Quinine and Quinidine are stereoisomers of each other. [GPAT–2023]
 Quinine differs from cinchonidine in its structure by having One Methoxy group. [GPAT-2014]
 Alkaloids also present as a salt with quinic acid and cinchotannic acid and glycoside quinovine.
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 Quinidine is also obtained commercially from cuprea bark i.e. Ramijia Pendunculata.
H H2
D H2
H H2 H H2 H
C CH2 C CH2 C CH2
CH2
C CH2
H CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2 H H H
CH2
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Diastereomers CH2 CH2
HO Diastereomers
N HO HO HO N
C N N
C C C
H H
H3CO H H
H3CO
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N N N
N
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Quinine Qunidine Cinchonine Cinchonidine

(demethoxy quinine) (demethoxy quinidine)
o Chemical test: -
Heat
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1.Powder drug + Glacial acetic acid Purple vapours at upper part of test tube
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2.Thalleoquin test [GATE-1990, 2004, GPAT-2013, 2021]:

Powder drug +Bromine water + dil. Ammonia solution Emerald green colour
3.Quinidine solution + silver nitrate solution White precipitate
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4.Cinchona bark +H2SO4 UV Blue fluorescence due to methoxy group of

Quinine. [GATE-1989, 1990, 1992]
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o Microscopy :- [GATE-2009]
 Cortex: Several layers of thin walled tangentially elongated cells containing reddish brown
matter.
 Idioblast: Idioblast of microsphenoidal crystal is the specific characteristic of cinchona bark.
 Cavities (Secretion canals) are present.
 Phloem fiber: Distribution and size of phloem fiber differ in the various species
 Starch grains: Starch grains are present in parenchymatous tissue.
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 Seed also contain Chlorogenic acid and glycoside – loganin

o Chemical Test: -
1.Strychnine Test: T.S. of Nux vomica +Ammonium vanadate and H2SO4 (Manddin's
reagent) Strychnine in the middle portion of endosperm is stained purple.
2.Brucine Test: T.S. of Nux vomica + Conc. nitric acid. Outer part of endosperm
is stained yellow to orange
E
3. Potassium dichromate test: Strychnine + potassium dichromate + conc. H2SO4
Violet colour
IM
4. Hemicellulose Test: Iodine +H2SO4 Cell walls are stained blue
o Uses: -
PR
Due to its bitter taste, nux vomica is used as bitter stomachic and tonic.
It is a stimulant to central nervous system.
It increases the blood pressure and is recommended in certain forms of cardiac failure.
Brucine; possesses about one-sixth in potency as compared to strychnine. But as far as the
C
bitterness is concerned, it is four times bitter than strychnine. Used as a standard for bitterness
and as a dog poison.
o Adulterants
D
G
Strychnos nuxblanda Strychnos potatorum
(India) (Burma)
F
Nuxblanda seeds are They are smaller and

thicker with yellowish
PD
regular in shape and

contain traces of buff colour. Seeds contain
Character alkaloids. diaboline and traces of
No strychnin and bruchin strychnine and brucine.
Used in clearing water
E
o Allied Drugs: - The seeds of Strychnos wallichiana, Strychnos ignatii.

PL
o Synonym: - Chhotachand, Sarpgandha.

M
o Biological source: - Rauwolfia is obtained from

dried roots and rhizomes of plant Rauwolfia
SA
serpentina.
o Family: - Apocynaceae
o Microscopy: -
 Cell wall: The cork is made up of stratified cells followed by phelloderm of few rows of
parenchyma.
 Phloem: Phloem is narrow, parenchymatous with small scattered sieve tissue.
 Parenchyma: Parenchyma contains starch grains and few latex cells brown resinous matter.

94
PHARMACOGNOSY : RESIN Module-1
 Phenolic ketone-
Gingerols Shagols
H2 O
Responsible for Pungency Pungency of gingerol
and Pharmacological action can be destroy by 2%
[GATE-2005, GPAT-2019]
solution of KOH
[GATE-2005]
Boiling with baryta water decomposes gingerols with formation of zingerone (phenolic ketone) Its
E
pungency is destroyed by prolonged contact with 5% NaOH.
IM
o Microscopic character:
 The cortex contains starch grains and
yellowish-brown oleo resin cells
PR
 The cortex consists of closed collateral
vascular bundles
 Each vascular bundle contains phloem which
shows well marked sieve tubes and xylem
C
 Non-lignified vessels and sac shaped starch
grains [GATE-2009]
o Adulterants of ginger D
G
(i) Exhausted ginger
(ii) Japanese ginger
F
o Uses: -
 Stomachic, Carminative, Pungent principle. [GPAT-2019]
PD
o Synonyms: - Myrrha, Gum myrrh, Bol

E
o Biological Source: - Myrrh is an oleo-gum resin obtained from the stem of

PL
Commiphora molmol [GPAT-2011]

o Family: - Burseraceae.
o Collection: -
M
The lysigenous cavities and

SA
schizogenous ducts are present in

phloem
lysigenous
cavities Filled with granular
oleo-gum resin
gum resin is collected in the bags

Schizogenous
made up of goat skin
ducts

107
o Synonyms: - Rosin, Amber-resin

o Biological Source: - Colophony obtained By distillation of turpentine obtained
from various species of pinus like Pinus roxburghii.
o Family:- Pinaceae.
o Chemical Constituents: - It contains 25% tupentine oil + 70 % oleo resin
in which Abietic acid is (90%) and Resenes.
E
o Chemical test: -
IM
Colophony + Copper acetate Emerald green colour
o Uses: - Antimicrobial, Antiulcer, Cardiovascular activity.
PR
o Synonyms: - Himalayan may-apple [GPAT-2013]
o Biological Source: - Obtained from dried rhizome and root of Podophyllum Dried rhizomes and
C
roots of
 Podophyllum hexandrum
 Podophyllum emodi
Indian variety (6-12% resin)
D
G
 Podophyllum peltatum - American variety (2-8% resin)
o Family: - Berberidaceae
F
o Chemical Constituents: -
Resin - Podophyllin (Lignan compound).
PD
Active principle
Podophyllotoxin Cis- Purgative
(40 % Indian variety) Trans - Anticancer Inhibit topoisomerase II
(Semisynthetic derivative)
E
[GPAT 2017] Lignans are dimeric compounds

Etoposide Teniposide formed essentially by the union
of two molecules of a
PL
Small-cell lung cancer Paediatric neuroblastoma

Lymphomas [GATE 2008]
phenylpropene derivative.
Leukaemias[GATE 2008] [GATE 2008, GPAT 2012]
and -peltatin (present only in American variety)
M
o Use: - Anticancer, Purgative and cathartic.

SA
o Synonyms: - Lac, Sealing wax

o Biological Source: - Resinous protective secretion of the tiny
lac insect, Karria lacca (Lucifer lacca). [GPAT-2019]
o Family: - Laccidae.
o Chemical Constituents: - Laccaic acid (Red colouring
matter), Aleuritic acid and Shellolic acid. [GPAT-2017]
o Used: - Manufacturing of sustained release medicaments.

112
o Chemical Constituents:-
 Chief constituent is Arabin (mixture of calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of Arabic
acid).
 Also contain enzyme oxidase and peroxidase. [GATE-1989]
Hydrolysis
Arabic acid L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, D-galactose and D-glucuronic acid
o Uses:- Acacia is a good suspending, emulsifying agent and binding agent.
E
o Identification test to differentiate ACACIA and GUAR GUM
IM
Chemical reagents Interference For identification of
 Benzidine test (Identify Blue colour due to presence Acacia
peroxide enzyme present in of oxidase enzyme.
PR
Acacia) [GATE-1989]
Aq. Soln of gum + hydrogen No colour produce Guar gum
peroxide + Benzidine
Gelatinize aq. soln of gum Acacia
C
n
Aq. Sol of gum + Lead
White ppt Guar gum
subacetate
Slight ppt
D Gum ghatti
G
o Adulterants:-
Indian gum is adulterated with Gum ghatti, tragacanth, dextrin and Sterculia.
o Test for purity of Indian Acacia
F
1 0.1 % ferric chloride

PD
Blue colour
E
2 4 ml of H2O
PL
Gum acacia soln
No sediment
takes place
M
Blue or Black
SA
3 10 ml of H2O colour due to

2 drop of N/10 iodine
presence of
Tannin
a drop
Guaiacum +
4 of H2O2
tincture Blue colour
Brown colour due to presence
due to presence of Starch
of Dextrin

122

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SA

encompasses the knowledge of the history, distribution, cultivation, collection,

Pharmacognosy in his doctoral thesis titled “Analecta Pharmacognostica”.

elaborating on large data about helpful medicinal plants.

SOURCES OF THE CRUDE DRUG

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY

SCIENTIST IMAGES CONTRIBUTION

Galen • Father of Experimental Physiology

Swede • Introduce the Binomial nomenclature (system of

Tridosha is three pillars of life

Vata Pitta Kapha

Classified into eight branches

eight limbs of Ayurveda” or “Ashtanga Ayurveda”.

 Kaya chikitsa  Medicine

 Shalya tantra  Surgery

 Shalakya tantra  ENT treatment

Drugs acting on Adrenergics - Ephedra Antispasmodics Smooth muscle relaxants -

CHEMOTAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION [GPAT-2021]

of the plant and attempts to utilize chemical facts for more

 The application of serology in solving taxonomic problems is called serotaxonomy.

 It determines the degree of similarity between species, genera, family, etc., by

The protein extract of the The experimental animal produces

Blood serum with antibodies is called

Entire Dentate Serrate Crenate Lobed Sinuate

Acuminate Obtuse Acute Truncate Emarginate Obcordate

Acute Cordate Rounded Symmetrica Assymetrical Decurrent Cordate

Lanceolate- Shape - Ovate lanceolate Shape - Ovate lanceolate

Acute- Apex- Acute Apex- Subacute

Entire flat-Margin- Entire curled

Indian senna leaf Alexandrian senna leaf Digitalis purpurea leaf

The chemical pesticides are further classified as:-

Synthesis proteins and Leaves turn to Yellowish

Sulphur oils, formation of - green colour.

organic acids in pl ants the stem structure,

oxalate and CaCO 3). blossoms.

Unicellular  Lignified trichomes: Nux-vomica, Strophanthus

(A) Multicellular unbranched trichomes

Glandular Stalk absent

Multicellular e.g. Digitalis purpurea.

4. Multicellular head, Multicellular, Biseriate stalk

rosette of secretory cell

6. Muticellular multiseriate head and Multicellular

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT HORMONES

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

6. Parthenocarpy - Parthenocarpy is the natural or artificial development of a seedless fruit without

 Site Gibberellin synthesis CO OH

endosperm), Callus tissue, fruits and fungus. Gibberellic acid

 Effect on sex expression

 In cucumber and spinach, GA3 treatment increase proportion of male flower

 In 1955 F Skoog, C. Miller in herring sperm DNA capable of inducing cell

2. Explant - Excised part of plant used in plant tissue culture.

Explant Callus Protoplast Meristem Adventitious

multiplication is not possible in that area.

quality, yield improvement and stress resistance

Plant tissue culture

 In vitro induction of hairy root culture

PROT OPLAST CULTURE

Leaf Cell Cell placed in Cell placed in Cell wall lysis

Plant growth protoplasm placed

MEVALONIC ACID PATHWAY [GPAT-2023]

Fig. Biosynthesis of Alkaloids

Strychnine 1817 Coniine 1826

Exceptions: Emetine(Amorphus gum)

Exceptions: Betanidin - Red colour.