Communication Skills

Fundamentals of Communication Skills Unit 1
Unit 1 Language and Communication

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Concept of Communication
Definition of Communication
Function and Purpose of Communication
1.3 Process of Communication
1.4 Barriers of Effective Communication
1.5 Types of Communication
Verbal Communication
Non-verbal Communication
1.6 Summary
1.7 Terminal Questions
1.8 Answers
1.1 Introduction
Communication is an integral part of a human being’s existence. According
to some estimates, communication takes up nearly three-fourths of an active
human being’s life. When compared to all other professions, it is assumed
that in possessing the skills of communication, a journalist is at the apex.
Not only to succeed in this field, but even to survive, a journalist should be
an expert communicator. In this unit, you will be introduced to the concept of
communication and its process. You will also study the different barriers
that you normally face while communicating.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the definition and purpose of communication.
 describe the process of communication
 identify and overcome the barriers of communication
 discuss the importance of verbal and non-verbal communication
Manipal University Jaipur B1026 Page No.: 1

1.2 Concept of Communication

The term ‘communication’ is often heard in any field that you come across.
It covers about any interaction between two persons.
1.2.1 Definitions of communication
Given below are the definitions of the concept, ‘communication’ that would
help you understand its meaning and purpose.
 Newman and Summer define communication as, “an exchange of facts,
ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.”
 Bellows Gilson and Odirone define communication as, “a communion by
words, letters, symbols, or messages, and as a way that one
organization member shares meaning with the other.”
 Anderson suggests that, “Communication is the process by which we
understand others and in turn endeavor to be understood by them. It is
dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the total
situation.
 Berelson and Steiner define communication as, “the transmission of
information, idea, emotion, skills, etc., by the use of symbols – words,
pictures, figures, graphs, etc. It is the act or process of transmission that
is usually called communication.”
 According to Clevenger, “Communication is a term used to refer to any
dynamic, information-sharing process.”
 Fotheringham defines communication as, “a process involving the
selection, production, and transmission of signs in such a way as to help
a receiver perceive a meaning similar to that in the mind of the
communicator.”
 Bradley calls communication “a process, a series of progressive and
interdependent steps leading to the attainment of an end, in speech the
end being the communication of some specific meaning from one
person to another.
1.2.2 Function and purpose of communication
Chester I Barnard studied the communication process in organizations. He
held the view that Communication linked people together in an
organization to achieve a common purpose. In other words,
communication aims to make people work together for the common good of
the organization. You may say that communication links people together to

strengthen relationships. You may also say that communication links

people, who believe in a common cause. For example: A reporter doing a
documentary on lifestyle or problems faced by the tribes need not know their
language. Communication at that time will unite them towards one cause;
the reporter to report and the tribal people to say their story.
Communication serves the following purposes in organizations:
 Helps establish and disseminate the goals of an organization.
 Facilitates the development of plans for the achievement of goals.
 Helps supervisors utilize manpower and other resources in the most
effective and efficient way.
 Helps in selection, development, and appraisal of members of the
organization.
 Helps higher officials lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which
people are willing to contribute.
 Facilitates control and evaluation of performance.
In a work-place, effective communication not only helps the higher officials
discharge their duties, but also builds a bridge between them and the
external environment of the organization. The external environment consists
mainly of clients, suppliers, stockholders, government, community and
others that affect the success of the enterprise. By means of an effective
communication network, an official can understand the needs of victims, the
demands of the clients, and the expectations of the community, and be
aware of the presence of quality suppliers and relevant government
regulations. An organization can function as an open system only by
communicating effectively with the environment.
When we discuss the function of effective communication between people,
we have to also note the purpose of such communication. Why do we
communicate the way we do? What happens when you receive a letter from
the editor of the press where you are working, to cover a certain news item,
what do you understand from it?
You may come to know some new facts about the news that you have to
write about. You may also know about some common concern between the
two of you; which neither you nor he, as your head, knew before receiving
the letter. We can say that the information in the letter had an effect on his
understanding of you and changed it.
For example, if you replied to the letter that you would be interested in
covering the news that has been planned, the editor may be happy for you.
He might understand that you have agreed to do the assignment which in
turn would help you to have a better chance of upgrading your knowledge in
your work area. Before receiving your consent, he thought of you as an
employee who has basic knowledge of the job that is assigned to you. Now
he knows that you are interested not only in upgrading your knowledge but
are also interested in involving yourself to see the growth of the company
you are working in. Such change in his understanding is the result of your
letter. He may also send you a message of congratulation!
Therefore, we can say that the primary goal or purpose of communication is
to ‘effect change’ or to bring about change. Communication also leads to
some ‘new action’. In this example you acted as sending your consent and
the editor acted by sending a message of congratulation.
Self Assessment Questions
1. _________ linked people together in an organization to achieve a
common purpose.
2. Communication facilitates ________ and __________ of performance.
3. Say whether True or False:
a) Communication helps officials to motivate the employees.
b) An organization cannot function as an open system by
communicating effectively with the environment.
c) Communication links people together to strengthen relationships.
1.3 Process of Communication

Normally, the communication is meant for Interpersonal purpose. This is
also known as interpersonal communication, where the information or
message is transferred from one person to the other(s). The person who
transfers the message is called the sender or transmitter. The person (s)
receiving the message is the receiver. The transmitter is expected to send
the information in a format that the receiver(s) will understand. The
information that has to be sent is converted into a format that the receiver
will understand, which is known as Encoding.
Messages can be encoded into a variety of formats oral, written or visual.
Once the message is encoded in a desired format, it is transferred through a

medium called ‘channel.’ A channel connects the sender to the receiver.

Channels for communication may include a letter, memorandum, a
computer, a telephone, a fax, a telegram or a television. The choice of the
correct channel depends on the situation of the communication. For e.g.,
when you have to communicate extremely confidential information, direct
face-to-face or a sealed letter is better than a telephonic conversation.
The information, which is transferred, has to be interpreted by the receiver.
This process of interpretation is known as decoding. In order to decode the
message, the receiver should be ready to receive the message. He should
not be preoccupied with other thoughts that would distract him.
Finally, the receiver will send a message back to the transmitter. It may be a
reply to the query made by the sender or any apt response to the message
delivered by the sender. This reply confirms whether the information sent
has been understood or not. This back check is known as feedback.
You have just learnt how the communication takes place. This can be
illustrated in the diagram given below.
Fig. 1.1: Communication Process


4. In normal circumstances, when the message is transferred from one
person to another, it is called as ____________ .
5. The person who sends the information is called ________ or ______ .
6. A telephone is an example of ____________ in a communication.
7. Match the following:
i) Transmitter a) interpretation of the received message
ii) Encoding b) person (s) receiving the message
iii) Decoding c) person who transfers the message
iv) Receiver d) reply that confirms whether the information
sent has been understood or not.
v) Feedback e) conversion of the message into a format that a
receiver can understand.
1.4 Barriers to Effective Communication

At each stage in the process of communication – encoding, transferring, and
decoding, there is the possibility of interference. This may hinder the
communication process. Such interference is known as ‘noise.’ Often, a
comparison is made between communication and a leaky bucket. If you
carry water in a leaky bucket, you will lose water at various points in your
journey from the water tap to your destination. The amount of water you lose
depends upon the number of holes in the bucket, the size of the holes, the
route you take to your final destination and the time you take to get to your
destination. Similarly, when information is transferred from the sender to the
receiver, all information may not be received by the receiver because of
holes called noise. Each of the noise may affect the amount of information
transferred. Just as in a leaky bucket, more holes decrease the amount of
water, more noise decreases the amount of correct information received. Let
us classify the different types of barriers as;
i) Language and Cultural Differences: The receiver may not completely
understand the language used by the transmitter. This may occur if the
transmitter’s language is foreign to the receiver. There may also be
language problems (the communication process) if the message contains
technical information and the receiver is not familiar with the technical terms
used. Poorly chosen words, careless omissions, lack of coherence, poor
organization of ideas, awkward sentence structure, inadequate vocabulary,

unnecessary jargon, accent, pronunciation and the failure to clarify

implications are some of the common reasons for the poor transmission of
messages. Cultural differences created by an individual’s background and
experience, affect their perception of the world. Such cultural differences
may affect the interpretation (decoding) of the message sent.
ii) Environment: The environment in which the transmitter or receiver are
present, should be compatible. If it is noisy and full of sound, the sounds
may prevent the message being fully understood. Background noise often
created by colleagues, vehicles, and machinery may hinder proper
communication.
iii) Channel: If the channel used to transfer the information is poor, it may
prevent all or some of the information being transferred. A faulty fax
machine, a crackling phone, illegible handwriting or in the case of oral
messages incorrect facial gestures or a bland facial expression, are some of
the barriers of communication.
iv) Receiver’s Attitude and Behaviour: If the receiver is not interested in
the message (or unable to give his full attention to decoding) the amount of
information received may be drastically reduced. It may also lead to hear the
information inaccurately. Similarly the receiver may misinterpret the
message by "jumping to conclusions" or reading the message in a manner
that suits his own interests/objectives and distort the true meaning of the
message.
v) Transmission journey: This refers to different and numerous steps in
the message. If the message is complicated or there are lots of steps to be
taken to transfer the message, it may affect the accuracy or interpretation.
During oral communication, approximately 30 percent of the information is
lost in each transmission. Thus in large organizations, you should not rely
totally on oral communication. Another aspect, which is connected with the
transmission journey is the poor retention of information. Studies indicate
that the employees are able to retain approximately 50% of what they are
told, supervisors retain around 60% of the information they receive. Hence,
it is necessary to repeat the message and use more than one channel to
communicate a message.

vi) Lack of Planning: Communication would be ineffective, if the person,

who is communicating did not devote sufficient time to think, plan and state
the purpose of the message. By providing the reasons for a particular
instruction, selecting the most appropriate channel, and releasing the
message at the right time, a manager can ensure his message is
understood by the receivers.
vii) Faulty translations: An individual may receive many types of
messages from superiors, peers and subordinates. They, in turn, must
translate information meant for subordinates, peers and superiors into a
language that can be easily understood by them. When a message is
transmitted from a sender to a receiver, it must be accompanied with an
interpretation so as to enable the receiver to understand the message. This
requires the sender to have good communication and analytical skills.
viii) Semantic Distortion: The distortion in usage of words may be a
serious barrier of effective communication. This distortion may be deliberate
or accidental. An advertisement which declares “We sell better products” is
quite ambiguous, as it raises the question “better than what?” Some words
may have ambiguous meanings and may generate different responses from
different people.
8. When Raj from India goes to Canada, he converses with the taxi driver
with his broken French and is misunderstood. This is a good example
of ___________ barrier.
9. Workers in a factory with machines making a lot of noise, find it difficult
to communicate smoothly because of __________ barrier.
10. Due to thunder and lightning, all telephones in your lab are down. This
situation is a good example of _________ barrier.
1.5 Types of Communication

Can you think of some ways to communicate with your friends?
I am sure you can. You can talk to your friend or you can write letters to him.
When you talk or write you are using words to communicate. This is one
type of communication. But is there any other way in which we communicate
with other people? Let us look at some of the ways in which we normally
communicate with others and try to understand the different types of
communication, their advantages and limitations.
1.5.1 Verbal communication

When an infant cries, the mother rushes to her side, to see if the baby is
hurt or has soiled herself. If it is mealtime, when the baby cried, the mother
feeds the baby. The cry of the baby communicated the need of the baby to
her mother. Although crying is not speaking, the mother was able to
understand the baby's need.
This shows that speaking alone is not communication. We already know that
we can use writing to communicate. Communication through speech is
called Oral communication. Communication by means of written material is
called Written communication. For example, your letter to your friend is
written communication.
Spoken words and written material are called verbal communication
because they use words as the means for communication.
1.5.2 Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication means the messages that do not contain words.
In this type of communication, words are not used in the process of sending
and receiving messages. You may wonder, “How is this possible?” It is a
proven fact that most of our communication through words are laced with
non verbal communication. They can be categorized as:
i) word-less communication like gesture; body language or posture;
facial expression and eye gaze.
a) Gestures: The language of gesture enables us to express a variety of
feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and
affection. Most of us use gestures and body language in addition to
words when we speak.
In every aspect of human life, gestures or hand signals have a
predominant role to play. The art of communication does not involve
only a few well framed words and phrases. More than that, it is about the
usage of non-verbal gestures. These gestures are used in the following
situations:
 In the studio, during broadcast gestures are used during start or end
of telecast
 While reporting the emergency situations during war or strike, etc.
the communication between the reporter and cameraman would be
via gestures
 Reporters during press conferences, use gestures to communicate

amongst themselves
By using hand signals you can be assured that the message you want to
convey will be received clearly without any misunderstanding. The
gestures are also used to avoid the victim or the bystanders from
understanding the message being sent. These gestures may not be
generally understood, but formed by the team for their internal use.
b) Body language: It is a broad term for forms of communication using
body movements instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language,
or other forms of communication. It forms part of the category of
paralanguage, which describes all forms of human communication that
are not verbal language. This includes the most subtle of movements
that many people are not aware of, including winking and slight
movement of the eyebrows. In addition, body language can also
incorporate the use of facial expressions.
In our daily lives we encounter many forms of body language gestures
like –
Self-confidence: hands behind the back, hands clasped in front
Superiority: hands clasped behind the head
Stress: shaking of legs
Defensive: crossing of arms is often considered to be a defensive,
closed posture.
Aggressiveness: hands on the hips
Nervous: biting nails, slumped shoulder
c) Facial expression: The emotional state of an individual is clearly
conveyed by the expression of his face. Facial expressions are the
primary means of conveying social information among humans, but also
occur in most other mammals and some other animal species. Humans
can adopt a facial expression as a voluntary action. However, because
expressions are closely tied to emotion, they are more often involuntary.

Fig. 1.2: Facial Expressions
It can be nearly impossible to avoid expressions for certain emotions,

even when it would be strongly desirable to do so. Examples of feelings
such as, anger, concentration, contempt, desire, disgust, excitement,
fear, happiness, puzzlement, sadness and surprise can take the
expressions like, blank, frown, glare , laughter , pout, shock , smile ,
smirk , sneer, snarl , tongue-showing.
d) Eye Gazing: Staring and eye-rolling also may serve the purpose of
communication. Oculesics is the study of the role of eyes in nonverbal
communication. Studies have found that people use their eyes to
indicate their interest. This can be done through eye contact. For
example, when a professor is giving a lecture, a student may
communicate disinterest by reading a magazine instead of looking at the
professor's presentation.
Rolling one's eyes can express exasperation or condescension. When
one rolls or rotates the eyes upward, it may indicate contempt or
boredom. Indirectly, it looks like the person hopes for some divine
intervention to rescue him from boredom or frustration. Rolling eyes up
with head slightly risen up, as if pointing upwards, may be the reference
to people in higher hierarchy, e.g., upper management.
e) Nodding: In many cultures, people nod their heads to indicate
agreement. But some ( in Bulgaria and Srilanka) also nod their head to
suggest refusal or negation.
f) Bent head: This is a gesture of shame, subdue, or agreement/
confirmation. An interpretation depends on the way it is being performed
and overall body context.

g) Head shaking: This is the repeated turning of the head to the left and to
the right, which means disapproval or negation in many cultures.
h) Pointing by chin: This gesture is often used when one’s hands are
engaged in doing something else. This indicates a particular direction
when the head is turned in the corresponding direction and the chin is
slightly jerked up and in the pointed direction.
ii) Object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture;
symbols and info-graphics. The most common form of object communication
is clothing. People wear clothes that highlight their personality. However,
this may lead to a form of stereotyping because in the cases of youngsters,
the preference is to wear the clothes they consider attractive. A good
example of clothing as object communication is the uniform.
iii) Prosodic features of speech such as intonation and stress. A segment
in spoken language is an individual consonant, vowel, tone, or stress that
makes up a word. An utterance is made up of both segments and supra-
segmental features. These are broadly divided up into Prosody and Para-
linguistics. Prosody refers to pitch, loudness, duration, intonation and tempo.
Para-linguistics, which is much more difficult to measure, refers to
expression of voice quality, emotion, speaking style and speech clarity.
These features of the speech are responsible for the different meanings an
individual can construe from a simple sentence.
iv) Other paralinguistic features of speech such as voice quality, emotion
and speaking style. The study of nonverbal cues of voice is called ‘Vocalic.’
Things such as tone, pitch, accent, and volume can all give off nonverbal
cues. We can learn about the speaker’s personality, mood, and culture with
the information given by his/her voice.
v) Touches also add to the non-verbal communication. ‘Haptics’ is the study
of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as
communication include: Handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips,
hand), back slap, "high-five", shoulder pat, brushing arm, etc. Each of these
give off nonverbal messages, as to the touching person's intentions/feelings.
They also cause feelings in the receiver, whether positive or negative.
Moreover, they indicate the relation between the receiver and sender of the
message.

Non verbal communication generally takes place as a supportive form of

communication to verbal communication. This is its advantage. For
example, nodding our head when we say ‘yes.’ In this situation, what we say
is reinforced by non-verbal communication.
Non verbal communication is expected to support verbal communication.
But it does not always do so. For example, a political leader in his election
campaign speech addresses people promising them all help when he is
elected as leader. Instead of being humble, if he pounds his fist and talks in
a frenzied manner, the message that is conveyed to the public will be
different. If a speaker or writer's words do not match their actions the
message will be confusing. This is the disadvantage of non-verbal
communication.
Thus, non-verbal communication may support or contradict verbal
communication.
11. Continuous shaking of legs while working is an indication of ____.
a. Self-confidence b. Superiority c. Stress d. Defensive
12. _________ is the study of touches as non verbal communication.
a. Hapatics b. Vocalic c. Oculesics d. Gestures
13. Clothing and hair styles are examples of ___ communication.
a. Subjective b. Objective c. para linguistics d. prosodic
14. Prosodic features of speech are_________ and __________ .
a. intonation and stress b. dress and music c. touch and voice quality
d. Expression and rolling of eyes.
15. ___________ is a gesture of shame or subduing.
a. Nodding b. Head shaking c. Head turning d. bent head
16. The primary means of conveying social information among the
humans is ___________.
a. gestures b. facial expressions c. clapping d. nodding
1.6 Summary
We have seen that Communication is a natural activity in any society. It links
people together for achieving common goals. It brings about changes and
leads to action. Historically, the Greek Philosopher, Aristotle is said to have
developed the first model of communication.

In any communication event there is a source (thoughts or ideas or facts),

which the sender wants to convey by encoding it into a message. The
message is then transmitted through preferred channels. The receiver for
whom the message is meant decodes and receives the message. He
proceeds to understand the message and then reacts by giving a feed back.
There are several barriers to good communication. These are called 'noise'.
Barriers to communication could be internal -within the participants – such
as emotions, poor listening, premature evaluation etc. or in the environment
in which communication events occur. The external barriers could be
physical, problems in transmission, location etc. A communication event
takes place within its own context.
In the strict sense the term "verbal" means "of or concerned with words,"
and is not a synonym for oral or spoken communication. Thus, sign
languages and writing are generally understood as forms of verbal
communication, as both make use of words – although like speech, both
may contain paralinguistic elements and often occur alongside nonverbal
messages. Nonverbal communication can occur through any sensory
channel – sight, sound, smell, touch or taste. Also, non-verbal
communication comes in many forms at the same time. For example, a
person's dress, tone of voice, attitude, and movement all contribute to the
communication going on in a certain situation. The first scientific study of
nonverbal communication was Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). He argued that all mammals show
emotion reliably in their faces. While much nonverbal communication is
based on arbitrary symbols, which differ from culture to culture, a large
proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be universally understood.
Paul Ekman's influential 1960s studies of facial expression determined that
expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise are universal.
Serious studies of non-verbal communication has led to different branches
of studies like- object communication, Hepatics, Oculesics, Vocalics
The performance of an individual is either enhanced or hampered
depending upon the effectiveness of communication in the work place.
Interpersonal trust is developed by being open and receptive towards
innovative ideas of the subordinates.


1. Discuss the functions of effective communication.
2. What is the purpose of communication?
3. Explain the process of communication.
4. What do you mean by the barriers of communication?
1.8 Answers
1. communication
2. control and evaluation
3. a) True b) False c) True
4. inter-personal communication
5. Transmitter or sender
6. channel
7. i) c ii) e iii) a iv) b v) d
8. language 9. environment 10. Channel
11. C 12. A 13. B 14. A 15. D 16. B
Terminal Questions
1. Communication, when effective, helps establish and execute the goals
of an organisation. It helps the officials to be good leaders, in motivating
their subordinates to perform effectively. It also facilitates control and
evaluation of performance.
2. The purpose of communication is to effect change. It also leads to a
new action.
3. During any communication event, there is a source which starts the
process of communication. It could also be a ‘sender’ who encodes the
message. The message, through a channel or medium, reaches the
receiver, who decodes it. The receiver may react to the message by
giving a ‘feedback.’
4. In the process of communication, any hindrance in the stages of
encoding, transferring and decoding may be called ‘barrier’ of
communication.

REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Nouns: The word that identifies the ‘who’, ‘where’ and ‘what’ in a language
is a noun. Nouns name persons, places, things and feelings.
Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper Noun: They are the names of a particular place, person or thing.
They name specific or one-of-a-kind items. Proper nouns always begin
with capital letters. E.g.: France, Tim, the Ganges, the Eiffel Tower
2. Common Noun: They are the names given to every person, place or
thing of the same class. They identify the general variety. Common
nouns require capitalization only if they start the sentence or are part of
a title. E.g.: student, city, river, dog.
3. Collective Noun: They are the names given when a number of persons
or things are taken together as a whole. E.g.: crowd, flock, swarm.
4. Abstract Noun: We cannot see them as the other nouns. They are the
names given to qualities, actions and states of being that cannot be felt,
seen or heard. E.g.: beauty, charity, laughter, childhood.
Exercise 1: Pick out the nouns in the following sentences:
1. The shopman hasn’t opened his shop today.
2. After the rains, the grass and plants have started growing well.
3. Children are fond of toys and sweets.
4. This is silk. See how shiny and soft it is!
5. Lots of tea is grown in China.
6. Don’t you think that all religions, more or less say the same thing?
Gender in Nouns
1. A noun that denotes a male is Masculine Gender.
E.g.: father, boy, hero.
2. A noun that denotes a female is Feminine Gender.
E.g.: mother, girl, heroine.
3. A noun that does not denote either male or female, but can fit into one of
the two categories, is Common Gender.
E.g.: baby, parent, student, teacher.
4. A noun that denotes neither male nor female is Neuter Gender.
E.g.: tree, jewel, building, meadow.

Conversion of Masculine to Feminine Nouns:

1. Add – ess at the end of the masculine noun. E.g.: Baron-baroness ;
Lion-lioness ; Duke-duchess; Prince -princess
2. Change either the first or the last word in the case of a compound noun.
In other words, by adding a word indicating sex before or after the main
word.
E.g.: Land lord - land lady ; sales man - sales woman ;
peacock-peahen ; cock-sparrow - hen-sparrow ; tom-cat- tabby-cat
3. Add – ine, -ina, -ix, -a, at the end of the masculine noun.
E.g.: hero-heroine; Administrator-administratrix ; creator-creatrix ; sultan-
sultana ; czar – czarina
4. Use a completely different word. E.g.: fox –vixen ; stag –doe ; ram -ewe
marquis – marchioness ; horse -mare
Note: However, the usage of gender difference is breaking down rapidly.
Hence we have a spokesperson instead of spokesman or
spokeswoman. Similarly Chairperson and Salesperson is more
commonly used.
Exercise 2: Change the genders of nouns and make correct sentences:
1. Father helps my sister in doing her homework.
2. The man-servant is chasing the buffalo.
3. A lion and a tiger are chasing the deer.
4. A King’s son is a prince and his daughter is a princess.
5. Uncle is teaching Aunt how to cook.
Number in nouns:
1. Singular: This indicates one thing. E.g.: tomato, boy, card.
2. Plural: This indicates more than one thing. E.g.: tomatoes, boys, cards.
The general rule is that most count nouns pluralize with ‘–s’ and the non-
count nouns do not pluralize at all. However, certain nouns in English
belong to both classes: they have both a non-count and a count meaning. In
such cases there is an exception to the rule.
i) The count meaning concrete and specific. E.g.: I've had some
difficulties finding a job. Here ‘difficulties’ refer to number of specific
problems. The talks are in progress. ‘Talks’ refer to number of
lectures or speeches.

ii) The non-count meaning is abstract and general. E.g.: She succeeded
in the examination with little difficulty. (Here, ‘difficulty’ refers to the
general idea of the exam being difficult.). I dislike idle talk. (‘Talk’
refers to talking in general.)
Conversion and Usage of Singular and Plural Nouns
1. The most common way of converting a singular noun to its plural form
is by adding –s. day-days, girl, girls.
2. Nouns ending in -ch, –o, –sh, –ss, –x form their plural by adding –es.
Church – churches, hero-heroes, brush- brushes, kiss-kisses, tax-taxes
3. Nouns ending in –y with a preceding consonant form their plural by
dropping the –y and adding –ies. E.g.: baby-babies, story-stories.
4. Twelve nouns ending in –f or –fe drop –f/fe and add –ves to form
plural.
They are: calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife,
wolf, loaf, knife. (calves, halves, knives, leaves, lives, loaves, selves)
Exceptions: However, nouns hoof, scarf and wharf take either –s or –
ves. hoofs or hooves, scarf or scarves, wharfs or wharves. Also, the
other nouns ending in –f/ef add –s to form plural. cliff-cliffs,
handkerchief – handkerchiefs.
5. Instruments having two parts are always used in plural.
E.g.: scissors, tongs, trousers, nuptials.
6. Some plural words are more commonly used in singular.
E.g.: Mathematics, Statistics (as a subject), Politics, News, Measles.
7. Normally compound nouns take the plural of the last noun.
E.g.: boyfriends, travel agents.
8. Nouns of words of foreign origin follow the rule of the original language
to form plurals. E.g.: phenomenon-phenomena, radius-radii.
9. Certain nouns have different forms in their plural, depending on the
context of usage. E.g.: die – dies (device that shapes materials by
stamping, cutting or punching), dice (small cubes used in games)
brother – brethren (members of community); brothers (siblings).
10. Abstract and Material Nouns are not used in plural, except in cases,
where they are used as Common Noun. E.g.: advice-advice, courage-
courage

Exercise 3: Turn the nouns into plurals wherever it is possible. Make

necessary changes.
1. The man and his wife went to the place of worship.
2. The singer can play the piano.
3. A ring is made of gold.
4. A woman knows very little but understand more.
5. A dentist pulls of a tooth.
Articles: In English, articles may be classified as Indefinite and Definite.
1. Definite article: It is used before a noun that is specified. ‘The’ is the
definite article.
2. Indefinite articles: They are used before a noun, which is not specified.
‘A’ and ‘An’ are the indefinite articles.
Definite Article Usage: ‘The’ is used-
1. before singular and plural nouns when the noun is particular or specific.
E.g.: The apple tree is full of fruits. (specific noun – singular).
2. before non-countable nouns that are made more specific. E.g.: The
coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.
3. before a noun refers to something unique. E.g.: The theory of relativity.
4. before names of rivers, oceans and seas. E.g.: The Ganges, the
Pacific.
5. before points on the globe. E.g.: The Equator, the North Pole.
6. before geographical areas. E.g.: The Middle East, the West
7. before deserts, forests, gulfs and peninsulas. E.g.: The Sahara, the
Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Indian Peninsula
8. before certain well-known or sacred books. E.g.: The Mahabharata,
The Bible, The Midsummer Night’s Dream
9. before an adjective in the superlative degree. E.g.: Nisha is the shortest
girl in the office.
10. before certain adjectives to give a plural meaning. E.g. The rich = rich
people
Indefinite articles – Usage
 We use ‘a’ when the noun we are referring to begins with a consonant
sound. E.g.: a city, a bird
 We use ‘an’ when the noun we are referring to begins with a vowel (a,
e, i, o, u) sound. E.g.: an apple, an umbrella.

NOTE: If the noun begins with a consonant sound. (E.g.: university), then
we use ‘a’. If the noun begins with a vowel sound (E.g.: hour), then we use
‘an’. We say "university" with a "y" sound at the beginning as though it were
spelt "youniversity". So, "a university" IS correct. We say "hour" with a silent
‘h’ as though it were spelt "our". Therefore, "an hour" IS correct.
‘A’ or ‘An’ is used –
1. before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not
mentioned before. E.g.: I saw an elephant this morning.
2. before singular countable nouns. E..g.: I stepped in a puddle.
3. when talking about one’s profession. E.g.: I am an English teacher.
4. before Mr/Mrs/Miss + name to imply that he is a stranger to the speaker.
E.g.: A Mr Smith is outside your office.
5. before a proper noun to make it a common noun. E.g.: Amit is a
Shakespeare.
6. before certain uncountable nouns preceded by nouns + of. E.g.: a drop
of water, a piece of advice
7. after the words many, rather, such, quite in certain structures. E.g.: Such
a show cannot be arranged now.
‘A’ or ‘An’ is not used
1. before names of meals. E.g.: Let us have lunch at 12.30 p.m.
Exception: ‘a’ is used before names of meals when they are preceded
by adjectives. E.g.: She gave me a sumptuous dinner yesterday.
Articles are not used
1. with non countable nouns referring to something in general. E.g.:
Coffee is his favourite drink.
2. before names of languages and nationalities. E.g.: English, Indian
3. before names of academic subjects. E.g.: History, Biology
4. before names of cities, towns, states. E.g.: Miami, Seoul
5. before names of streets. E.g.: M.G. Road
6. before names of lakes and bays. E.g.: Lake Titicaca
Exception: ‘the’ is used with group of lakes. E.g.: the Great Lakes.
7. before names of mountains. E.g.: Mount Everest
Exception: ‘the’ is used with mountain ranges. E.g.: the Andes
8. before names of continents. E.g.: Asia, Australia

9. before names of islands. E.g.: Easter Islands

Exception: ‘the’ is used with the chain of islands. E.g.: the Andamans
10. before material nouns. E.g. Gold is a precious metal
Exception: ‘the’ is used with an adjunct, which makes the material
noun definite. E.g.: The gold we use in India is all imported.
Exercise 4: Fill in the blanks with appropriate articles (a / an / the)
And they lived happily ever after, say ____ fairy tales. Have you ever
wondered if they really did? They could have in fairy tales but in reality, we
are still chasing happiness and it only gets more elusive by _____day.
Mankind has been united in the conviction that happiness is ____ very
desirable state. We are driven by _____ need to be happy behind
everything we do. When young, we study well to get good grades so we
can be happy with _____ accolades. We grow up; get jobs to earn money,
security, status – all for happiness. And then inevitably get into relationships/
marriage all again for – happiness.
We chase money, health, growth, fame, power, property and relationships,
not for what they are, but because we think they could lead to happiness.
Yet, you will acknowledge that this is fleeting happiness. Getting into ___
foreign university is what you always wanted, but leaving your girl friend
behind, that totally kills it. Losing weight may transform your life but it means
never having ‘Death by chocolate’ again. Promotions mean no holidays, and
high-end cars mean gallons of petrol. No matter what or how much you
have, nothing seems quite enough. Is there ___ irrefutable, permanent and
absolute happiness? Or better, What makes people happy? ___ good bank
account, ___ good cook, and ___ good digestion, said Jean Jacques
Rousseau.
Answers
Exercise1:
1. shopman; shop
2. rains; grass; plants
3. children; toys; sweets
4. silk
5. tea; China
6. religions

Exercise 2:
1. Mother helps my brother in doing his homework.
2. The maid-servant is chasing the she-buffalo.
3. A lioness and a tigress are chasing the stag.
4. A Queen’s daughter is a princess and her son is a prince.
5. Aunt is teaching Uncle how to cook.
Exercise 3:
1. The men and their wives went to the places of worship.
2. The singers can play the pianos.
3. The rings are made of gold.
4. The women know very little but understand more.
5. The dentists pull off the teeth.
Exercise 4:
And they lived happily ever after, say _the_ fairy tales. Have you ever
wondered if they really did? They could have in fairy tales but in reality, we
are still chasing happiness and it only gets more elusive by the day.
Mankind has been united in the conviction that happiness is _a_ very
desirable state. We are driven by the need to be happy behind everything
we do. When young, we study well to get good grades so we can be happy
with _the accolades. We grow up; get jobs to earn money, security, status –
all for happiness. And then inevitably get into relationships/ marriage all
again for – happiness.
We chase money, health, growth, fame, power, property and relationships,
not for what they are, but because we think they could lead to happiness.
Yet, you will acknowledge that this is fleeting happiness. Getting into _a__
foreign university is what you always wanted, but leaving your girl friend
behind, that totally kills it. Losing weight may transform your life but it means
never having ‘Death by chocolate’ again. Promotions mean no holidays, and
high-end cars mean gallons of petrol. No matter what or how much you
have, nothing seems quite enough. Is there _an__ irrefutable, permanent
and absolute happiness? Or better, what makes people happy? _A_ good
bank account, _a__ good cook, and _a__ good digestion, said Jean
Jacques Rousseau.

Unit 2 Oral Communication

Structure:
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication
2.3 One-to-One Oral Communication
Face to Face Communication
Communication through Telephone
2.4 Summary
2.6 Answers
2.1 Introduction
Nidhi was gushing with enthusiasm when she was discussing with me the
new layout she had planned and designed for her magazine. She was the
subeditor of the upcoming youth magazine. Previously the entire
management had come to a consensus about changing the existing layout
for better marketing reasons. She was well prepared with her power point
presentation regarding the layout she had designed. She presented her
idea to a gamut of professionals in the field. The entire top management
was awe-struck at the effectiveness of the presentation and the passion with
which Nidhi presented her design. They decided to go ahead with the
changes suggested by her.
What do the two situations convey to you? In both instances, you can
observe there are two things happening. Nidhi initially talks to an individual,
me, in this case, on a personal one to one basis and that too very informally.
Next, she addresses a group. Talking to groups is a different ball game
altogether. But one thing is common to both – talking to an individual
informally or addressing an audience. Both fall under the category of face to
face communication.
In this unit, we are going to discuss about Oral Communication. Oral
communication can occur between individuals or before large audiences as
in a meeting. It can be formal or informal and it can be planned or casual.
Very often oral presentations are accompanied by some visual aids to

support and clarify what is being stated. We will learn some basic principles
of Oral Presentations and Visual Aids used in oral presentations.
Objectives :
 discuss the merits and demerits of oral communication
 use some polite expressions/phrases in appropriate contexts, while
making effective one-to-one communication
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication

When you ask your father for permission to visit your friend's house, he
could say yes or no. In oral communication there is a possibility of
immediate response. This makes speedy interaction and immediate
feedback possible. This is the biggest advantage of oral communication.
Another advantage is that the speaker can observe the listener's reaction to
what is being stated. For instance, if someone comes to you on the date of
your exam results and tells you that you have passed, your reaction to the
message will show that you are happy. Similarly, if someone tells you that
your friend fell down, when he was doing his practical and had an injury, you
will be shocked and the person who gave you the message will notice your
shock.
How would you feel if your favourite cinema star saw you somewhere and
spoke to you voluntarily? Yes, you would be happy! And you would also feel
very important, wouldn’t you? Oral communication can therefore give a
feeling of importance.
The disadvantage of oral communication is that it does not always save
time. It is not possible for the Prime Minister to speak to the people at Red
Fort every day. It will cost a lot in terms of money, time, and other important
resources. People have to meet each other all the time to communicate
orally. This is impossible.
Improving oral communication
Speaking to friends and family members is easy because you know them.
But when you are asked to go and speak to a total stranger you may
hesitate. It is even worse when you have to address in a seminar or present
a project in front of your higher authorities in the office. You should pay a

little attention to your oral skills because learning to speak well will improve
your personal and professional life considerably. You should remember that
even if the listener cannot see you (in telephone conversation), it is easy to
deduce your personality with the help of the quality of your voice – its tone
will indicate your age, sex, intelligence, if you are stressed, if you are
confident or not; even your geographical origin is distinguished by noting the
accent you use while speaking.
1. What is the main advantage of Oral communication?
2. Why should we pay attention to learn oral skills?
3. What helps the listener deduce the personality of the speaker in a
telephone conversation?
4. How is the geographical origin of the speaker understood in oral
communication?
2.3 One-to One Oral Communication

In your day to day dealings, you have to interact with people on a one to one
basis. It is central to developing positive working relationship. There are two
ways in which we communicate orally:
i) Face to face and ii) Telephonic conversation
2.3.1 Face to face communication
This may normally take place in any place, in any part of the day; in a lab,
when you are talking to your attendant, or in the college campus when you
direct a newcomer to his desired destination. When you have a face-to-face
conversation with someone, you’re near them, and you can see them. You
can also listen to them and speak to them – by actually looking at them
(their facial expressions and gestures) as well as their surroundings. When
you have a face to face conversation with somebody, you don’t need to spell
out everything in words. Many of things you want to communicate to them
would be clear to them, from the situational context.
Asking the way: Apart from our topic of interest, in the case mentioned
above; we meet many people in our day to day life – people from different
cultural background, with different accents. It would be very difficult to
comprehend most of the expressions and words spoken. But we need to

develop certain skills of acquiring this technique for finding out the
necessary information/enquiry by asking relevant questions.
For examples of asking the way or direction and giving directions, let’s
go though the following table of expressions.
(i) Tourist: (ii) Excuse me, (iii) Excuse me, but (iv) Excuse me,
Excuse me, can please could you I’m trying to find please could
you tell me where tell me the way to the Town Hall… you tell me how
GANDHI street the station? to get to the
is, please? Town Centre?
(attention, asking
for information)
You: Take the Turn round and turn Take the third on First right,
second on the left at the traffic the right and go second left. You
left. And then lights. straight on. can’t miss it.
ask again (giving
Information)
Tourist: Is it far? Will it take me a Should I take a Is it too far to
(additional long time to get bus? walk?
information) there?
You: No, its only No, it’s no distance No, you can walk it No, its only a
about five at all! in under five couple of
minutes walk minutes. hundred
(responding). meters.
Tourist: Thanks Thank you. Thank you very Thanks, very
a lot! (gratitude) much. much.
You: Not at all. That’s O K. That’s quite alright. It’s my pleasure.
(responding)

Giving Directions
Study the map carefully and fill in the blanks in the worksheet
Use the map to ask for and give directions.

You are standing outside the Railway station.
1. You: Excuse me, can you tell me the way to the T V factory?
Stranger: Certainly! go along STATION ROAD turn right INTO High
street, and the T V FACTORY is on the RIGHT. You can’t miss it.
2. Tourist: Excuse me, can you tell me the way to the Police Station,
Please?

You: _______! Go _________ Station Road, turn _____ ________ High

street and the Police station is _______________. You can’t _____ it!
3. You: Excuse me, can you tell me the way to the Bookshop please?
Local: _______! Go _______ Station _________ ________ High Street.
Go ________ High Street. __________ the third _________ your left.
The bookshop is ________ left, just __________ the Grammar school.
4. Tourist: Excuse me, can you tell me if ________ is a hotel near here
please?
You : Yes, there is. _________ not far really, Go ________ station road,
take __________ on your left. ______ straight _______High street until
you come to the Bus station. The Hotel is __________ the corner
_________ the Red cow. You ______________.
5. Tall stranger: ____________, can you tell me if ___________ green
grocer’s ___________.
Short local: ______________________________________ Station road
________ left _________ High Street. _________________________
until ________ come __________ the police station. The green grocer’s
is ___________ the chemist, ______________ crown.
Useful phases:
Change A’s questions into more polite forms.

Example: A: where is the station?
B: (i) Can you tell me where the station is, please?
(ii) Could you tell me where the station is, please?
1. A: How far is it to Delhi? B: ---------------------------------

2. A: Where are the shops? B: ---------------------------------
3. A: Which direction is the motorway? B: ---------------------------------
4. A: How long is it to the nearest garage? B: ---------------------------------
5. A: Which way is the desert? B: ---------------------------------
6. A: Where is the restaurant? B: ---------------------------------

2.3.2 Communication through telephone

This communication is possible while responding to calls, official or
personal, asking or giving directions, etc. When you have a telephone
conversation, the strongest point of oral communication, body language as
well as expressions, is absent – and you’ve got to rely mainly on the actual
words you use in order to convey your meaning. So, you cannot rely on the
extra-linguistic expressions to add meaning to the words that you use. At
the same time, you cannot be explicit during a telephonic conversation
because you speak under the pressure of time and you can only express
yourself by composing and speaking at the same time, just as you do when
you have a face-to-face conversation. Therefore, this puts more emphasis
not only on the words that we choose, but also, on how we use our voice or
tone.
There are two telephone situations: Receiving and Initiating calls.
Receiving an official call: The way you handle a call creates a positive or
negative impression, not only of you, but also your organization.
a) Be prepared; have a pen, notepad… always make a note of the call
b) Answer the phone as quickly as possible. “All calls must be answered
within three rings.”
c) Give the call your full attention.
d) Smile before you speak.
e) As soon as you pick up the phone to answer a call, let the caller know
that you’ve picked up the phone and that he has your attention. You can
do this by saying “Hello”. You can alternatively use the name of the
organisation, where you are working, or your telephone number.
Eg: • Hello, 3468953. • Tata Institute, Good morning.
f) If the caller starts stating the purpose of his call without announcing his
identity, you can ask him who he is before telling him anything or helping
him – if you find it necessary to do so.
g) Find out the caller’s name and use it. This personalizes the
communication.
h) Use your skills to build and maintain rapport, listen actively and question
effectively. If you have to transfer the call, explain why and what you are
doing; to whom the call is being transferred.
i) If you have to put the call on hold for any reason, explain why, and offer
the caller the alternative to be called back.

j) If you need to phone the caller back, agree when you’ll do it- and make
sure you do!
k) When you end the call, summarize any action that has been agreed
upon and check if the caller is happy with the outcome. It’s courteous to
thank them for calling.
Initiating a call: Whenever you dial a number and someone picks up the
phone at the other end, you should follow these rules:
a) Ask the person who picks up the phone at the other end , • Are you
3467983? / Mr. ---- or Is that 3467983?
b) If he says it is the right number, it’d be a good idea to go ahead and ask
him if it’s really the place (office, house, etc.) that you want.
Eg: • Is that the XYZ Co.? • Is that the News Desk?
c) Then you should announce your identity. If the person on the other end
has not recognized you, tell him who you are and where you’re calling
from – that is, the place, office etc. you’re calling from.
d) After announcing your identity, you can straightaway ask him if you
could speak to the person whom you want – without asking him who he
is. Of course, if you recognize his voice, and if he’s the person you want
to speak to, you can straight away launch into a conversation.
e) If the person who picks up the phone at the other end voluntarily
announces his identity, and if he’s not the person you want to speak to,
tell him you’d like to speak to the specific person – or ask him if you
could speak to that person.
f) Suppose you are told about the unavailability of the person you want,
you can ask the person who has picked up the phone who he is – before
you start telling him anything else.
Eg: • Who’s this speaking? • May I know who is speaking, please?
But remember one thing: In general, nobody likes to tell you who they
are if you don’t tell them who you are first. So the best policy is to
announce your identity first, before asking for the identity of the person
at the other end.
g) Once you get the person you want on the phone, and once you’re sure
that he’s the person you want, you can state the purpose of your call.
But don’t just rush into explaining the purpose all of a sudden. Instead,
start by preparing the ground – by telling him that you’re now going to
state the purpose. For example, if you’re calling him to tell him
something about a meeting, you can begin by saying something like this:
• I’m calling you about tomorrow’s meeting. Or it’s about tomorrow’s
meeting.
h) In the same way, before you speak to him about anything important,
start by telling him that you’re going to speak to him about a particular
topic. In this way, you must always build an expectation in him about
what you’re going to say – before you actually say it. This step is very
important if your telephone communication is to be really effective.
i) Before you actually ring off, say something appropriate that’d indicate to
the person at the other end that you’re going to ring off. Depending on
the context, word groups like the following would help you do this:
• Bye, then. • I’ll get back to you soon. • Well, that’s settled, then.
• Thanks a lot. Goodbye. • Until tomorrow, then. Goodbye.
j) Be prepared to take a message: Be thorough when you take a message.
Include-
1. the caller’s name
2. the caller’s phone number
3. if offered, the caller’s firm or department
4. the date and time of message
5. a message, if the caller chooses to leave one
6. your name.
 Do not screen calls: If the required person is in, please forward
the call immediately. Do not ask, “Who’s calling?”
 Use the caller’s name: There is no sweeter music to a person’s
ear than the sound of their own name.
 When placing a call, always allow a minute for the person
required to answer (Ten rings is equivalent to one minute)
 Take time for a good closing: Let the caller hang up first; then
replace your handset gently.

Self Assessment Question

5. Refer to the following chart and identify whether the telephone call is
formal or informal
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A: 777172 A: 396577 A: 6438657 A: 605040
B: Hello, Mohan B: Hello. It’s Sam B: Hello, this is B: Hello, my

here! speaking. May I Surinder here. Is name is David
Can I speak to have a word with Simran there Smith. Could I
Tulsi, please? Leela? please? talk to Mary
please?
A: Hold the line A: I’ll just see if A: Hang on a A: I’ll find out, If
please she is in. moment she’s at home.
B: O K B: Right B: All right. B: Right
A: Sorry, but she’s A: I am afraid A:I think she’s A: Sorry, but

out she’s not here gone shopping she won’t be
back till Monday
B: Would you tell B: Could you take B: Would you ask B: Can you tell
her I rang? a message? her to call back? her to ring me
when she gets
back?
A: I’d be glad to! A: Yes of course! A: certainly! A: With

pleasure!
2.4 Summary
In every area of work, communication stands a prime position. Most of the
communication in our life is oral communication. This is because, we learn
to speak first and then to write. While communicating with the people, polite
phrases and expressions have to be used in their appropriate contexts. We
have learnt the language that has to be used while giving orders to our
subordinates or taking orders from our seniors; giving or asking for
directions, which are the most common oral skills that an individual has to
learn and use in a day to day life.


Pick out the most appropriate response to the questions from the given
alternatives:
i) How do you do?
(a) Hi there!
(b) How do you do?
(c) Fine, thanks.
ii) How are you?
(a) Thank you, Well.
(b) Fine, thanks, and you ?
(c) I have a cold.
iii) Excuse me, could you tell me the way to the station please?
(a) I don’t know
(b) You’ll have to ask someone else
(c) I’m afraid I’m a stranger here myself
iv) Would you mind if I opened the window a little?
(a) I’d rather you didn’t actually. It is quite cold.
(b) Yes, I would
(c) Please, don’t!
2.6 Answers
1. immediate feedback
2. because it will improve the personal and professional life
3. Quality /tone of the voice of the speaker
4. With the help of his accent
5. i) and ii) are informal ; iii) and iv) are formal
Terminal Questions
i) b ii) b iii) c iv) a

REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Pronoun is used as a proxy to the proper
noun to avoid repetition of the nouns.
Suresh said that Suresh bought a new bike.
In this case repetition of the proper noun
‘Suresh’ becomes redundant. It could be
replaced by the pronoun ‘he.’ Suresh said
that he bought a new bike.
You may come across usage of pronouns
that are quite confusing.
I hit myself with the ball.
I myself hit the ball.
Both the sentences have the pronoun ‘myself’ but they mean different. The
first sentence uses reflexive pronoun, whereas the second sentence uses
emphatic pronoun.
Reflexive Pronouns: Here the action reflects back on the noun. When the
subject and object refer to the same person, reflexive pronoun is used.
I must blame myself for this.
Behave yourself.
He killed himself.
Emphatic Pronouns: They are used to emphasize the subject of the
sentence.
I myself will take you there
You yourself are to be blamed
Exercise 1: Pick out the Pronouns from the sentences given below:
i) I am afraid you may have to wait.
ii) Lubna come in. She was quite good looking.
iii) Have you been to Tokyo? Yes, it was very crowded.
iv) It is good to go to bed early and rise early.
v) One should be practical.
vi) Her parents are in Singapore and so are mine.
vii) She stretched herself flat on the sofa.
viii) These are not mine but those are.
ix) Someone should take up the responsibility.
x) Ting and Tang are jealous of each other.
xi) Look at the man in the car. He is the person who helped me in my
difficulties.
xii) Who is the woman at the gate?
Prepositions
Prepositions are the words, which tell us
about the relations of the nouns, pronouns,
and adjectives in a sentence. Their position
is before (pre) the noun. Hence, they are
said to govern the noun. The noun, which
follows is said to be the object of the
preposition.
Relations Expressed by Prepositions
1. Preposition of Time: on, in, at, for, before, after, until, till, between, by,
upto. E.g.: She was healthy till yesterday.
2. Preposition of Place: to, at, from, away, on, onto, of, in, into, out, upon,
inside, within, by, over, above, on top of, behind, in front of, below,
beneath, across, through, all over, throughout, between, among. E.g.:
Where do you come from?
3. Preposition of Method and Manner: by, with. E.g.: The boys skipped
going to school, with audacity.
4. Preposition of Reason and Purpose: with, of, for. E.g.: I rented a
house for my holidays
5. Preposition of Possession: of, with, by. E.g.: The tomb of Akbar is in
Sikandarabad.
6. Preposition of Direction and Motions: into, towards, up, round,
across. E.g.: They climbed into the lorry.
7. Preposition of Contrast: despite. E.g.: Despite his mistakes, he is a
sincere worker.
Have these prepositions confused you? Check out their proper usage.
 beside, besides
a) The house is beside the river. (by the side of)
b) Besides being good at Tennis, he is also an excellent player of Golf.
(in addition to/moreover)

 since, for
a) He has been absent since Monday last. (point of time)
b) He was absent for four days. (length or period of time)
 between, among
a) I have to choose between the two pictures.(two persons/things)
b) This is the custom among the tribes. (more than two)
 by, with
a) He was killed by a servant. (doer of the action)
b) He was killed with a knife. (instrument of action)
 in, at
He lives at Juhu in Mumbai. (‘at’ - smaller area/ ‘in’- bigger area)
 in, into
a) He is in bed (indicates rest or motion inside anything)
b) He fell into the well (motion towards the inside of anything)
 on, upon
a) He sat on a chair (things at rest)
b) He lives on his maternal uncle (denoting support)
c) I wrote books on philosophy (denoting concern)
d) He jumped upon the horse. (Things in motion)
 in, within
a) The loan will be repaid in a year. (end of a period of time)
b) The loan will be paid within a year (any time before the specified
period.)
 over, above
a) They saw the peaks towering above them (higher)
b) We hung the picture over the fire place (vertically above)
Exercise 2: Use the suitable preposition in the blanks:
1. It is almost time. Hurry up! The train will leave _______ five minutes.
2. _______ the end of April, we go ________ holidays.
3. My father leaves me ______ school ___ his way to office
______scooter.
4. Beautiful resorts are coming up _________ the sea.
5. You can hang grandfather’s portrait ____________ the shelves.

6. Do you mind taking your legs______ the table.

7. When I saw my friend, I was walking _______ the road _____ my dog.
8. A beautiful butterfly flew _____ our window and landed ________ my
bed.
9. Could you help me put this film ____________ the camera?
10. Is that man ______________ a beard a priest?
11. Please don’t go away _______________ telling me!
12. Who was this portrait painted ____________________ ?
13. Leaning _____ the big tree he was recalling _________ his mind, the
pleasant memories ____________ his college days.
14. The nose ______________ an elephant is called the trunk.
15. Ramola walked _______ the tree ___________ search of her lost ring.
16. We have been living ________ this street __________ three years.
17. There is a parcel __________ books __________ you. It is _________
the Oxford Universit Press.
18. Suman has been waiting ___________ Arun ________ 10 o’clock. He
wonders whether he is coming at all.
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. I; you
2. She
3. you; it
4. It
5. one
6. her mine
7. she; herself
8. these; mine
9. someone
10. each other
11. he; who; me
12. who

Exercise 2:
1. in
2. by; for
3. at; on; by
4. near
5. above
6. off
7. across; with
8. inside; on
9. into
10. with
11. without
12. for
13. against; from; of
14. of
15. around; in
16. in; for
17. of; for; from
18. for; since

Unit 3 Listening Skills

Structure:
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Meaning of Listening
3.3 Types of Listening
3.4 Barriers to Effective Listening
3.5 Strategies for Effective Listening
3.6 Semantic Markers
3.7 Summary
3.9 Answers
3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we have learnt the techniques of oral communication.
The success of oral communication depends largely on the listening
capacity of the listener. In this unit, you will be introduced to one of the
fascinating areas of language learning and that is ‘listening’. This is a skill,
which is not given its due importance in our language learning. We take it for
granted that naturally all listen to language automatically and therefore,
there is no need of developing listening as a skill of language. However, this
is not true. Here, you will identify different hindrances to listening and hence
learn to avoid them. You will also learn different strategies that you can use
and practise while listening, to make communication process easy and
productive.
Objectives:
 identify the difference between hearing and listening.
 describe different types of listening
 list different barriers of listening
 apply appropriate strategies to be an effective listener
 explain semantic markers

3.2 Meaning of Listening

Listening is a highly complex, interactive process, “by which spoken
language is converted to meaning in the mind” (Lundsteen, 1979). As this
definition suggests, listening is more than just hearing, although children
and adults often use the two terms, hearing and listening, synonymously.
Hearing is only one important component of listening.
In order to become a good learner, you need to become a good listener.
You may be surprised to know that hearing and listening are not the same
thing. You could say that good hearing is the foundation of good listening.
Listening is a specialized form of hearing and is the primary function of the
ear. It is the thinking or converting to meaning what one hears that is the
crucial part of the listening process.
i) Hearing is a passive process. It is merely the detection of sounds
around us. Normally, we come across ‘hearing’ in certain situations.
E.g.: When your lecturer reprimands you for some of your shortcomings,
you just hear it without paying much attention.
ii) Listening: It is an active process. It involves the conscious desire to
determine the meaning of what is heard. While listening, one is engaged
in processing the data, reconstructing the data and also giving meaning
to the data. Instead of reprimanding you, if the lecturer talks about the
forthcoming examination and discusses the possible questions that
could be asked, you tend to become attentive and listen to him intently.
Now you are listening and not just hearing.
1 In order to become a good learner, one has to become a good listener
(True/False)
2 Hearing is the specialized form of listening (True/False)
3 Hearing is an active process where as listening is a passive process
(True/False)
4 To solve any problems involving complaints, one should master the art
of listening (True/False)
5 Listening is an interactive process. (True/False)

3.3 Types of Listening

Listening can be categorized based on the intention of the listener. They
are, discriminative, comprehensive, evaluative, appreciative, empathetic,
therapeutic and dialogic.
1. Discriminative listening :
As the name itself suggests, Discriminative listening is the most basic type
of listening, whereby the difference between the sounds is identified. If you
cannot hear differences, then you cannot make sense of the meaning that is
expressed by such differences.
We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language first, and
later are unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages.
This is one reason why a person from one country finds it difficult to speak
another language perfectly, as they find the sounds similar and cannot
distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language.
Likewise, a person who cannot hear the slight variation in the tone of
another person's voice will be less likely to discern the emotions
experienced by the person.
Listening is a visual as well as auditory act. As we communicate much
through body language, we need to be able to discriminate between
muscle and skeletal movements that signify different meanings.
2. Comprehensive listening:
When the discriminating of sounds is achieved, you should learn to make
sense of the learnt sound. To comprehend the meaning, you require a
lexicon of words and all rules of grammar and syntax by which you can
understand what others are saying.
The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication,
and an understanding of body language helps us understand what the other
person is really meaning.
In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and
comprehension often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a
verbose communication.
3. Evaluative listening:
Evaluative listening is also called ‘critical listening’ because we make
judgments about what the other person is saying. We seek to assess the

truth of what is being said. We also judge what they say against our values,
assessing them as good or bad, worthy or unworthy. Evaluative listening is
particularly relevant when the other person is trying to persuade us, perhaps
to change our behavior and maybe even to change our beliefs.
4. Appreciative listening:
In appreciative listening, the main intention is to seek certain information,
which will be appreciated. For example, the information that helps meet our
goals and needs are looked for. We use appreciative listening when we are
listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great
leader.
5. Empathetic listening:
When we listen empathetically, we seek to understand the beliefs, moods,
emotions and goals of other people. This requires excellent discrimination
and close attention to the nuances of emotional signals.
In order to get others to expose these deep emotions to us, we also need to
demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively
and in a way that encourages self-disclosure.
6. Therapeutic listening:
In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing
with the speaker, but also to use this deep connection in order to help the
speaker understand, change or develop in some way.
This not only happens when you go to see a therapist but also in many
social situations, where friends and family seek to both diagnose problems
from listening and also to help the speaker cure of those problems. This also
happens in work situations, where Managers, HR personnel Trainers and
Coaches seek to help employees learn and develop.
7. Dialogic listening:
The word 'dialogue' stems from the Greek words 'dia', meaning 'through'
and 'logos' meaning 'words'. Thus dialogic listening means learning through
conversation. It is an engaged interchange of ideas and information in which
we actively seek to learn more about the person and how they think.
Dialogic listening is sometimes known as 'relational listening' because with
the help of exchange of ideas while listening, we also indirectly create a
relation.


6. The other name for evaluative listening is _________________ .
7. To extract key facts from a verbose communication, one should have
the skills of _______________ listening.
8. The type of listening where different types of sounds are recognized
and differentiated is called as __________________.
9. Listening to good music is a type of __________________ listening.
10. ___________________ listening is also known as relational listening.
11. In _____________________ listening, the listener not only empathizes
with the speaker, but also suggests some change, so that the speaker
develops himself in a desired way.
3.4 Barriers to Effective Listening

Listening is the most important part of the communication process.
However, listening skills do not come naturally to most people; they require
willingness, practice, and patience to develop.
There are many reasons for the failure of individuals to listen successfully.
These include:
1. Interrupting
2. Faking attention and tuning out
3. Becoming emotional
4. Jumping to conclusions
5. Becoming distracted
6. Prejudging the subject
7. Wrong focus
8. Gathering only facts
9. Inflexibility while listening
10. Avoiding complicated subjects
1. Interrupting is a problem for many reasons. First, it is aggressive
behaviour and will most likely bring a negative response from the
speaker being interrupted. Second, it is difficult to listen and speak at
the same time. When the listener is interrupting, he or she is certainly
not listening fully.
2. Faking attention and tuning out can be offensive and is usually hard to
hide. This is hurtful and sends the message to the speaker that the

listener doesn’t really care about what the speaker is saying. If an

individual cannot listen actively in the present moment, it is best to let
that be known and suggest that the communication process be put off
until a point when there are no distractions.
3. Becoming emotional can hinder one’s ability to listen. It is important
that the receiver be aware of his or her emotions. If the sender is
sending a message that is offensive, it is important to acknowledge that
fact and be aware that something is threatening a breakdown in the
process. When a receiver is vexed, it is easy for him or her to miss the
most important part of the sender’s message.
4. Jumping to conclusions is often considered the most common barrier to
listening. The listening, to be effective, should be done with full
attention to whatever the speaker has to say. Only then there should
be any reaction. More often we tend to jump to conclusion regarding
the speaker’s message, which is one of the important barriers of
effective listening. It may be helpful for the listener to wait until the
speaker is finished before responding. It can also be helpful to ask
questions throughout the conversation to clarify issues, or to let the
speaker know that he or she is communicating in a way that suggests a
certain thing, which may not be what they are intending to say.
5. Distraction is easily possible while trying to communicate. Often one
has many tasks to do or there are a lot of other activities taking place,
while someone is trying to communicate. This can be a problem
because it leads to miscommunication, faking attention, and tuning out
all together – all of which threaten future communication.
6. Instead of listening to the speaker, many people tend to assume that
the subject is boring or dull. During any conversation, presentation or
speech, they turn their attention to other things or simply day-dream.
7. Another barrier of listening is the focus of the listener on appearance
and delivery of the speaker. The listeners observe the appearance and
the delivery style of speaker instead of listening to what is being said.
They keep looking for faults in the speaker’s appearance instead of
judging the speaker by the content of his speech.
8. Many people listen to gather facts instead of trying to understand the
underlying idea and integrating it with non-verbal communication. By

focusing too much on the facts, the listener may miss the message that
the speaker is intending to convey.
9. Many formal speeches are not carefully outlined and organized. As a
result, many listeners try to mentally outline the presentation instead of
paying attention to what is being said.
10. When the subject is technical or complicated, many people stop
listening altogether. The listeners decide beforehand that since the
subject is not familiar, they will not be able to understand what the
speaker is trying to say.
12. Turning one’s attention to other important things instead of listening to
the speaker at a point of time is considered a good habit of listening.
(True/False)
13. Paying attention to the presentation of the speaker instead of the
subject is a barrier of listening. (True/False)
14. A technical or complicated subject is not at all a barrier for effective
listening. (True/False)
15. Too much attention to the facts told by the speaker may result in
missing the underlying message. (True/False)
16. A good listener should always jump to conclusion at the beginning of
the speech without waiting for the speaker to complete the facts and
messages that he intends to pass on to the listener. (True/False)
3.5 Strategies for Effective Listening

Although the reasons for listening breakdowns are numerous, there are
many ways to improve listening skills. These are:
1. Provide clues that you are actively involved
2. Concentrate
3. Refrain from formulating an immediate response
4. Try to prepare beforehand
5. Be prepared to accept revisions
6. Be sure the environment is conducive to listening
1. Clues that you are actively listening can go a long way. It is important to
the speaker to feel that you care about what he/she is saying. This is
because it tends to send a message about whether or not the listener

(you) cares about the speaker in general. When people don’t feel that
you care about them, they don’t trust you and the communication
process quickly breaks down. Therefore, it is important to use verbal and
non-verbal clues that you are listening, including eye contact, gestures,
and acknowledging statements.
2. Concentration requires willingness and practice. Practising active
listening helps with concentration but there are other elements that
contribute to your ability to concentrate on what someone is saying.
Assuming you’re attending an invited lecture on a topic of current
interest, you have to concentrate on the speaker’s words completely
without being distracted by any other sound or event. It is important to
position yourself in a way that maintains eye contact with the speaker.
3. It is important to refrain from formulating an immediate response. You
won’t be able to fully concentrate on forming a genuine understanding of
what the speaker is trying to say if you are too busy thinking about what
you are going to say in response to them whenever it is your turn to talk.
4. Preparation can have a huge impact on the outcome of a dialogue or
any form of communication. To prepare for an interaction where
effective listening will be important, it is essential to keep in mind the
purpose of the exchange. What decisions need to be made and how the
collaboration between sender and receiver relates are important factors
to keep in mind. It is also helpful to approach the situation with the
attitude of really caring to know the truth. The dialogue should be viewed
as an opportunity to uncover the truth and make progress, rather than as
a challenge or conflict.
5. A willingness to accept revisions will keep the communication process
running smoothly. Often people are so busy trying to defend their
positions that they fail to really stop and think whether they could be
improved upon or viewed in a different way. This is what is often referred
to as “spending 90 seconds expressing an opinion and 900 seconds
blindly defending it.” Every complaint that you receive, should enable
you to find ways of improving the unaccepted behavior rather than
defending yourself and finding reasons and explanations for such
behaviour.

6. Choosing the right environment is important because it will help the

listener focus and avoid distractions. Although you cannot create or call
an environment perfect for all types of communication, in general it is
best to avoid areas where there are high levels of activity, loud noises,
an uncomfortable temperature, poor air flow, etc.
Implementing these techniques takes willingness and patience. The effort is
worthwhile however, as the long-term benefit of improved communication
skills will greatly increase one’s chances of success in the business world.
Effective listening is the most important part of the communication process.
It is also probably the most difficult to master. There are many barriers to
effective listening, but practising listening techniques will help one overcome
these barriers and become a good listener.
Listening Activitiy
Let us learn to listen. Ask your friend to read the story given below. Listen
while the story is being narrated and answer the questions that follow.
(Listen to the information only once.)
A plane flown by John F. Kennedy Jr. crashed on July 16, 1999. He was
flying from Fairfield, New Jersey to Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. His
wife, Carolyn, and her sister Lauren were also on the plane. All on board
died. July 16 marks the anniversary of Kennedy's tragic plane crash
When Heidi Golledge heard JFK Jr's plane was missing Saturday, she tried
to buy an Internet address with his initials. She got two. Now they're up for
auction.
Heidi Golledge says, "I'm selling johnfkennedyjr.cc, that's ten thousand and
then I have jfk--jr.com (jfk dash dash jr dot com). That's fifty thousand."
The son of Camelot had yet to be buried, but collectors and the curious are
cashing in. [What is] up for sale? Any and all souvenirs even remotely
related to the Kennedy family. The most popular JFK Jr. Internet items are
back issues of George, the magazine he published. Some items range from
the truly tasteless, like a shirt alleged to be from JFK Jr's suitcase washed
ashore, to legitimate souvenirs like an autographed baseball. Auctioneers
are well acquainted with the craving for celebrity memorabilia. Michael
Schwartz of Butterfield and Butterfield says, "It does fulfill some sort of
emotional need that they have to own these items." In the emotional times

following a celebrity death it's a seller’s market. But some Internet users
angered by the commercialism are sending hate e-mail to the souvenir
sellers.
There are even public messages left in eBay auction files that say, "Don't
bid; have respect for the Kennedy family." Golledge has received several
hate e-mails but feels their criticism is unjust. "It's a separate thing. It's
business; it's not a negative thing against JFK Jr. at all." This seller has six
different Internet addresses to be sold as a set for one hundred twenty
thousand dollars. Another address has already sold for two hundred
thousand.
Heidi Golledge says, "There's never really been a time in history that I could
see that you could purchase something for seventy dollars and an hour later
it's worth two hundred thousand. If you could show me a stock like that on
the Internet I'd be happy to buy it." Investing in a tragedy, emotionally or
financially, for some it's paying off.
A. Select the appropriate answer

1. What sort of things are being sold by Heidi Golledge
a) JFK tee-shirts
b) Baseball cards owned by JFK Jr.
c) Internet addresses that include the initials of JFK Jr.
d) Back issues of the magazine George
2. Why does Ms Golledge say she is selling such items?
a) She wants to make money
b) She wants to honour celebrities
c) She believes in the internet
d) She is a happy person
3. Michael Schwartz thinks that collecting celebrity memorabilia fills
a/an ____ need.
a) Financial
b) Emotional
c) Health
d) Greedy
4. Some internet users are angered by ____

a) Commercialism
b) Prices
c) Hate e-mail
d) Auctions
B. Number the items below in the correct order in which they occurred
in time.
i) Auctioneers know about the craving for celebrity memorabilia
ii) There has been criticism of this commercialism about celebrities
iii) JFK Jr., his wife, and her sister were all killed in an airplane
accident.
iv) Many souvenirs of the Kennedys are now up for sale on Internet
online auctions.
(for answers, refer to section 3.9)
Source: http://www.world-english.org/listening-news.htm
3.6 Semantic Markers

When you are listening to the directions given by an instructor or reading a
text, you need to pay attention to the use of ‘semantic markers.’ They are
the link between two sentences. So they mark the beginning of a sentence.
They indicate a shift or change in the tone of the speaker. The semantic
markers should not be limited to listening skill alone. They also help you to
learn to write well. In an analysis, the writing must be logically organized,
whereas narratives require a chronological ordering; and a commentary
presents an opinion with supportive facts. Whatever the case, organizing a
paragraph or a text requires an understanding of semantic markers.
The semantic markers are used according to the functions they perform:
1. They indicate how ideas are being developed. They can also be used to
list the ideas, such as, first, secondly, finally, to begin with, first and
foremost, next, etc.
2. Markers for illustrations and examples such as, for instance, for
example, let’s take for example, etc.
3. They introduce an idea that runs against what has been said earlier,
such as, but, nevertheless, yet, although, by contrast, on the other hand,
however, in spite of, etc.

4. They are used to show a cause and effect relationship between one
idea and another. They include, so, therefore, because, since, thus,
hence, consequently.
5. They show the speaker's intention to sum up his message. Some of
these phrases are to summarize, in other words, it amounts to, etc.
6. They indicate the relative importance of different items, e.g., it is worth
noting, it is important to note that, the next crucial point is, etc.
7. They are used to rephrase what has already been said. These are in
other words, put differently, that is to say, let me put it like this, etc.
8. They express a time relationship, e.g., then, next, after, while, when,
previously.
Activity 2 : Listening to the radio news as well as other programmes has to
be very carefully practised. Most precisely because everything would
happen within a fraction of a second and there is no visual impact as on TV.
Given below is a news text from a news broadcast on Air on 23rd June 1985.
Ask your friend to read it only once. Listen carefully to the news item. Take
outline notes as you listen to the news.
NEWS ITEM
“This is All India Radio” The news read by Spoorthi Sinha. Headlines.
“An Air India Jumbo jet has crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, off the Ireland
coast. All the three hundred and twenty five passengers and crew are
feared killed. A judicial enquiry has been ordered. The president and the
Prime Minister have expressed grief and shock.
The Sri Lankan President says he will consider decentralisation of powers if
Tamil Militants give up separatist activities.
A central Intelligence Directorate is to be set up soon to deal with economic
offences.
The Southern Command has lifted the Murugappa Gold Cup in Hockey.
An Air India Jumbo Jet “Kanishka” with 325 people on board crashed into
the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Ireland, this morning, The crash occurred
40 minutes before it was to land at the Heathrow Airport, in London for
refuelling. Agency reports from London say that there are no signs of
survivors. According to PTI, 33 bodies have been recovered so far. The

wreckage has been sighted spread over a 7-kilometre area about 30

kilometres west of Cork in Southern Ireland.
The flight number AI 182 was coming in from Toronto and Montreal in
Canada, to Bombay via London and New Delhi. The radio contact with the
plane was lost at 8:15 this morning local time, i.e.: 12:45 Indian Standard
Time, when it was 200 kms off the coast of Ireland. It then disappeared from
the radar screen of the Shannon Airport in Ireland. A big search and rescue
operation has been launched. The weather in the area was being described
as moderate but sea conditions were slightly unstable.
A spokesman of Ireland Air traffic control said. “The plane was in routine
contact with air-controllers and was cruising at an altitude of 9450 meters
when it suddenly disappeared from the screen. A short time later, two
nearby aircraft picked up electronic distress signals indicating that the plane
had gone down. It is believed that it is the first time that a commercial jet
plane has crashed on the busy Trans Atlantic Route…"
Now answer these questions:
1. Out of the four news headlines, which item has been dealt with at
length?
2. What is the reaction to the news? (feeling)
3. What is the name of the Jumbo Jet that crashed into the Atlantic?
4. How many people were on board?
5. How many bodies have been recovered so far?
6. Where has the wreckage been sighted?
7. Where did AI 182 start its flight? And what was the destination?
8. What was the altitude at which it was cruising?
9. Did a commercial jet plane crash on the busy Tans Atlantic Route
earlier?
10. Who lifted the Murugappa Gold Cup in hockey?

17. Nodding of the head and repeating some words of the speaker, is a
strategy to be used while practicing passive listening. (True/False)

18. When a client has called you to complain about the service of your
office, you should thank him for calling. (True/False)
19. A sincere apology from you will usually diffuse a lot of frustration that
the client has. (True/False)
20. As a professional and a practiced listener, you should stay the course
and remain calm and level headed even when the client is using harsh
or vulgar language. (True/False)
3.7 Summary
“We have two ears and one mouth and should use them in that proportion."
-Epictetus.
The communication process is a unique sharing of thoughts and feelings
that defines us as humans. It can be visualized as a dynamic circle because
of the constant changing relationships among its various parts – the source,
idea, message, medium, receiver and response. This process occurs within
a communication environment. Most people can hear, but a good listener is
hard to find. Without effective listeners, the dynamic circle of communication
is broken. Hearing is a passive, generally involuntary process, in which the
brain receives and interprets sounds from the external environment. In
contrast, listening is an active, voluntary process, in which the listener
deliberately pays attention to, interprets the meaning of, and responds to a
message.
There are many types of listening such as Discriminative, Comprehensive,
Evaluative, Appreciative, Empathetic, Therapeutic and Dialogic. Listening
skills are not innate in human beings. One needs exhaustive practice to be
a good listener. There are barriers, which hinder the listening process.
Interruption, faking attention, becoming emotional during conversation,
jumping to conclusions even before dialogue is completed and becoming
distracted are all causes of incomplete listening.
Even though one is not a born ‘perfect listener,’ one can train himself to be a
very good listener, which is the foremost quality to become a successful
professional. The strategies that one has to develop in order to be a good
listener are – Provide clues that one is actively involved, concentrate while
someone is talking, refrain from formulating an immediate response, try to
prepare beforehand, be prepared to accept revisions and be sure that the
environment is conducive to listening. The best way of making your task of
listening easy is by concentrating on the semantic markers. They hint the

tone to be changed and the links between the ideas formed or to be
expected in the mind of the speaker.

1. Differentiate between listening and hearing.
2. List the types of listening.
3. What do you mean by the barriers to effective listening?
3.9 Answers
1. 1) True 8) Discriminative 15) True
2) False 9) Appreciative 16) False
3) False 10) Dialogic 17) False
4) True 11) Therapeutic 18) True
5) True 12) False 19) True
6) Critical 13) True 20) True
7) Comprehensive 14) False
Activity 1:
A. Select the appropriate answer
1. c 2. a 3. b 4. a
B. Number the items below in the correct order in which they occurred
in time.
1-iii 2-iv 3-i 4-ii
Activity 2:
1. Crashing of Air India Jumbo Jet
2. Grief and shock
3. Kanishka
4. 325 people and crew
5. 33
6. The wreckage has been sighted spread over a 7- kilometre area about
30 kilometres west of Cork in Southern Ireland.

7. The AI 182 started from Toronto and Montreal in Canada. Its

destination was Bombay
8. It was cruising at an altitude of 9450 metres.
9. No
10. The Southern Command
Terminal Questions
1. Hearing is a passive process, which involves a mere detection of sounds
around us. Listening is an active process, where the conscious desire is
to determine the meaning of what is heard.
2. Listening can be categorized as, discriminative, comprehensive,
evaluative, appreciative, empathetic, therapeutic and dialogic.
3. The reasons or hindrances, which are responsible for the failure of a
person to listen effectively, are called barriers to listening.
REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Verbs
A verb indicates the action done by the subject. E.g.: He arrived late.
Verbs can be categorized into two groups:
1. Main verb: This tells us of what exactly happens. They are also called
the ‘action words.’ E.g.: Srinivas went to his village. The word ‘went’
tells us what the subject ‘Srinivas’ has done.
2. Auxiliary verbs: They indicate the number and tense in the sentence.
They are also called ‘helping verbs’ or ‘linking verbs.’ E.g.: Mohan did
not go with him. The helping verb ‘did’ decides the time of action. So the
main verb will be in the original form of ‘go’.
Verb – Tenses
Tense refers to the time of action. With the change of tense, the form of the
main verb also changes.
Present Tense: Simple Present, Present Continuous, Present Perfect,
Present Perfect Continuous
1. Simple Present: (Subject + V1 (present )

 It is used to indicate a regular or habitual action and permanent or

verifiable truths/facts.
E.g.: Mary goes to school every day (regular action)
Henry always swims in the evening (habitual)
The sun rises in the east. (permanent truth)
 It is used to express a planned future event/actions, exclamatory
statements with ‘here’ and ‘there’.
E.g.: We go to New Delhi next Thursday (planned future event)
Here comes the great player of the year!
 It is used to indicate verbs of perception.
E.g.: I hear someone sing.
2. Present Continuous: (Subject + {is, am, are}+V1 + ing)
 It is used to indicate present time when an action is going on.
E.g.: The secretary is typing the letter now.
 It is used to indicate the action in progress and will be continued, but
not necessarily at the moment of speaking.
E.g.: My son is drawing scenery.
 It is used to indicate the actions that have been arranged to take
place in the near future and one’s immediate plans.
E.g.: We are going to a party this evening.
 The following verbs are never used in the continuous forms (with
‘ing’) see, hear, smell, notice, understand, have, believe, hate, need,
love, appear, like, seem, sound, want, taste, wish, own, notice,
desire, refuse, forgive, care, admire, mean, remember, recall, forget,
belong, possess, contain, consist, keep, seems, cost.
 When some of the above verbs are used in the continuous tense,
their meanings change.
E.g.: I have a house at Colaba.
The professor is having the class in Room. 2 (taking)
3. Present Perfect: (Subject+{have, has}+V 3 (verb in the past participle)
a. It indicates an action that has happened at an indefinite time in the
past.
E.g.: Maria has seen this movie three times.

We haven’t written our reports yet.

 It is used to indicate actions that have started in the past and are
continuing at present.
E.g.: I have been sick for a long time.
 It is also used to show the activities completed in the recent past.
E.g.: My father has just left.
 We should not use present perfect tense when the time is
specified.
E.g.: I have read this book last week (incorrect)
I read this book last week (correct)
4. Present Perfect Continuous: (Subject + {have, has}+ been +V1 + ing)
a) It indicates an action that began in the past and is still occurring in
the present.
E.g.: He has been working in Washington for 5 years.
Exercise 1: Use the four present tense forms of verbs given in the
following:
1. We don’t buy vegetables. We ________ them in our garden. (grow)
2. Look outside. It _________. (rain)
3. We came to live here in 2000, so we __________ for a long time. (live)
4. The room is very clean today. I think someone _______ it. (clean)
5. Father ________ one more room for my study soon. (build)
Past Tense: Simple Past, Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Past Perfect
Continuous
1. Simple Past: (Subject + V2 {verb in the past})
a) It is used for a completed action that had happened in the past. It also
indicates habits of the past.
E.g.: Bob went to America last year.
We always played together.
2. Past Continuous: ( Subject + {was, were} + V1 + ing)
 It indicates an action, which was occurring in the past and was
interrupted by another action.
E.g.: Seema was watching the Television when her brother called.
 It describes two or more actions going on at the same time. The
clauses are usually connected by the conjunction ‘while’.

E.g.: While Maya was watching the movie, Mark was playing hockey.
 It expresses an action that was in progress at a point of time in the
past, having begun before that point and probably continuing after it.
E.g.: I was watching cricket at 8.00 in the morning.
3. Past Perfect: (Subject + {had} + V3 {past participle})
a) It is used to indicate an action that happened before another action
in the past. Usually two actions are mentioned in the sentence.
E.g.: Ram had gone to the store and brought some groceries.
(Past Per.) (Sim. Past)
4. Past Perfect Continuous: (Subject + {had} + been +V1 + ing)
a) It is used to convey an action which happened in the past and
continued for certain time.
E.g.: Ramu had been working at the university before he retired.
Exercise 2: Use the right past tense form of verb in the following gaps:
1. The postman _____ at the door when I ______ mother. (knock, help)
2. Uncle _________ a letter, _______ it and ________ it to me.
Afterwards, I _______ to the post office. (write, seal, give, go)
3. Yesterday I ________ an old friend of mine after a long time. (see)
4. ‘How did you learn to sing so sweetly’. My mother _________ me.
(teach)
5. Yesterday, Ritu and Chintu _________ tennis. (play). They began at
10 o’clock and finished at 11.30. So at 10.30 they ________ tennis.
(play)
Future Tense: Simple Future, Future Continuous, Future Perfect, Future
Perfect Continuous
1. Simple Future: (Subject + will/shall + V1)
a) It is used to express the speaker’s opinions/ assumptions about the
future.
E.g.: They will wait for us.
 It is used for future habitual actions.
E.g.: Birds will build nests.
 It is used in sentences containing clauses of condition, time and
purpose.
E.g.: If I drop this glass, it will break.

2. Future continuous: (Subject + will/shall + be+ V1+ ing)

 It is used to express an action as going on at some time in the
future.
E.g.: I shall be playing piano in the concert.
 It is used to express future without intention.
E.g.: I will be helping Marie tomorrow.
3. Future Perfect: (Subject + will/shall/ + have + V3)
 It is used for an action which at a given future time will be in the
past. It is usually used with a time expression ‘by then’, ‘by that
time’.
E.g.: By the end of next month he will have been here for ten
years.
4. Future Perfect Continuous:
(Subject+ will/shall + have +been+V1 +ing)
 It can be used instead of future perfect tense (when the action is
continuous).
E.g.: By the end of next month he will have been living here for
ten years.
 It can also be used when the action is expressed as a continuous
action.
E.g.: By the end of the week he will have been training pupils for
ten years.
* However, if we mention the number of pupils, we must use
future perfect.
E.g.: By the end of the week he will have trained 5000 pupils for
ten years.
Exercise 3: Use the right future tense form of verb in the following
gaps:
1. I think your brother ______ the present I have bought for him. (like)
2. Johnson ______ a novel at this moment. He says he _______ it next
month. (write, complete)
3. We have decided to have a party. We are _________ many of our
friends. (invite)
4. Every day Maria watches TV between 9 and 10 at night. If you go to
her house at 9.30 she ______ TV (watch).
5. What ______ you ______ at this time tomorrow? (do)

Auxiliary verbs and their forms:

A. Auxiliaries are twenty-four in numbers. They are all helping verbs, but
not all of them can independently function as verbs.
The twenty-four auxiliaries are:
am is are was were
have has had
do does did
will would shall should
can could may might
dare ought to used to
need must
B. The ones which can function independently as verbs are thirteen:
1. I am a student.
2. Thailand is a wonderful place.
3. They are tired.
4. He was in Delhi yesterday.
5. The mangoes were sweet.
6. Sue and Santa have new friends.
7. She has a headache.
8. Last summer we had great time on the beach.
9. They do things effortlessly.
10. She does her part well.
11. He did the job before my telling.
12. We need a sharp knife to cut this cord.
13. Susan dared her friend to eat ten apples. (challenged)
The remaining eleven auxiliaries do not function as independent verbs, but
all the twenty four function as helping verbs.
I have understood everything. (In this sentence have is the helping verb
have understood is the verb.)
 Auxiliaries are useful to change a sentence from affirmative to
negative just by adding not after them.
All are present today. (affirmative)
All are not present today. (negative)

 By placing the auxiliaries in the front. The sentence can become a
question.
Smith will come early (affirmative)
Will Smith come early? (negative)
 Can frame negative questions
Hasn’t she attached college yesterday?
Don’t you understand Arabic?
 Can have contracted or shortened forms of not. They make spoken
language natural.
Is + not Isn’t
are + not aren’t
will + not won’t
shall +not shan’t
need + not needn’t
can + not can’t
 Can help us to give short answers:
Does he listen to his parents? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t
(to mean he listens to his parents/he does not listen to his parents)
 In conversation, there is a common device of making a statement
and at once asking the listener to confirm it. In English it is done with
tag questions.
We are learning English, aren’t we?
(statement) (question tag)
Auxiliaries repeat themselves in the tag. A positive statement is said with the
negative tag.
He can speak good English, can’t he?
Negative statement is said with positive (affirmative tag)

They don’t attend office on holidays, do they?

Note: The tag should always be spoken in the falling tone.
2. Of the twenty four auxiliaries, twenty are grouped into modals. They are
can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, need, have to,
used to, ought to etc and the tags negative. In the remaining four, the
statements are negative and the tags affirmative.
1. The ocean is deep, isn’t it?
2. The sun rises in the east, doesn’t it?
3. In the eastern world people work hard, don’t they?
4. Our team won the match, didn’t it
5. You are not interested in painting, are you?
6. Parents don’t tell lies, do they?
7. A bear doesn’t fly, does it?
8. Doctors looked after the patients well, didn’t they?
Note: In the statements when the action word (verb) is in the present
tense (as work, write, sing) negative or in the question do is
supplemented (added)
Birds fly, do they?
They don’t eat fish, do they?
When the verb is used with ‘Third Person’ (He, She, It - as reads, swims,
lives, etc.) does is supplemented.
Exercise 4: Add the correct question tags for the statements:
1. Your mother cooks well,_____?
2. He made you carry the box, _____?
3. I haven’t played the piano, _____?
4. They are wonderful people, _____?
5. Some people don’t eat fish, _____?
Answers:
Exercise 1:
1. Grow
2. is raining
3. have been living

4. has cleaned
5. is building
Exercise 2:
1. knocked; was helping
2. wrote; sealed; gave; went
3. saw
4. taught
5. had played; had been playing
Exercise 3:
1. will like
2. is writing; would complete
3. going to invite
4. will be watching
5. will you be doing
Exercise 4:
1. doesn’t she? 2. hidn’t he? 3. have I? 4. aren’t they? 5. do they?

Unit 4 Reading Skills

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Definition and Meaning of Reading
4.3 Purpose of Reading
4.4 Types of Reading
Skimming
Scanning
Extensive Reading
Intensive Reading
Loud and Silent Reading
4.5 SQ3R Technique of Reading
4.6 Summary
4.8 Answers
4.1 Introduction
Several skills are required for effective communication. We have already
dealt with the oral and listening skills. To gain and master these skills, you
need to acquire knowledge and wisdom, which depends on your extensive
reading habits. The more you read, the more words will you learn, which will
be helpful in making sentence variations and good oration. It will also widen
your thinking horizon, helps you analyze situations and give you insight into
varied experiences. Therefore, it is the primary skill that helps us acquire
knowledge about everything in this world. Those who cannot read or write
are prone to exploitation and suffering. Hence, it is important for all human
beings to read and learn. In this unit, we will learn about the various aspects
of reading, as a skill.
Objectives
 define and explain the meaning of reading
 list the purposes of reading
 select and use different types of reading for different purposes.
 describe and use SQ3R technique of reading

4.2 Definition and Meaning of Reading

The following are a few definitions regarding the process of reading.
 Reading is thinking under the stimulus of the printed page (Webster,
1982:30)
 Reading is a Psycho-linguistic guessing game (Webster, 1982:19)
 Reading Comprehension means understanding a written text.
Understanding a written text is extracting the required information from it
as efficiently as possible. (Francoise Grellet 1991:3)
The above definitions suggest that when you read any piece of text, you
understand the given text at three levels: -
i) Pure, literal response to the familiar words on the page – there is no in-
depth understanding.
ii) Recognition of the writer’s meaning. In other words, you read and
recognise the intention of the author in writing the given text.
iii) Personal experience, which aids you to understand the given matter.
All these three levels could be described thus: When you read, you read the
lines, read between the lines and also read beyond the lines. So, reading is
nothing but a decoding process.
Reading, for most of us, is a ‘passive process’, where we sit down, relax and
run our eyes through the words on the page. This is the method we
incorporate to understand the information that is given in the book. But
today, reading is considered an active process. A reader can understand a
text only when s/he actively uses her/his mental faculties. Hence, to read
efficiently one has to have:
 the knowledge of the writing system of the language
 the knowledge of the language (grammar, vocabulary)
 the ability to interpret
 a reason for reading and the appropriate method of reading
 the knowledge of the world (experience/background knowledge)
When all these requirements are used efficiently while reading,
understanding would be effective and meaningful. Thus, reading is a skill,
which has to be acquired by constant experimentation and struggle.


1. How does Webster define the term, reading?
2. What is the first level of understanding while reading?
3. To read efficiently, one need not have the knowledge of the grammar.
(True/False)
4.3 Purposes of Reading

We read many things in our day-to-day lives. Let us name a few of them:
 Newspapers and magazines
 Advertisements, leaflets, pamphlets
 Textbooks, novels, short-stories
 Letters, telegrams
 Recipes, puzzles, menus
 Articles, reports, legal documents
 Dictionaries, telephone directories
 Cartoons, comic strips
 Time-tables, maps, statistical graphs and diagrams
We have just listed the different texts that we normally read with certain
definite purpose in mind. They are read either for personal interest, for
pleasure, to acquire information or to participate in society. For you, as
students, the purpose of reading is emphasised on either for interest or for
pleasure and reading to acquire information and knowledge. Reading for
interest or pleasure is usually fulfilled through reading fiction, while reading
to learn is associated with informative articles. Reading for information may
be both internal and external. When you read for necessary background
information about what is going on within the institution where you work, or
within your group, it is called reading for internal information, example
annual report of your institution, previous meeting reports, etc. Reading for
the information of what is going on in your field, but outside your own work
place is called External Information. You may need to do something
concrete in the not too distant future after you have read whatever it is you
are reading- this is Action Reading. Professional reading is done when you
need to continue learning and studying so that you develop your own
thinking and skills. But you should bear in mind that the text itself is not
written strictly for any one purpose. For instance, any biography or
autobiography will be read as personal interest to understand the life
story
of an individual. The same maybe read by a research scholar for his

research purpose. People’s interest in reading is so varied, that any text
could meet any purpose.
4.4 Types of Reading

As we have already said, we read in different ways depending on the
purpose for which we are reading a text. Let us look at a few types of
reading.
4.4.1 Skimming
Let’s say that you need to buy a reference book for English grammar as
suggested by your professor. You go to a book store and see a rack full of
books, with the same title, but different authors. You don’t have time to read
the pages before deciding on buying the book. Hence, you quickly go
through the contents, title page and the blurb (It is a slang meaning, a short
piece of writing that praises and promotes something, especially a
paragraph on the cover of a book). By now, you have decided to buy one
book. The type of reading that you did in the bookstall is ‘skimming.’ Thus,
skimming means, “looking quickly over a text/book to get a general
superficial idea of the content.”
Activity 1:
Match these publications to the extracts below:
1. A clinical publication
2. Book Summary
3. News Report – Nick Thorpe, BBC
4. An extract from P G WoodHouse’s novel
5. A company’s annual report
6. “My Struggle for Education” Booker T Washington’s autobiography
a) Covey says that world has changed dramatically since he wrote The
Seven Habits in 1989. The challenges and complexities for magnitude
and dimension and calls for a paradigm shift in our us – both at personal
and professional front – are of a different thinking. The book addresses
to the 8th habit as potential energy that is a timeless part of human
beings and has often gone unnoticed and unrealized. It is the voice of
human spirit and hope that is embodied in people like Muhammad
Yunus who had a vision of poverty free world. Finding the inner voice

enables the individuals and the organisations not to do things right but to
do right things.
b) As they went on describing the school, it seemed to me that it must be
the greatest place on earth. Not even heaven presented more
attractions for me at that time than did the Hampton Normal and
Agricultural Institute on Virginia. I wanted to go to that school, although I
had no idea where it was, or how many miles away, or how I was going
to reach it. I was on fire constantly with one ambition, and that was to go
to Hampton. This thought was with me day and night.
c) Asthma, a condition that affects the lungs, is a disease that many
people, the majority of whom are children, have. Asthma is most
commonly thought to be hereditary. One known cause for an attack is an
allergic reaction, but stress and vigorous activity are thought to be
causes as well. This disease can be fatal if it is not taken care of
immediately, but with the medical technology of today, mild asthma is
more of a nuisance than a life threatening disease. Although not proven,
asthma is thought to be hereditary. The majority of asthmatics tend to
have asthmatics in the family. In most cases, asthma usually is present
at birth, although some cases have developed after age forty.
d) ‘Without presumption, sir. I feel that if you were to give me another
chance I should work to your satisfaction. I should endeavour-‘
Mr. Ferguson stared at him in dumb horror. He had a momentary vision
of a sleepless night spent in listening to a nicely-polished speech for the
defence. He was seized with a mad desire for flight. He could not leave
the building, but he must get away somewhere and think.
He dashed from the room and raced up the dark stairs. And as he
arrived at the next floor his eye was caught by a thin pencil of light which
proceeded form a door on the left.
e) Red Dawn: It sounds like a paperback thriller from the Cold War. In fact
it is the air raid siren in Sderot and the Israeli towns and villages like it
around the Gaza Strip. It is supposed to warn the local people of a
Qassam rocket attack by Palestinian militants. If the system works, they
have nine seconds to run for cover. But sometimes there is nowhere to
run.
In a kindergarten in the middle of Sderot, the mere mention of Red
Dawn makes one little girl burst into tears. This kindergarten has lost two

children – on their way here in the morning – to rocket attacks in the

past few years. Unlike some kindergartens in the town, this one at least
has a reinforced concrete roof and blast-proof windows. If the children
are outside and the siren goes, everyone sprints for the door. The
children reach it first.
f) Towards the end of the year we saw a slight improvement in our market
share in the United States. A more optimistic economic situation there
helped our sales to grow by just under 15% in the second half of the
year. This was partly due to some very strong competition from other
firms.
4.4.2 Scanning
As you read a text, editorial or an article, you suddenly come across a word
that is not familiar to you. Naturally, you would like to know the meaning of
the word, for your own benefit. So you get the dictionary and carefully find
the word. You see the spelling, pronunciation, meaning and also the various
uses of the same word (if any). This type of careful reading, to find out the
specific, clear details, is known as Scanning. Here, you don’t just run your
eyes across the page, but look into the information for specific details. Let
us go through the following exercise to be familiar with what scanning is all
about.
Activity 2:
Jesse Owens was a great short-distance runner and an Olympic Champion.
This passage is one of his personal experiences at the 1936 Olympic
Games held in Berlin. About that time, Hitler was preaching to the Germans
his theory of ‘a master race’ Did all Germans believe in this theory?
It was the summer of 1936. The Olympic Games were being held in Berlin.
Because Adolf Hitler childishly insisted that his performers were members of
a ‘master race’, nationalistic feelings were running high. I wasn’t too worried
about all these. I’d trained, sweated and disciplined myself for six years,
with the Games in mind. While I was going over on the board, all I could
think about was taking home one or two of those gold medals. I had my
eyes especially on the long jump. A year before I’d set the world record of
26 feet 8.5 inches. Everyone expected me to win that Olympic event hands
down. I was in for a surprise. When the time came for the long-jump trials,
I was startled to see a tall boy hitting the pit at almost 26 feet on his practice

leaps. He turned out to be a German named Luz Long. I was told that
Hitler had kept him hidden away, evidently hoping he would win the jump. I
supposed that if Long won, it would add some new support to the Nazis’
Aryan-superiority theory. After all, I am a Negro. A little hot under the collar
about Hitler’s ways, I was determined to go out there and really show Der
Fuhrer and his master race who was superior and who wasn’t.
An angry athlete is an athlete who will make mistakes, as any coach will tell
you. I was no exception. On the first of my three qualifying jumps, I leaped
from several inches beyond the take-off board for a no-jump. On the
second jump, I was even worse. “Did I come 3,000 miles for this?” I thought
bitterly. “To fall in the trials and make a fool of myself?” Then Luz Long
approached me and encouraged me to do my best with a calm mind. I
obeyed him and got qualified for the finals. The next day in the finals I won
the Olympic Gold Medal defeating my nearest rival Luz Long. Long was the
first one who came to congratulate me just in front of Hitler. You could melt
down all the gold medals and cups I have, and they wouldn’t be a plating on
the 24 carat friendship I felt for Luz Long at that moment.
Read the article and answer the questions that follow:
1. What preparations did Jesse Owens do for the Olympic games?
2. Why was everyone sure that Jesse Owens would get the gold medal in
the long jump event?
3. What did Jesse Owens expect to get from the 1936 Olympic Games?
4. What mistake did Jesse Owens make?
5. Why did he make that mistake?
6. Give the words from the passage that means the same as-
i) to turn from something solid to liquid
ii) to do something unexpected which surprises someone.
4.4.3 Extensive Reading
Does reading give us pleasure? As we have already mentioned our way of
reading is influenced by the purpose of our reading. Most of us have the
habit of reading especially when we are free or have a lot of leisure time.
We might get hold of a novel, a comic strip, a magazine etc. When we read
for the pure pleasure of reading we call it extensive reading. But, we should
not give it a lesser priority because it is extensive reading. It is enjoyable as

well as informative. Here, we practise rapid reading to get the global/overall

understanding of the matter.
Activity - 3:
Read the passage given below and try to insert words in the blanks.
The words that you choose should be contextual based.
I was born into middle – class Tamil family in the island town of
Rameshwaram in the erstwhile Madras State. My father, Jainulabdeen, had
neither much 1 (formal /informal) education nor much wealth; despite these
disadvantages, he possessed great innate wisdom and a true generosity of
spirit. He had a 2 (idol / ideal) helpmate in my mother, Ashiamma. I do not
recall the exact number of people she fed everyday, but I am quite certain
that far more 3 (insiders /outsiders) were with us than all the members of our
own family put together.
I was one of their many children – a short boy with rather undistinguished
looks, born to tall and handsome parents. We lived in our ancestral house,
which was built in the middle of the 19th century. I would say mine was a
very secure childhood, both materially and 4 (emotionally/superficially).
I got 5 (rejections/admissions) at Schwartz High School at
Ramanathapuram. I knew my father had invested great hopes in my 6
(success/failures). He wanted me to become Collector so I thought it’s my
duty to realize his dream.
My teacher, Iyadurai Solomon, used to say that a good student could learn
more from a bad teacher than a poor student from even a skilled teacher.
He used to say, “to succeed in life and achieve results, you must understand
and master three mighty forces – desire, belief, and expectation.” By the
time I completed my education at Schwartz, I was a self-confident boy
determined to succeed. Fur further 7 (recreation /education) I joined St.
Joseph’s College, Trichi. For my engineering, I managed to be on the list of
selected candidates, but admission to this prestigious institution was an
expensive effort. At that time my sister, Zohra stood behind me, 8
(mortgaging/buying) her gold bangles and chain. What fascinates most at
MIT was the sight of two decommissioned aircrafts displayed there for the
demonstration of the various subsystems of flying machines.

In the 9 (coarse/course) of my education at MIT, three teachers shaped my

thinking. Their combined contributions formed the 10 (foundation/ façade)
on which I later built my professional career. They shared a common
impulse – the capacity to feed their student’s intellectual hunger by sheer
brilliance and untiring zeal.
(Excerpts: Wings of Fire – An Autobiography by A P J Abdul Kalam with
Arun Tiwari)
Note: Now see the possible answers and try to check whether you have
selected the appropriate words. This exercise proves that you can
understand the overall meaning of the passage even if some words are
missing.
4.4.4 Intensive Reading
When we read shorter texts like a research paper, for getting specific details/
information we read slowly with a lot of concentration. This is intensive
reading. When you read a book as a resource material for research you
read it intensively because the overall understanding is not the
objective/purpose of your reading. When you read an article in order to write
a review on it, you read it intensively. We use all the skills of reading when
we do intensive reading.
Activity 4: Read the following paragraph. At the end of each sentence
you will find the letters M (main idea) and S (supporting detail).
Identify in each case, whether it is M or S and tick the correct letter.
At a time when orphanages and old age homes have become the icons of
civilization, grandparents seldom exert any influence on grandchildren.
(M/S) After the end of the Second World War, the concept of nuclear family
became quite widespread and acceptable. (M/S) The moulding of the
behavioural patters of future citizens became by and large the responsibility
of the parents. (M/S)Psychologists are of the opinion that 50% of an
individual’s traits are genetic in nature and that the other 50% are influenced
by the environment. (M/S) Here also, the parents, especially the mother, has
an important role to play. (M/S)
4.4.5 Loud and Silent Reading
Most of our day-to-day reading is done silently. When we read an article or
an advertisement, we are engaged in the process of deriving meaning from
the passage. Actually when we read aloud our concentration is divided

between reading and speaking. This makes reading difficult and may cause
problems in understanding the matter. But there are situations when we
have to read things aloud, like the notices and circulars, when others don’t
have access to it. You need to read the instructions aloud to students or
employees so that there is no confusion later. Besides these extra-ordinary
situations, most of the time the natural way of reading is silent reading which
is ideal and helps comprehension.
4.5 SQ3R Technique of Reading

This technique of reading is evolved by Robinson in his book "Effective
Study" (1970). SQ3R stands for the initial letters of the five steps in studying
a text.
Survey S
Question Q
Read R
Recall R
Review R
Let us briefly go through these steps in the given order:
1. Survey: Survey refers to a quick glance through the title page, preface,
chapter headings of a text. By surveying, you will be able to gauge the
main ideas of the text. Besides, the author's name, date and place of
publication and title page can give you an idea of the general subject
area. The table of contents, preface or foreword in a book would give
you an idea of the themes and how they are organised. A survey of the
index or bibliography tells you immediately whether the book contains
what you need.
Let's take an example. Choose the appropriate reference by a quick survey:
Here is a Bibliography (List of Books) on POLIMERIZATION.
Bibliography
(a) Billmeyer, F.W. 1962. A Text Book of Polymer Science
New York: John Wiley and sons
(b) A condensed Chemical Dictionary
(c) International Encyclopedia of Sciences
(d) Encyclopedia Britannica
(e) Stille, J. K. 1962. Introduction to Polymer Chemistry: New York: John
Wiley and sons. Wassermann, Leonard G 1974.
(f) Chemistry: Basic Concepts and Contemporary Applications California:

Wadsworth Publ CO Inc.
(Adapted from ELT Documents, 1980)
(Decide which of the publications in the list are likely to give you: (encircle
the appropriate letter)
A brief Introduction to the subject: a b c d e f
Current development in the field a b c d e f
Historical study of the subject a b c d e f
Various opinions by experts on the subject a b c d e f
2. Question: The second step in SQ3R technique of Reading is ‘question.’
A Survey of the text will surely raise a few questions in your mind,
regarding the text. Some of the questions could be:
 Is the book useful or relevant to my study?
 Does it provide some guidelines/information on the subject at hand?
But, as you go through the individual chapters, you might get specific
questions regarding the topic. This will surely lead to gaining some
insights into the text, topic and the author's comments. We will be
surprised to see how our questions are answered in the process of
reading and understanding the text. Hence don't take reading as an
automatic process. It has to be conscious, deliberate, and purposeful
with a definite purpose where you interact with the topic and the author.
3. Reading: After surveying and questioning, you begin the actual reading.
You need to develop a critical approach in reading anything for that
matter. Read the text over and over again and each time with a different
question in mind and a different purpose in mind. "I read it once and
understand everything" kind of attitude is nothing but a myth. Hence,
while reading for the first time, you just focus on the main points/ideas
and supporting details only.
4. Recall: The fourth stage in Reading Comprehension is recalling.
Reading is not an isolated activity. Every reading exercise increases
your background knowledge. You should be able to connect the
information gained to the already existing background knowledge.
Recalling whatever you have read would enable you to connect, relate
the content to the previous and future learning of the subject. This leads
us to the next stage in reading i.e., Review.
5. Review: Reviewing is nothing but checking whether we have followed

the earlier stages promptly and efficiently; whether we have surveyed
the book, article, and magazine properly. Have we asked the appropriate
questions relating to the content, have we read critically and have we
recalled the most significant details/information required for our study?
These are questions that we would like you to ask in the final stage of
reading. Review will sharpen your critical faculty and you would be able
to form your own opinions on the topic and express them to others.
Isn't this process a rewarding experience? Try to practice these stages
consciously in your reading and research and know for yourself what a
revelation this could be to you.
4. The technique of reading evolved by Robinson is commonly called as
_______.
5. By surveying one will be able to gauge the _____ of the text.
6. Which is the fourth stage of reading technique evolved by Robinson?
7. What do you mean by reviewing?
4.6 Summary
In this unit, we have discussed what reading is, and the various purposes of
reading. You have learnt the different types of reading like, Scanning,
Skimming, Intensive, Extensive and SQ3R method of reading. You have to
interact with the given piece of writing/information and derive meaning out of
it. For this, a basic knowledge of the language system, vocabulary, grammar
and some background knowledge of the topic is required. You should also
vary your speed of reading according to your purpose of reading. We have
given you examples of how you can practise the different skills of reading in
your day-to-day life. It is up to you to exercise your knowledge on reading
skills and systematically put the same to practice.

1. What do you mean by ‘S’ in the SQ3R method of reading?
2. Differentiate between internal information and external information.
3. What do you mean by reviewing?

4.8 Answers
1. According to Webster, Reading is a Psycho-linguistic guessing game.
2. The first level is the literal response to the matter that is read.
3. False
4. SQ3R
5. main ideas
6. recalling
7. Reviewing means checking whether the earlier stages of reading were
followed promptly and efficiently.
Activity – 1
1-c, 2-a, 3-e, 4-d, 5-f, 6-b
Activity – 2
1. Jesse Owens trained, sweated and disciplined for six years inorder to
compete in the Olympics
2. In the previous year, he had set the world record of 26 feet 8.5inches.
Hence people expected him to win the long jump event.
3. He expected to get one or two gold medals, especially in the long jump
event.
4. He leaped from several inches beyond the take-off board for a no-jump.
5. He was angry and could not concentrate. So he made the mistake.
6. i) melt ii) startled
Activity – 3
i) Formal vi) Success
ii) Ideal vii) Education
iii) Outsiders viii) Mortgaging
iv) Emotionally ix) Course
v) Admission x) Foundation
Activity – 4
At a time when orphanages and old age homes have become the icons of
civilization, grandparents seldom exert any influence on grandchildren. (M)
After the end of the Second World War, the concept of nuclear family
became quite widespread and acceptable. (M) The moulding of the
behavioural patters of future citizens became by and large the responsibility
of the parents. (S)Psychologists are of the opinion that 50% of an
individual’s traits are genetic in nature and that the other 50% are influenced
by the environment. (S) Here also, the parents, especially the mother, has
an important role to play. (M)
Terminal Questions
1. ‘S’ refers to Survey which means to quickly glance through the title page,
preface, chapter headings of a text.
2. When one reads for the necessary background information about one’s
institution where he is working, it is called internal information.
Reading for the information of what is going on in your field, but outside
your own work place is called External Information.
3. Reviewing is checking whether the earlier stages of reading, i.e.survey,
questioning, reading and recalling have been followed promptly and
efficiently.
Remedial English
Adjectives
Any word that adds more meaning to the Noun is called an Adjective. It
qualifies a noun.
Eg.: Ankur is a good player.
Kinds of Adjectives:
1. Adjectives of quality (They answer the question – What kind?)
Pankaj is a fantastic player.
2. Adjectives of quantity (They answer the question – How much?)
She drank a little water.
3. Adjectives of number (They answer the question – How many?)
The teacher met fifty students.
4. Adjectives of demonstration (They answer the question Which?)
This story is very interesting.
Give the papers to those girls.
5. Possessive Adjectives (They answer the question Whose?)
My son is in school.
It is their car.
6. Interrogative Adjectives
Which fool did this?
What kind of sweet should I order?
7. Adjective of Distribution
Each person has to sign on every paper.
Neither Srinivas nor Mohan went to the cinema.
8. Proper Adjectives
Malaya rubber is noted for its quality
(Rubber produced in Malaya (describes rubber)
Japanese style of flower arrangement is called Ikhbana.
(the style used by Japanese).
9. Participial Adjectives : This can be either present participle or part
participle. Present. Present participle refers to Verb+ing – Write+ing =
Writing, Sing+ing = Singing
Past participle refers to verb form liked, written, walked, sung etc.
The smiling child is happy. Smiling describes child. (The child who is
smiling) – Participal
Don’t buy stolen goods. Stolen describes goods which means goods
which are stolen.
Correct Use of some adjectives:
a) Little (practically no chance) Deepak has little chance of being
elected.
A little (some chance) There is a little hope of his
success.
The little (whatever available) I shall give him the little money I
have.
b) Few (practically none) Few people are good.
A few (a small number) I have a few friends in my office.
The few (whatever available) I will pack the few things I have.
c) First (first in order) Yuri Gagarin was the first man to
go into space.
Foremost (leading, eminent) Einstein was the foremost scientist
of his day.
d) Elder - eldest (of the same family) She is my eldest sister.
Older - oldest (of age) He is the oldest man in the village.
e) Nearest (in space) The nearest bus stop is two
kilometers away.
Next (in position) She sits next to her friend.

f) Later (in time) This is the later edition of the book.

Latter (in order) Of the two boys, Raj and Ram, the
latter is clever.
Latest (in time) This is the latest print.
Last (in order) This is the last bottle.
g) Less (smaller) I have less money than needed.
Lesser (not as bad as the other) This is the lesser of the two devils.
h) Farther (distance) Let us walk a little farther.
Further (additional, beyond He may be given further
punishment what exists now)
Exercise 1: Pick out all adjectives

1. Planning requires careful thought.
2. You cannot learn swimming in a shallow river.
3. Tagore had a long white beard and broad forehead.
4. This interesting story is being filmed at the Gemini studio.
5. Throw away that broken glass.
Adverbs
Adverbs add more meaning to the verb, adjective, or another adverb in a
sentence. It ‘modifies’ that word. E.g.: Radha sings melodiously.
Formation of adverbs:
1. By adding –ly, to an adjective: beautifully, strongly.
2. By adding -wise, -ways, -wards: otherwise, sideways, upwards.
3. By combining a prefix and a noun: asleep, ahead, away, besides.
4. By combining a prefix and an adjective: alone, around, below.
5. Two adverbs joined by conjunction: by and by, over and above, now
and then.
Types of adverbs: Adverbs tell us about the time, place, manner, quantity,
reason, and frequency of an action. They are recognized by asking certain
questions to the verb. We can use a few questions to find them.
1. Adverb of time: It answers the question ‘when’.
He left immediately. ( When did he leave? – immediately.)
2. Adverb of place: It answers the question ‘where’.
She lives here. (Where does she leave? -here)

3. Adverb of manner: It answers the question ‘how’.

They lived happily. (How did they live? – happily.)
4. Adverb of reason: It answers the question ‘why’.
All these happened because of you. (Why did all these happen -because
of)
5. Adverb of frequency: It answers the question ‘how often’.
He rarely spoke. (How often did he speak? - rarely)
6. Adverbs of degree/quantity: It answers the questions ‘how much’, ‘in
what degree’.
There is enough sugar.(How much sugar is there? - enough)
7. Relative adverb: E.g.: Show me the place where you were born.
Useage of adverbs:
 An adverb is often placed as near as possible to the word it modifies
(verb).
He writes carefully.
 If the verb is in the simple tense form, the adverb is usually placed
between the subject and the verb it modifies.
He often visits his home town.
(Sub.) (Adv.) (V)
 If the verb is in the form of ‘to be’ (is, am, was, are, were) the adverb
comes after the verb.
She is a very sober girl.
 If the verb is compound, the adverb comes after the auxiliary.
He will always return home in time.
 If the sentence is negative, the adverb of frequency follows ‘not’.
They are not generally selfish.
 If the sentence is interrogative the adverb takes position immediately
after the subject.
Has he ever spoken to you?
 In case of infinitives (to + simple form of verb + do), adverb should not be
placed in between ‘to’ and ‘do’.
He refused to do the task quickly.
(Inf.) (Adv.)
 Use of ‘hard’, ‘hardly’ - ‘Hard’ as an adverb usually follows the verb.
He works hard to make both ends meet.

‘Hardly’ as an adverb conveys a negative meaning of scarcely or barely.

Hardly had he spoken when the bell rang.
 Use of ‘scarce’, ‘scarcely’ - ‘Scarce’ as an adverb means hard to find.
Coal has become scarce in England.
‘Scarcely’ as an adverb is almost synonymous with ‘hardly’.
I can scarcely hear you.
Note: ‘hardly’ and ‘scarcely’ are followed by ‘when’. ‘No sooner’ is followed
by’ than’.
Exercise 2: Identify the adverbs in the sentences given below
1. This picture is precisely what I am looking for.
2. Unfortunately, the sky quickly grew dark.
3. Have you traveled recently?
4. The Adverb is one of the most important parts of speech in English
Grammar.
5. I work more on the product development side.
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. careful 2. Shallow 3. Long, white, broad
4. Interesting, Gemini 5. broken
Exercise 2:
1. precisely 2. Quickly 3. Recently
4. most 5. more

Unit 5 Writing Skills

Structure:
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Paragraph
Qualities of a good paragraph
Parts of a paragraph
Writing a paragraph
5.3 Static Description
5.4 Process Description
5.5 Describing Facts and Figures
5.6 Summary
5.8 Answers
5.1 Introduction
In the previous unit you have learnt the skills of reading; the other basic
forms of communication, oral skills and listening skills are already dealt with.
Now we have come to a juncture where advanced form is necessary to
communicate, in a more formal setting. Writing is one such skill, which can
be mastered, if right skills are learnt and practised. Faced with an intense or
complicated writing task, you may often struggle to write. However, the best
style of writing is clear and simple English, contrary to the belief that the
writing overflowing with difficult sounding words will be more effective! More
than being methodical – typing neatly, following all structural formats, etc.,
you should also know to use the right word at the right time. In this unit, we
shall learn how to put sentences together, to form a paragraph, in a
coherent and logical manner in order to express our ideas effectively.
Paragraphs are like gift boxes. They have three parts: a topic sentence
(which is like the box), detail sentences (which are like the things present
inside the box), and the conclusion or closing sentence (which is like a
bow that ties the whole thing together).

Objectives:
 define paragraphs
 explain the qualities of a good paragraph
 classify the types of paragraphs and write a paragraph
 use appropriate words in describing any facts or figures
 explain the description of any process given as a figure
 read the facts and figures in the records and describe them with precise
words
5.2 Paragraph
The smallest unit of prose composition is the paragraph. A paragraph may
be defined as a group of sentences relating to a single topic, or developing a
single central idea. Just as a sentence contains one main thought, in the
same way a paragraph contains one main topic or theme. All the sentences
should be so grouped that they must serve to develop the main theme.
Letters, essays, stories, etc., are divided into paragraphs with each
paragraph developing a single idea. A good paragraph is like a strong chain,
it has no loose or weak links.
A paragraph may be long or short, but it is best to keep the paragraph just
as long or short as is necessary for the development of a particular theme.
Moreover, you are allowed to vary the length of the paragraphs because a
short paragraph after a long one gives variety and relief to the eye as well
as the mind.
5.2.1 Qualities of a good paragraph
A good paragraph, like a good sentence must possess the following:
1. Unity
2. Order
3. Variety
1. Unity: A good paragraph NEVER contains more than one main topic or
theme. A good paragraph is one whose theme can be expressed in one
sentence, which is called Topic Sentence.
2. Order: In a good paragraph the sentences are always arranged in a
logical manner. The events are given in a particular order – the order in
which they occur. A well written paragraph shows clear thinking and

logical arrangement. To achieve this effect certain conjunctions and

coherence words may be used. Hence, so, therefore, but, or, and, then
are some such words which connect sentences to make the paragraph a
well-knit organic whole.
3. Variety: A good paragraph must contain both long and short sentences,
sentences of varied construction and those of differing length. However,
your style of writing must be simple and clear.
5.2.2 Parts of a Paragraph
The parts of a paragraph are:
i) Topic Sentence
ii) Supporting Details
iii) Closing Sentence
i) Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph. It introduces the
main idea of the paragraph. To write the topic sentence, summarize the
main idea of your paragraph. Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will
be about.
Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best
countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system.
All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price.
Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by
well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.
Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities
have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is
a desirable place to live.
Here, the first sentence summarizes the entire paragraph. Therefore, it is
the topic sentence.
ii) Supporting Details
They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of a paragraph.
They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph.
You write supporting details by giving supporting facts, details, and
examples.
Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries
in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All

Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second,

Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-
trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.
have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is
a desirable place to live.
Here, the supporting details are given in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7th sentences.
iii) Closing Sentence
The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph. It restates the
main idea of your paragraph. You write the Closing Sentence by restating
the main idea of the paragraph using different words.
Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries
in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All
Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second,
Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-
trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.
have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada
is a desirable place to live.
Here, the last sentence restates the main idea.
5.2.3 Writing a Paragraph
Given below are the steps that you have to follow while writing paragraphs:
i) Prewriting Paragraphs
ii) Writing Paragraphs
iii) Editing Paragraphs
iv) Publishing Paragraphs
i) Prewriting Paragraphs
The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for
your paragraph before you begin writing.
Six Prewriting Steps:
1. Think carefully about what you are going to write: Ask yourself:
What question am I going to answer in this paragraph? How can I best
answer this question? What is the most important part of my answer?
How can I make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from the

most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas can I use to

support my introductory sentence? How can I make this paragraph
interesting? Do I need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more
facts on this topic?
2. Open your notebook: Write out your answers to the above questions.
You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this; just write enough to
help you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph
or essay.
3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic: Look for and
write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Make sure
the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going
to answer in your paragraph or essay.
4. Write down your own ideas: Ask yourself: What else do I want to say
about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is
this topic important?
5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay: Choose the most
important point you are going to present. If you cannot decide which
point is the most important, just choose one point and stick to it
throughout your paragraph.
6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main
idea: Once you have chosen the most important point of your
paragraph, you must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look
at the facts you have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic.
Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your
paragraph. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use,
ask yourself which order to put them in the paragraph. Write down your
own points so that you can use it to guide yourself as you write your
paragraph.
ii) Writing Paragraphs
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.
Five Writing Steps:
1. Open your notebook or word processor.
2. Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence.
3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.

4. Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.

5. Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your
ideas
iii) Editing Paragraphs
The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and
correct them.
Grammar and Spelling
1. Check your spelling.
2. Check your grammar.
3. Read your paragraph again.
4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.
5. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.
6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.
7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.
Style and Organization
1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.
2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.
3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.
4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.
5. See if your paragraph is interesting.
iv) Publishing Paragraphs
The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your paragraph to
hand in.
Three Publishing Steps:
1. Make a paper copy of your paragraph.
2. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents.
3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.
You have now learnt everything that you need to know to write a paragraph.
But wait, before you start to write a paragraph, have a look at these
samples:
1. My Favourite Hobby
My favorite hobby is stamp-collecting. I have a stamp-album in which I have
pasted all the foreign stamps I have been able to collect. It is really a nice
collection. I have stamps from all over the world- from Russia, from Japan,

from Turkey, from China, from U.S.A. and from Egypt. I have also some rare
stamps which were issued in Afghanistan and Tibet. How pretty they are!
How I like to enjoy the pictures of natural scenery, crowns, arms, shields,
historical monuments, lovely knights and ladies printed on these stamps!
Stamp Collecting is really a very useful and instructive hobby.
2. Where There is a Will There’s a Way
If you have the determination to do something you can find a way to do it.
There is usually nothing that is impossible to do. If you fail to do a thing it is
mainly because you have not the will to do it. Many men who have become
famous as scholars, statesman, inventors, had to struggle against
seemingly insufferable difficulties to win success. Napoleon, who rightly
believed that nothing, would be impossible, ordered the army to march into
Italy. “Sir, the Alps,” said the general. “There shall be no Alps,” the Emperor
asserted. And no Alps came in his way. To determine to succeed is a sure
way to success. What seems impossible will turn out to be possible, if you
carry on with determination.
3. Smoking
A bad habit is often harmful but not every bad habit is as harmful as
smoking. Besides being expensive, smoking does injury to one’s health. A
smoker gets nothing but smoke for his money. In the long run he may get
something worse- a dreadful disease called lung cancer. But habit, they say,
is second nature; most smokers remain smokers for life. And even when
they know that smoking can cause disease or even early death, they
continue smoking. Can anything be more unreasonable than that?
1. Define a paragraph.
2. _____ sentence expresses the theme of a good paragraph.
3. What steps do you follow while writing a paragraph?
4. What do you mean by editing paragraphs?
5.3 Static Description

Very often we have to describe the appearance of a layout, apparatus, a
place, thing or a person. We refer to this as static description. Some of the
important things that you have to keep in mind while listening to a
description or giving instructions are:

1. It should be orderly. You should have some organization in your

description. E.g. general to particular, more important to less important,
front to back and so on.
2. It should be clear. The listener should get a clear picture in his mind
about what you are describing.
3. It should be accurate. No external, unnecessary details have to be
included.
4. It should be complete. All the significant and important details should be
included.
Example:
This document provides the manufacturing specifications for the entire line
of Cosy Home Collection, ‘The Coy Lass’ salt shakers (Home Industries
model # 1255). A hand-painted ceramic collector’s item, ‘the Coy Lass’ salt
shaker represents cute, Barbie-like lass, her head bowed as if she is shy. A
baby pink flower-print skirt is painted onto the body of the girl. The salt is
dispensed through the girl’s matching bonnet, via a circular array of six
small holes. The bonnet twists off to allow the consumer to fill the dispenser
cavity.
Activity
Pick one of the shapes below. Write as accurate a description as you can,
to a fellow learner and see if he/she can recognize the shape from your
description of it. To aid your description, you can pick up the words from the
following vocabulary guide.
VOCABULARY GUIDE: STATIC
Above close to at the top inverted
Below apart at the foot/base of inside
Over away bottom of within
Underneath some distance beside outside
In the front from alongside circle
at the back front, back on one side square
to the right rear shaped like triangle
to the left upside down attached to rectangle
on the right hand side upper leading to straight
on the left hand side higher supporting spiral
in the middle (centre), lower fitting into slanting
near on top of covering diagonal
wavy

Use this space to describe one of the above shapes and see whether others
can listen to your description and draw that shape more or less accurately.
This is a challenging task but with every exercise you will be able to express
and describe the shapes and things more accurately. Make use of the
vocabulary guide profusely.
Your description

Discussion
Now go through your description of the shape and see what element in your
description is faulty or incomplete. Using the vocabulary guide provided,
improve your own description so that when you describe that to your friend
orally, he should be able to draw the shape that you have in mind. Once
again you check and find out what detail is missing in your description till
you get an accurate/complete description. Isn’t that mind-boggling?
5.4 Process Description (Narration)

Two very common kinds of narrative skills are:
a) describing how to do something
b) describing how something works
In describing how to do something, the main aim should be to arrange the
information in such a way, that the process can be done straight through
without unnecessary interruptions. In describing how to repair something for
example, it is best to list all the tools needed beforehand, so that the
workman does not have to go away in the middle of this job to look for a
hammer or a saw. Once again your description should be accurate, clear
and complete.
Example
When your pet comes to stay at the Happy Stay Vacation Home, he will get
a daily grooming and exercise ritual designed by a local veterinarian to keep
him happy and healthy. Each morning, our canine guests are gently woken
by your choice of music, radio station, or even a tape of your own voice!
After a quick mouthwash and a bacon-flavored doggie biscuit, your pooch
will be taken out in our spacious recreation area for a breath of fresh air and
a few minutes of healthy exercise with an imported Italian doggie ball or a
favourite toy he has brought with him....
(Source: http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/technical/process.htm)
Now let us practise process description.

Exercise 1 Fill in the blanks to describe how olive oil is produced:
From September to the beginning of November olive gathering starts:
__________, trees are shaken. _______, olives are sorted out _______ ,
the ones for making oil are picked and they are brought to the oil-mill. There,

they are poured into round baskets which are piled up into the oil-press.
________, the oil-press is sealed and a lever is inserted in its hole. ______ ,
the oil press is worked round by hand. _______ , the oil is collected.
5.5 Describing Facts and Figures

You have learnt the meanings of static and process description. Now, after
practising to describe using the suggested words, it will be easier to express
in words what you see in figures. Factual information is provided in either
graphic or diagrammatic form. In your daily work schedule, you may come
across many records to be filled in or you may see figures, tables, pie charts
and bar charts that have to be interpreted correctly. Graphs can be used to
visually represent the relationship of data. It can help organize and show
the statistics. Organizing data graphically can come in handy in fields like
business, sports, teaching, politics, advertising, etc.
All safety facilities maintain registers or records of various kinds. These
provide the vital keys to the wealth of information contained in the records of
the work place. One of the records used in the Safety department is the
‘Ladder Inspection List.’ It is the key to ensure safety of the workmen while
using the fixed ladder.
Exercise 2:
Given below is an example of the Fixed ladder Inspection List. Read it
carefully and answer the questions given below:

Ladder Safety: Fixed Ladder Inspection Checklist

Department: Field Safety and Building Inspection
Program: Ladder Safety
Owner: Program Manager
Authority: ES&H Manual, Chapter 15, Ladder Safety1
Building Number: 23E/556 Location: warehouse
Date: 15 January, 2009 Tracking Number:__________
Fall Protection? yes √ no__ Cage? yes √ no __
Material: Metal √ Wood __ Length: 6.5 metres
Vertical bars less than 9.5" ? yes √ no __
Back of ladder clearance: > 7 inches? yes √ no __
Ladder width: > 16 inches? yes √ no __
Climbing clearance: > 15 inches from rung center? yes √ no __
Rail extension length: > 42 inches? yes √ no __
Are unavoidable obstructions greater than 4.5 inches above rung
and more than 1.5 inches below? yes √ no __
Are the rung and rail surfaces acceptable? yes √ no __
Are the rungs spaced uniformly at 12 inches or less? yes √ no __
OSHA compliant? yes √ o __
Notes:
A. Answer the following questions:

1. The owner of the programme is _______
2. The building number is _____
3. What is the length of the ladder?
4. Name the location of the inspection.
5. When was the inspection held?

B. Say whether the following sentences are true or false

1. The ladder is made of wood.
2. According to the checklist, the rungs of the ladder are spaced
uniformly.
3. The ideal clearance for the back of the ladder is > 7 inches
4. The climbing clearance is not > 15 inches from the rung center
5. The Rail extension length of the ladder is > 42 inches
Exercise 3
Given below is a bar graph. It shows the number of people holding various
jobs. Read it carefully and answer the questions given below.
Questions:
i) About how many people work for medical department?
ii) About how many people work in the political field?
iii) About how many people work for the armed forces (Navy, Air Force,
and Army)?
iv) Which job listed has the most workers?
v) About how many people have opted to work as teachers?
vi) Which is the department that is least opted by people?
(Source: http://www.wtamu.edu)
When you see any record, graph or chart, you should be able to decipher
the meaning or the terms that are given in them. The charts or records have
to be observed carefully before you conclude any aspects of them. Once
you know to point out the key details of the graph or record, it is easy to

describe it in your own words. The next step will be in describing the pattern
or the trends of the graph. As we already know graph is not static, it shows
some change from the original pattern. The figure gives us the clue as to
the changing trend of the data that is supplied in the graph. There are
certain words or adjectives that will help you to describe the changes that
you see in a graph. They are:
i) for upward trends: rise, increase, peak
ii) downward trends: drop, fall, decline, dip
iii) any trend that is steady: gradual, sharp, considerable, comparative
iv) any trend that is constant: stable, same.
Exercise 4:
Look at the graph given below and read the questions. Answer them as you
have tried in the previous two exercises. This gives you the basic data that
you need to collect from any given graph. Now try to analyse the graph by
writing a paragraph on the same.
This graph shows the profit a toy manufacturing unit made over the last four
months of the year.
Given below are questions that help you collect the data. If you are able to
get the answers to these questions, half your work is done! The correct
answers mean you have been successful in collecting the data that you
require.
a) About how much was the profit in the month of October?
b) Which month had the lowest profit?
c) What is the difference between the profits of November and December?

Paragraph: The line graph shows the profit that a toy manufacturing
company has made over the months of September through December. The
month of September shows Rs. 5,000 profit, which is the lowest point. So
the company saw the least profit in the month of September. At the same
time, the month of October has recorded the highest profit made by the
company showing Rs. 23,000 mark. Again the profit dipped to Rs. 15,000 in
the month of November and showed a convenient rise to reach Rs. 20,000
in the month of December.
Exercise 5:
Given below is the histogram giving the mortality rates for coronary heart
disease in men by number of cigarettes smoked in the age group 35-44. It is
taken from. Medically Speaking: English for the Medical Profession., P.L.
Sandler (P. 61). Go through the paragraph that follows. It has been built up
from the data of the histogram.
Paragraph: The histogram shows the relative mortality rates between non-
smokers and cigarette smokers. The figures are death rates per 100,000
men a year, and among the smokers they are based on the average daily
consumption of cigarettes. Thus it can be seen that the mortality rate among
those who did not smoke was 18 per 100,000 per year, whereas for those
who smoked less than ten cigarettes a day the rate was 41 per 100,000 per
year. For those who smoked between ten and twenty a day the rate was 73
per 100,000 a year, whereas for those smoking twenty-one to thirty-nine
cigarettes a day it was 88 per 100,000 a year. Those who smoked more
than forty a day had a mortality rate of 94 per 100,000 per year.

5.6 Summary
In this unit, you learnt the importance of the conciseness of a paragraph.
You also understood how to write a compact paragraph. You practised
reading the graph and learnt to comprehend the given contents. With the
help of the given clues or data, you also learnt to develop the same into a
paragraph. This kind of static and process description will help in filling the
forms that you come across in your daily administration. It will enable you to
choose the essential data from any records and build up the same.

1. Name the different parts of the paragraph and explain with an example
of your own.
2. What is static description? Explain with examples.
3. Observe the water jacket type testing of hydrostatic pressure testing and
describe the same in writing.
Practice Exercises
Write a paragraph on each of the following topics:
1. Empty vessels make the most noise
2. A stitch in time saves nine.
4. Rome was not built in a day
5.8 Answers
1. A paragraph is a group of sentences relating to a single topic. In other
words, it develops a single central idea.
2. Topic Sentence
3. The four steps that have to be followed while writing a paragraph are:
Prewriting, Writing, Editing and Publishing
4. The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and
correct them
Exercise 1
From September to the beginning of November olive gathering starts : In the
beginning, trees are shaken. Then, olives are sorted out first, the ones for
making oil are picked and they are brought to the oil-mill. There, they are
poured into round baskets, which are piled up into the oil-press. Later, the

oil-press is sealed and a lever is inserted in its hole. After that , the oil press
is worked round by hand. In this way, the oil is collected.
Exercise 2
A. Answer the following questions:
1. Programme manager
2. 23E/556
3. 6.5 metres
4. Warehouse
5. The inspection was held on 15th January 2009
B. Say whether the following sentences are true or false
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
Exercise 3:
i) 225000 ii) 40000 iii) 375000 iv) Marketing v) 325000 vi) politics
Exercise 4:
a) About 23,000 Rs. b) September c) 5,000 Rs
Terminal Questions
1. The parts of a paragraph are:
Topic Sentence, Supporting Details and Closing Sentence (Give your
own example and explain the three points given above)
2. Explaining any object which is stationary is called Static description.
3. To maintain the quality and safety of the portable fire extinguishers,
water jacket type testing of hydrostatic pressure testing must be utilized.
All critical components of the fire extinguisher must be tested to ensure
proper function. First, the extinguisher valve is removed and the threads
and interior of the cylinder are checked for corrosion, pitting, and any
other abnormalities. If the cylinder passes the visual inspection, it is
placed into a steel chamber, which is then filled with water at normal
pressure. A glass burette attached to the side of the steel chamber will
read zero, indicating normal or zero pressure of the chamber water.
Water is then applied at high pressure to the interior of the extinguisher's
cylinder. As the pressure increases, the cylinder will expand and push

water from the steel chamber through a small hole and into the glass
burette. After the pressure is released, the cylinder will contract and the
water will move from the burette back to the steel chamber. Depending
on the results, the tester will either pass or fail the cylinder.
Practice Exercises
You have the freedom to write your own paragraphs in varied ways, here’s a
sample of how paragraphs on these topics can be written:
1. Empty Vessels Make the Most Noise
A humble man often tells you that he knows very little when in reality he
may know a lot. A braggart does the opposite-he boasts of his
knowledge when in reality he knows nothing much about the topic. The
former is like a vessel full of grain; if you tap it hardly produces any
sound at all. The latter is like an empty vessel- it needs very little tapping
to produce big noises. Empty headed people always think a world of
themselves!
2. A Stitch in Time Saves Nine
A small tear becomes a big hole, in just the same way as a small illness
grows into a big disease or a small quarrel among children leads to a
major feud between families. For diseases, prevention is better than
cure; so too for tears or holes in one’s clothes. A good mother does not
allow the tear that appears on her child’s clothes to become big; she
stitches it or darns it in time to save much greater work later and to keep
the clothes as good as new. Her stitch in time thus saves many stitches
and a lot of unnecessary labour. Good neighbours do much the same;
they do not allow children’s quarrels to grow big and become family
quarrels. They help the children to forget and forgive and to live happily
together. Timely actions always save situations from becoming worse.
3. Rome Was Not Built in a Day
Rome, the greatest city of the ancient world was not built in a short time.
It took several years to build Rome and to bring it to the state of glory.
And it is the same with any great achievement. When we wish to
achieve something, we cannot expect success in a moment. We should
not be impatient. We must stick to the work till it is finished. We must
bear in mind a saying similar to the above: ‘If at first you don’t succeed,
try, try and try again. An important task cannot be done without patience
and perseverance.

Remedial English
Conjunctions
A Conjunction is a word, which connects words, phrases, clauses or
sentences. There are two classes of conjunctions. They are:
1. Co-ordinate conjunctions
2. Subordinate conjunctions.
Co-ordinate conjunctions join two ideas or sentences, which are of
importance. They also join two words of equal grammatical rank. The chief
co-ordinate conjunctions are – and, but, for, nor, or, otherwise, so, else,
either -------- or, neither ------- nor, yet, only, both ------- and, however.
At 10, she went to bed, and fell asleep.
Yesterday was sunny but cold.
He was angry for he had missed the bus.
Neither owls nor bats come out during the day.
Turn down the heat or the cake will burn.
You can go to Tokyo either by land or by sea.
Don’t drive so fast, otherwise you will crash.
English examination was easy; however, biology was difficult.
It rained and so the match was cancelled.
She worked hard yet failed to pass.
I would like to be there, only I would be out of station.
She plays both the piano and the violin.
Exercise 1: Use correct coordinating conjunctions in the blanks.
1. You sang well ____ you need a little more practice.
2. She opened the door ___ walked in.
3. The river was not deep enough, ____ they returned home.
4. He _____ remembers your name _____ your face.
5. Father doesn’t want to send me to Australia, _____ I am continuing my
studies here.
Subordinate Conjunctions: are the conjunctions that connect the in
complete idea to the main.
The patient had died before the doctor arrived.
Before the doctor arrived – incomplete idea.
The patient had died - main idea.
Before – subordinating conjunction.

There are many subordinating conjunctions. They are used to express

different incomplete statements, or function as a part of them. They tell us
about:
1. time
2. manner
3. place
4. condition
5. reason
6. concession
7. result
8. purpose
9. comparison
1. Subordinate conjunctions express a period of time: when, while, as
since, after. before, until, as soon as, no sooner, whenever, till, hardly
…. when.
When the baby cried, mother ran towards him.
The workers had hardly left when the building collapsed.
2. Manner expression is linked with the subordinating conjunctions as,
as if / as though
Sometimes Pinky talks as though / if she knew everything. (actually
she doesn’t know anything)
3. Place expression are linked with conjunctions – where, wherever.
Do not park you car where there is no enough room to take a U-turn.
You can sleep wherever you like.
4. Conditional expressions are made with - whether, if, unless
Mother asked me whether I wanted nice or bread for the night.
If we win the match, we shall be greatly honoured.
Many of us do not go to a film unless it has a good story and music.
5. Reason is expressed using conjunctions like - because, since, as.
Children did not go out to play because it was raining heavily.
Since Joe failed to get a reservation, he cancelled his trip to
Darjeeling.
6. Concessive (used to contrast what follows) expressions are linked with
conjunctions – though, although, even though
Though it was a difficult climbing, they managed to reach the top of
the mount in the end.

Although your ideas are well organized, you need to improve your
pronunciation.
Even though I have been learning painting for over ten years, I
have not been able to achieve perfection.
7. Idea expressing result is associated with conjunctions – so --- that.
The athlete ran so fast that he reached the winning line in 30 seconds.
8. Idea of purpose is expressed with conjunctions - so that, in order that
People work hard so that they can earn money for a dignified living.
We eat in order that we may live.
9. Comparison is linked with – than, as---as
Your essay is better than mine. (is)
I think the Pacific ocean is as deep as the Atlantic Ocean. (is)
Exercise 2: Spot the coordinating conjunctions in the sentences
below:
1. The bird perched on the branch of a tree and ate up the worm.
2. Food was very well prepared but it was not hot enough.
3. My grandmother has no teeth, so she cannot chew carrots.
4. Keep off the grass otherwise; the gardener will shout at you.
5. When my parents are away, I prepare my own food or eat out.
Interjections
A word, which expresses a sudden and intense feeling of surprise, joy, fear,
sadness is interjection. The exclamation mark put after it indicates. (Ah!
Hurrah! Well! Dear! Oh!) Interjection is not grammatically connected with
the rest of the sentence.
Hurrah! We have won the match.
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. but 2. and 3. so 4. neither-nor 5. so
Exercise 2:
1. and 2. But 3. So 4. Otherwise 5. when

Unit 6 Business Writing

Structure:
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Business Letter Writing
Principles of writing letters
Structure of a business letter
6.3 Types of Business Letter
6.4 Job Application
6.5 Other Business Communication
6.6 Summary
6.8 Answers
6.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt to write paragraphs with short and lucid
sentences. The flow of ideas should be easy and connected with linkers.
This also holds well with the letter writing skills that you will be learning in
this unit. To make your writing task easy, you should learn to put yourself in
the shoes of the reader of your letter. When writing a letter or report, think of
your readers’ likely response to the contents, the style and the tone. If your
readers are laymen, the technical jargon that you use may not be
understood at all. At the same time, if the readers are experts who
understand technical language, you should not go on explaining the terms in
detail. While concentrating on the style of writing, use formal tone for the
business letter and try not to impress your readers with complicated words.
The simpler you write, the better it is understood. Or it may just not serve
the purpose and land unread in the trash bin. Now we don’t want that to
happen, do we?!
Objectives:
 discuss the principles and structure of a business letter
 distinguish between letters and use effective language and style for
different letters.

 write an effective covering letter to apply for a job.

 draft an effectual resume.
 write a fax message, telegram and e-mail.
6.2 Business Letter Writing

When you enter any profession, you will come across one task that you
have to perform which is of utmost importance, writing letters as a part of
your routine work. You will be writing letters to other organizations and
institutions, customers, clients, suppliers, government officers, credit
agencies, employees etc. These letters are commonly called ‘business
letters.’ Business letters are usually written to inform readers of specific
information. However, you might also write a business letter to persuade
others to take action or to propose your ideas. Business letters can be
challenging to write, because you have to consider how to keep your
readers' attention. This is particularly the case if your readers receive large
numbers of mail and have little time to read.
Writing business letters is like writing any other document: First you must
analyze your audience and determine your purpose. Then you gather
information, create an outline, write a draft, and revise it. The key to writing
business letters is to get to the point as quickly as possible and to present
your information clearly. While doing this you should always bear in mind
the ‘audience’ of your letter, the person who is going to read your letter. So
your letter should appeal to the reader. Ask yourself “How would I react if I
received this letter?” The answer to this question will help you to decide
about editing your letter.
6.2.1 Principles of writing letters
We have discussed the purpose of writing business letters. Now let us learn
how to write them efficiently; we shall find out the principles that should be
followed to make our letters effective.
1. Courtesy and Consideration: To build a good rapport with business
acquaintances, we should be courteous and considerate. Courtesy is
like the oil which removes the friction, it makes life smooth and helps win
friends. It softens the sting of an unpleasant piece of information,
creates goodwill, and produces a favourable response. Look at the

following sentences that help you word your business letter in a polite
manner.
 Thank you very much for your letter of / dated …
 We are glad to note that you are now in a position to pay our bill.
 We appreciate your writing to us so promptly.
 We regret to inform you that we cannot meet your order immediately.
 We are sorry that you did not receive your order in time.
2. Conciseness: While writing a business letter it is important that your
letter be concise and direct. Avoid verbose language and long winded
sentences to state simple matters. In the present times, people are very
busy and will be easily irritated to read unnecessarily lengthy letters. So
you should focus directly on the message to be told.
3. Clarity and Precision: Whenever you write a letter, be clear about what
you want to say and say it clearly. Use short, simple words and
language to relate whatever you want to tell in the letter. Use concrete
words – two words in English will have similar meaning – in such cases,
use the word which is commonly understood. E.g.: if you use the word
‘house’ and it conveys the meaning that you intend, don’t use the word
‘residence’, which will make the message more complicated. Avoid long
winded sentences (running into five lines and more). Spare your reader
the tedious task of understanding your letter and try to make smaller
sentences. To make your letter clear, break it into different paragraphs
when you have to discuss more than one main point. Finally, you have
to understand that writing a good business letter involves a lot of
practice, which will gradually enable you to be an effective writer.
6.2.3 Structure of a business letter
We have discussed in detail about the language that you should adopt while
writing a letter. Now, let us come to the arrangement of a business letter.
To make your letter effective, remember that your presentation of the letter
also has to be effective. Usually, the letter is drafted in two styles – Blocked
and Semi Blocked.
Blocked – Every line in this style begins flush with the left hand margin.
Paragraphs are differentiated by leaving a blank space in between them.
Semi blocked – The first line of each paragraph is indented in this style of
writing letters.
You can follow any one style of writing a business letter.

The business letter contains the following elements:
1. Heading: Many organizations use their letter head for writing business
letters. This covers one fifth of the total space of the page. The name
and address of the organization is centred at the top and other
information like the telephone numbers, telegraphic address, etc. are
divided in the margin space.
2. Date: This is very important as it might act as a proof that you wrote on
a particular date. Type the date two spaces below the last line of the
heading at the left hand margin of the letter. E.g.: Remember to give
the name of the month. Avoid the form 10/9/2005. In Britain it means
10th of September(first date and then month is written) whereas in
USA, people understand it as 9th of October(first month and then date
is written). E.g.: 14th July, 1995; 14th July 1995; 14 July 1995; July 14th
1995, July 14, 1995.
3. Reference: The advantage of writing a reference is that it helps to
trace the letter at a later date. Writing reference number is of two
types: one indicates the reference number that you allot for the letter
that you write; the other indicates the correspondent’s previous letter
to which you are replying now. This is placed on the left hand side, two
lines after the salutation. However, some prefer to write it in the body
of the letter. E.g., With reference to your letter no.,…. dated …. Or
Thank you for your letter no. ….
4. Inside Address: The complete address of the person whom you are
addressing should be written. You should place it two line-space after
the date. Do not abbreviate or spell wrongly the name of the person.
Add Mr before the name of a man, Miss before the name of a woman if
she is unmarried, Mrs if she is married. Nowadays, the trend is
towards writing Ms before a woman’s name irrespective of her marital
status. If the lady whom you are addressing to has a special title, such
as Dr or Professor, you can mention the titles and put Ms inside the
brackets after the title E.g.: Dr (Ms) Anita McGrath
5. Salutation: This is the vital part of the letter which is as good as
wishing the person. It is important that you address the name of the
person if you know it. E.g.: Dear Mr Blackwell. You may use Dear Sir/

Sirs or Dear Madam only if you do not know the name of the person. In
government departments, letters that are addressed by name is known
as ‘demi-official letters.’ They are written to draw the attention of the
concerned officer so that prompt action is taken. Sales and circulars
are addressed as ‘Dear Customer’, ‘Dear Reader’, ‘Dear Subscriber’
etc. Salutation is written two line space after the last line of the
address.
6. Subject: This indicates to the reader of the letter what the letter is
about. It saves the time of the reader. The subject of the letter is
written two line-spaces after the salutation.
7. Body: This contains the text of the letter that you write. You should
organize the body of the letter into paragraphs depending upon the
matter of your communication. In the opening paragraph, indicate
reference to any previously corresponded letters. If it is the first letter,
then write the intention of writing the letter. The second paragraph
should contain the main message and the following paragraphs,
further details if any. Finally, while concluding, you should clearly state
any action that you would take or expect the reader to take.
8. Conclusion: The conclusion is also known as ‘complimentary close.’
You should always end the business letter with a firm or positive note.
Don’t be vague in your closings such as, ‘Thanking you …’ ‘Hoping to
hear from you’ etc. The close should agree with the salutation that you
have written. The following examples will help you decide the correct
conclusion.
Salutation Conclusion
Dear Mr. Rahul (address by Yours sincerely
name)
Dear Sir / Dear Madam /Sir Yours faithfully / Yours obediently / Yours
respectfully / Yours truly
Dear Member / Customer / Yours sincerely
Subscriber
Note: Yours obediently is written by a student when he addresses his

teacher. Yours respectfully is written if you are addressing a high
dignitary (even in business correspondence). Do not put apostrophe
after ‘r’ in the word ‘yours’.

9. Signature: You should place your signature below the complimentary

close. Four line spaces are left after the complimentary close to write
your name in full. This space is meant for your signature. Do not write
any title (Mr Ms Mrs) before the name. However, a woman may put a
title after the name in brackets. E.g.: Kiran (Mrs). Beneath the name
you may specify your position – CEO, Manager, etc.
10. Enclosure: If you have to enclose any documents along with the letter,
you must mention it. The word in abbreviated form encl. is typed two
line space below the name/ position that you had specified indicated.
Given below is a sample of business letter. For other samples refer to the
appendix.
(Letter of booking a room in the Hotel for a Guest)
Manipal University of Jaipur

of Health, Medical & Technological Sciences
Directorate of Distance Education
st
1 Floor, Syndicate House, Manipal 576104
nd
2 June, 2009
Mr. Rahul Srivastava
Front Office Manager
Valley View
Manipal – 576104
Dear Mr. Srivastava
th
Sub: Booking of single room (a/c) for 25 December
This letter is to confirm our recent telephone conversation regarding Mr. Kishan
Majumdar’s stay at your hotel, next week, in connection with the ‘The New
Media & Freedom of Speech’ symposium organized by us. All charges are to
be directed to me at the address on our letterhead.
th
Mr. Majumdar will arrive at the Mangalore airport on 12 June 2009. He should
be checking in around 12.30p.m.
The rate for his room will be Rs.3200 plus tax per day. He will probably be
staying for 2 days.
Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.
Yours sincerely
( XXX)
Symposium Convenor


1. While writing letters, avoid verbose language and long winded
sentences to state simple matters. (True/False)
2. While writing letters, you should write as you wish. (True/False)
3. Simple words should be used while writing letters. (True/False)
4. Courtesy should be of prime importance while writing business letters.
(True/False)
6.3 Types of Business Letter

Letters have to be drafted differently for different occasions. The tone,
language and style vary based on the circumstance, which makes you write
the letter. The different letters are complaint letter, apology letter and,
covering letter for job application. In this section, we shall learn how to write
complaint and apology letters. ‘Covering letter’ has been explained in
section 6.4.
Complaint letter: Writing a ‘complaint letter’ is often an undesirable task,
but if it is done well, the end result can be very rewarding. Complaint letters
can be used for the purpose of having products replaced or money
refunded, for changing company policy or government legislation, for
influencing the media, and so forth. Often a complaint letter is more effective
than a simple phone call or e-mail message. Furthermore, in many cases,
the formality of a complaint letter can add seriousness to the situation that
will bring results. When writing your complaint letter, identify a definite
purpose and outcome that you want to achieve, and indicate those ideas
clearly in your letter.
Points to keep in mind while writing complaint letters
 Be sure that the complaint you are making is legitimate. Check out the
facts of your complaint.
 Let your language be diplomatic. Avoid being sarcastic, angry or
threatening even if your complaint is genuine. Remember that the
person to whom you address your letter may not, after all be the person
responsible for the problem.
 Let your letter be concise and limit it to one page if possible. However,
include important dates or places (for example, when and where you
bought the product or received the service), and include any additional

relevant information you can (such as the product number or type of

service).
 If you have to enclose any documents do so but remember to send only
the photocopy and keep the originals with you. Also keep a copy of your
complaint letter for your records.
Apology letter: An effective apology letter is an important part of the
business correspondence that would make your life in work place easy. To
err is human, so instead of dwelling on the mistake committed, it is better to
act quickly in order to resolve the problem.
Points to keep in mind while writing apology letters
 While writing an apology letter, concentrate on the rectification of the
error committed than on the problem that you have caused the
receiving person.
 If possible along with the apology, state any compensation that you
can give to the person who has suffered the damage.
 Take full responsibility on the problem caused.
 Don’t be dramatic while apologizing. Your words should express
your feelings clearly and simply. The tone of your letter should be
considerate and respectful.
6.4 Job Application

Advancement in the career front is the most desired aspect of an individual’s
life. Writing a job application is the first step towards such goal. A job
application is nothing but a medium to sell your services. So it should show
all qualities that are required by the buying agent i.e. the employer.
Normally a job application contains two parts: a covering letter and a
Resume. It is also known as Bio-data or Curriculum Vitae. We will learn in
detail the method of drafting the covering letter and a Resume.
i) Covering Letter: This is the first paper that is read by a Personnel
Manager, which suggests to him whether you are fit or not for the
requirements of his company. The covering letter will have the following
elements.
 The position you are applying for. You have to give the reference of the
post that you have applied for. It is important to indicate where you came

across the advertisement of the job vacancy. Your opening paragraph

should be very effective to attract the employer’s interest in you.
 Your interest in the job. You should indicate your keenness to get the
job.
 Your suitability for the job. Here you can write a brief paragraph about
your experience and skills that make you fit for the job. Your most
impressive details from the Resume may be included here.
 A statement of your availability for interview.
 Make sure you use good English and do the proof reading before you
send the letter with the resume.
Structure of the Letter:
1. Address of the applicant and date: This is written on the top of the letter
flush with the right margin. It may also be written on the left margin. The
address is written first and after two line spaces the date is written.
However, some may start with the date and then after two line spaces
the address is written.
2. Salutation: Even if you know the name of the person whom you are
addressing to, it is better to keep the salutation as ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear
Sirs.’ If you know that you are writing to a lady, make it ‘Dear Madam’
This is typed two line spaces after the last line of the address written
above.
3. Subject: It is better to write the subject, which contains the vacancy you
are applying for. This is written immediately below the salutation. Make it
bold if you are printing it, or you should underline it in the case of written
application.
4. Body: We have already discussed how to write a covering letter. You
may follow those hints while writing the job application. Leave two line
space after writing the subject to start the body of the letter.
5. Complimentary Close: You can follow the rules given in the unit
‘structure of business letter (5.2.3).’ Leave four spaces to sign in your
name after the complimentary close.
6. Signature: After your signature, don’t forget to write your full name
clearly below it.
7. Enclosures: This is written two line spaces after writing your name.
Write clearly all the documents that you are enclosing with your covering
letter.

Check out this sample covering letter, which may help you to make a start in
writing impressive covering letters!
Smitha P
Shri Vilas
R.D. Road
Jamshedpur.
May 1, 2009
The Editor
‘News Today’
Patna
Bihar
Dear Sir,
Subject: Application for the position of Sub Editor
I am mailing in response to your advertisement in ‘The Hindu’, dated 29
April, 2009 for the position of Sub editor, in your esteemed
Organisation. I have attached my bio data for your consideration
I have obtained my Masters in Journalism from the Manipal
University of Jaipur and also a Diploma in Creative Writing from
National College, New Delhi. I am working as a trainee from the last
six months in The Business India, Ranchi.
I look forward to working with you on your new project.
Yours sincerely,
Smitha. P
ii) Writing a Resume

When you apply for a job, you should always remember that your
application is not the only one which is seen; but your aim is to see that you
write a resume that makes you really stand out as a superior candidate for a
job you are seeking. So, even if you face fierce competition, with a well
written resume you should be invited to interview more often than many
people more qualified than you. Such a resume needs conceptualization of
Manipal University of Jaipur B1026 Page No.: 111
your accomplishments and experiences all into one document. Your focus
should be on the requirements of the employer. Therefore, your resume
should contain,
 Your aims, goals, work experiences, achievements, qualifications
 Your projects or researches if done.
 Your skill sets
 Your objectives
 References
 Your experience in the previous company
 Your strengths and weaknesses depending on what is the requirement
of the job. Be careful while writing the weaknesses; they should appear
as if in the long run they are, after all, your strengths!
 Your detailed contact information where the employer can reach you
 Any other information that you fee can be relevant for you to portray
yourself to get the job based on your experience and qualification.
All these matters that are the requirements of the vacancy you are applying
to should be written in a precise and concise manner. Remember that no
employer has enough time to go through extensive and detailed resumes.
So your resume should be easy to read and should impress the employer at
the first glance.
Structure of Resume (Ref.: Katharine Hansen)
1. The ‘one-page resume’ rule is now outdated. Try to keep your resume
very compact and to the minimum required pages. The language should
be very official and not general.
2. Include and highlight all important words, so that they stand out and your
resume gets recognized among others.
3. Avoid using the personal pronouns – I, You, Me.
4. List your job information in order of importance. In listing your jobs,
what's generally most important is your title/position. So list in this
preferred order: Title/position, name of employer, City/State of
employer, dates of employment.
5. List your jobs in reverse chronological order. Your present job being the
first, the previous being second and so on.

6. Education also follows the principle that you followed while listing jobs.
Thus the preferred order for listing your education is: Masters,
Graduation, Pre-University Exams.
7. Avoid mentioning the reasons for leaving previous job(s), names of
former supervisors, specific street addresses or phone numbers of
former employers, salary information, the title "Resume," or any
information that could be perceived as controversial, such as religion,
church affiliations, or political affiliations.
8. Don’t list references right on your resume. References belong in a later
stage of the job search. Provide them only when they are specifically
requested.
9. Proof read carefully. Misspellings and typos are deadly on a resume.
Grammatical and other mistakes are to be totally avoided since that
shows the incompetence of the candidate.
6.5 Other Business Communications

We have already learnt certain methods that enable effective
communication, such as writing different types of letters. We should now
divert our attention to some other mediums of communication that enable
the smooth functioning of an organisation. These include short message
methods like fax, telegram and more modern style of communication
through e-mails.
Fax Message, Telegram and E-mail
Writing smaller messages depend on the technical instruments that are
used while sending the message. Hence, concentration should be on writing
short messages. Avoid all words and phrases that do not add significantly
to the message that you want to send. Brief reference to the context should
be provided to make your message complete. So you may skip writing
salutation, complimentary close, etc. But don’t forget to include your name
at the bottom. Fax and e-mail are used to send formal business letters.
E-mail may also be used as informal medium of communication.
While composing a telegraphic message (telegram), only key words and
phrases are used. Function words such as articles and prepositions should
not be included. If essential, they may be used to a minimum. See the
samples given below.

1. Fax
Fax from: Beacon Towers
22 Alma Street
Sampangi Park 575222
Fax: 650 325 8723
Fax to: Sanjay Memon, Manasvi Inc.
Fax no: 235 266 3122
Date: 17 December 2001
Subject: Remittance of draft for Registration of classes
No. of pages including this one: 1
From: Ashish Jain, Registration Manager
Refer to our telephonic conversation on 15 December. The bank draft for
Rupees Seventeen thousand has not yet been received. Please send by return
post or by courier.
Ashish Jain
2. Telegram:
Training Manager
Beacon Consultants
10, Janpath
New Delhi – 110001
Sixty five copies of Registration form Books sent today by courier.
Buvan Patel
Manager Logistics
Not to be telegraphed:
Bhuvan Patel, Manager Logistics
Accord Company Pvt. Ltd.
24, Akashganga Marg
Kolkatta – 432001

3. E-Mail
Previous Next Reply Forward
Date: 17 December 2006

From: Bhuvan Patel, Accord Company Pvt. Ltd.
To: Training Manager, Beacon Consultants
CC: General Manager- Training, Beacon Consultants
Subject: Despatch of Registration Form Books
We have sent today 65 books of Registration Forms by courier. Sorry for the
delay.
Bhuvan Patel

5. ____ should not be provided in the resume; it should be provided only
on request.
6. _______ mistakes in the resume shows the incompetence of the writer.
7. While composing _____, only key words and phrases are used.
8. While writing ______ letter, take full responsibility on the problem
caused.
6.6 Summary
Writing effectively is an art that needs to be practiced to be perfect. The
language used, structure and tone-all reflect the character of the person
writing. It is the same with the writing of letters, be it a formal or informal
letter. The letters written by you in any position of your career reveals the
character of your organization. There are different circumstances that come
across when a business letter is written. It may be a letter of booking a
room, a complaint letter, an apology letter, business proposal, invitations,
accepting the invitation or declining it, a covering letter for a job, a fax, press
release, e-mail so on. Though there are many styles and structure of writing
such letters, one should follow what is widely practised in the world of
business. A successful business letter is one which is courteous, clear and
concise. The readers’ interest is of prime consideration while writing a letter.
This would ensure quick transmission of message and evoke the desired
response.


1. How can you be ‘concise’ while writing a business letter?
2. Why do you write ‘reference’ in a business letter?
3. Name some mediums that you would use to send small messages.
6.8 Answers
1. True 5. Reference
2. False 6. Grammatical
3. True 7. Telegraphic messages
4. True 8. Apology
Terminal Questions
1. Write short and simple sentences. Verbose language should be avoided.
Focus directly on the message that needs to be informed.
2. With the help of reference, the letter can be traced at a later date.
3. Small messages can be sent through fax, email or telegram.
REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Sentence
A group of words that makes a complete sense or gives complete meaning
is called a sentence. It expresses the thought of the person who speaks or
writes the sentence. Traditionally, a sentence is considered as a largest
grammatical unit. A sentence also consists of the choice of right words,
proper arrangement of those words according to the prescribed grammatical
rules. It is also imperative that a sentence has a verb in it to consider it as a
sentence.
Kinds of Sentences
From the point of view of expression of thoughts, the sentences are divided
into four kinds.
1. Declarative Sentences: Look at the sentences below.
Tsunami hit the southeast coast of India.
Press is considered the fourth pillar of democracy.
They state or assert certain facts. So they are called declarative
sentences. A declarative sentence makes a statement. It begins with a
capital letter and ends with a period (full stop).

2. Interrogative Sentences: Look at the following examples: -

Where are you going?
Whom did Ajith meet last night?
Notice the question marks in the end of the sentence. This suggests
that the sentences are asking questions. Such types of sentences that
ask questions are called Interrogative sentences.
3. Exclamatory Sentences: Now, look at the sentences that follow-
Wow, what a win that was!
How tragic his life is!
The sentences in the example express strong feelings either of
happiness or sadness. The feelings are also sudden. Also notice the
exclamatory mark at the end of the sentences. Such sentences are
called Exclamatory sentences.
4. Imperative sentences: Finally, read the sentences given below.
Go out of the class
Call the electrician, please
May the Lord bless.
The first sentence is an order, the second, a request and the third is a
wish. We use the above sentences when we are talking directly to
someone. Hence the subject (you) is omitted because it is understood
in the meaning. Such types of sentences that are used to express
order, request or wish are called as Imperative sentences.
Exercise 1: Identify the type of sentence
1. Peel me a grape
2. Zubin sat beside me.
3. Do you like Mexican food?
4. What a bad luck!
5. My car was stolen last week.
Subject:
The complete subject is the simple subject (a noun or a pronoun) plus any
words or group of words modifying the simple subject that tell who or
what the sentence is about. Thus, a subject is the person, place, or thing
that acts, or is described in the sentence.

Christopher Columbus discovered America
Subject Verb
The action of the sentence is expressed by the verb – ‘discovered.’
The noun ‘Christopher Columbus’ is doing the action of discovering.
Hence ‘Christopher Columbus’ is the Subject in the sentence.
Himalayas are tall mountains.
Subject Verb
The verb ‘are’ in this sentence does not express action.
Instead, it tells us about the ‘being’ or ‘existence’ of Himalayas.
The noun ‘Himalayas’ is doing the existence or being. So it is the subject.
Sometimes the verb will express ‘being’ or ‘existence’ instead of action.

Predicate: The predicate is the action or description that occurs in the
sentence. Sometimes a verb will express existence instead of an action.
Verb is an essential part of the predicate. In other words, we can say that
the predicate is the ‘telling part’ of the sentence because it tells us what the
subject is doing and to whom.
Shakespeare advised us not to borrow books.
Subject Predicate
In this sentence, ‘Shakespeare’ is the noun or the doer of the action.
‘Advised’ is the verb, which expresses the action done by Shakespeare. So
‘advised’ is the predicate.
Exercise 2: Complete the following with appropriate predicate

1. Two roses _____________
2. The copy writer ___________
3. She ___________
4. The newspaper
5. All of us ________

Phrases: A group of words without a finite verb is a phrase. In other words,

phrases are just a group of related words that do not express a complete
thought. They also do not have a subject and predicate pair. So, they
cannot be considered as a sentence.
The house at the end of the street is very beautiful.
In the example given above, the underlined part is the phrase.
Clauses
Words and phrases can be put together to make a clause. A group of
related words that contain both a subject and a predicate and that functions
as a part of a sentence is a clause. A clause is different from a phrase
because a phrase is a group of related words which lacks either a subject or
a predicate or both. Look at the following sentence
My grandfather snores when he sleeps
In the above example there are two clauses. Only one of them (My
grandfather snores) is a sentence. i.e. which can stand on its own to make
a complete sense. In other words, it is independent of other words. So it is
a Principal clause. It is also called Independent clause.
The other clause of the above sentence, ‘when he sleeps’, gives an
incomplete thought or idea, one that cannot stand by itself, one that needs
some more words to make it meaningful. The word ‘when’ changes the
meaning, making the thought incomplete. After reading this clause, we are
left hanging.
The clause raises a question what will happen when he sleeps…?
So, the second clause which depends on the first to give meaning to it is
called a Dependent Clause or Subordinate Clause
Subject - Verb Agreement
The subject and verb agreement is an important aspect of the English
language. It is very important that the verb and subject agree in number
and person.
The two smart girls in the class were chosen to win the award.

In the given example, there are three ways in which the subject (girls) is
shown to be plural:
1. the adjective ‘two’.
2. the plural marker ‘s’ attached to the subject
‘girl’.
3. the verb ‘to be’ in its plural form ‘were’.
* While trying to determine whether a verb should
be in singular or plural form, find the subject and
ignore all the words coming after it. If the subject is singular, then the verb
is singular or vice versa.
The problems with the student have not yet been resolved.
In this example, the subject is ‘problems’ which is in the plural form. So the
verb should be in the plural form. Hence we use the verb ‘have’ (plural
form).
1. When two subjects are joined by ‘and’, the verb is plural.
John and Jinny are friends.
Exceptions:
 When two singular nouns are joined by ‘and’, but refer to the same
person, then the verb is singular.
E.g.: 1. the secretary and treasurer is on leave. (article ‘the’ is
used only once.)
2. The secretary and the treasurer are on leave. (article
‘the’ is used twice).
 When two different singular nouns express one unit, the verb is in
singular. E.g.: Rice and curry is my staple diet.
 When two singular subjects are practically synonymous, the verb is
in singular. E.g.: Peace and Prosperity is the need of the day.
 When two singular subjects are joined by ‘and’ which are preceded
by ‘each’ or ‘every’, the verb is in singular. E.g.: Every man,
woman and child has been rescued.
2. The nouns that end in –s (certain countries, fields of study, activities,
diseases) take a singular verb.
The United States doesn’t have a cricket team.
Mathematics was my favorite subject in school.
The aerobics class is held every Tuesday.
Measles is a serious childhood disease.

3. Most collective nouns take the singular form of the verb.

The committee doesn’t have to come up with a solution until next
week.
Exception: However, the nouns ‘people’ and ‘police’ are considered
plural, so they take a plural verb.
The police are here to protect us.
The people were happy to see the return of their king.
4. The expression of time, distance, and money are often seen as
collective items and hence take a singular verb.
Two miles is too far to walk in this lashing rain.
Five hours has already passed since his surgery ended.
Five thousand rupees is a fair price for such an old painting.
5. When the words ‘all’, ‘most’, ‘some’, and ‘any’ are followed by a non-
count noun, the Verb is singular.
All of the cake has been eaten.
Some fat is good for you.
Most car exhaust contains pollutants that threaten all living things.
Exception: However, if the words are followed by a plural count noun,
the verb is plural.
All men are created equal.
6. “None” and “neither” always take a singular verb, whether followed by a
plural or a non-count noun.
None of the cats belongs to me,
Neither of the women is the one who spoke to me yesterday.
7. When the subjects are joined by “either …or”, “neither … nor”, “not only
… but also” “both … and”, the verb agrees with the subject which is
close to it.
Neither the children nor the mother wants to leave.
Either you or I am going to call an end to this charade.
Not only she but all her friends also were in the list of failures.
Both my brother and I am interested in joining the team.
8. When two subjects are joined by ‘as well as’, ‘with’, ‘together with’,
‘accompanied by’, the verb agrees with the subject mentioned first.
The President of India as well as his secretaries is invited to the
function.
Her friends along with Sheela are arriving by the first flight.
9. In sports, while referring to the players, the name of the country is

followed by plural verb.
England have won the world cup.
10. When the percentage or a part of something is mentioned with plural
meaning, the verb used is plural.
30% of the Indian women are literate.
11. “Majority” can be singular or plural.
 If it is followed by a plural noun, plural verb is used.
Majority of the pens were blue.
 If it stands alone, singular verb is used.
The majority believes in easy work.
Exercise 3: Correct the mistakes in the following sentences
1. More must be done to solve that problems of development
2. Many culture from around the world are found in the city.
3. The city have disadvantages such as a high rate of crime.
4. There are bad pollution due to traffic congestion.
5. Neither John nor Wendy want to go dancing
Answers
Exercise 1: Identify the type of sentence
1. Imperative 4. Exclamatory
2. Assertive 5. Assertive
3. Interrogative
Exercise 2: Complete the following with appropriate predicate
1. were kept as centre piece in the bouquet.
2. proved to be the best what he could get for his agency.
3. is one of the excellent journalists in the industry today.
4. is delivered as a complimentary copy.
5. are creative in our own fields.
Exercise 3:
1. those problems 2. cultures 3. has 4. is 5. wants

Unit 7 Organisational Documents

Structure:
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Memo
Language of a Memo
Components of a Memo
Format of a Memo
7.3 Circulars and Notices
7.4 Summary
7.6 Answers
7.1 Introduction
In the earlier units, we have learnt the importance of communication in an
organisation. Besides the informal communication that regularly takes place
in an organisation, the formal communication needs attention. It is this
formal communication, in the medium of documents like memo, circular,
notice and report that plays a crucial role in the effective communication in
an organisation, which aids the smooth functioning of the organisation. In
this unit, we would learn to write the organisational documents.
Objectives:
 write memos with proper language, component and format.
 Describe and draft appropriate circulars and notices.
7.2 MEMO
The term ‘memo’ comes from the Latin word ‘memorandum,’ which means
“a thing which must be remembered.” The plural form is memoranda. The
document that you use to communicate within the organization is called as
memorandum. It has to stay within the organization. So, it is also called
‘inter office memorandum.’ When you need to convey information and
decisions or to make short requests with the members of your department,
upper management, employees at another branch in another city, etc., the

best way to do is to write a memo. The exception to this is if you are

preparing a document for a reader several levels above you or for a formal
situation. One colleague can write a memo to another; except for memos
which concern disciplinary action. Only officers authorized to issue them can
issue memos concerning disciplinary action.
7.2.1 Language of a Memo
Before you learn the format of the memo, it is very important that you learn
the correct language that you should use in a memo to achieve its purpose.
1. Concise: A memo is always short. It is apt for a memo to be of two
pages; after which a memo starts to turn into a report. Keep the
paragraphs short; limit each paragraph to five lines or less. Put each
reason in a separate paragraph rather than bunching them up in a
forbidding 20-line block of type. Equally important, memos are written to
get someone to do or understand something--be it to spend money,
meet a deadline, constructively criticize, or say yes or no.
2. Personal: Use words like I, you, and we. It's a lot more human to say, "I
would like you to do this." Use active voice (not passive) to get the
action done.
3. Simple language: Let your language be clear and easy to understand.
You should not make emotional statements in a memo. Plain and direct
statements of facts are made to achieve all that is required. Avoid
scholarly words and technical jargon if you can convey the message in
simple English. An example of unnecessary complication of the
communication is, using language like: "R & D wants your input because
temporal considerations are of primary importance;" when you really
want to say, "Our research people need your answer today."
4. Avoid confusing words: While writing a memo, try to use the right words
at the right place. When you have to use simple root words, don’t
complicate them by using fancy suffixes like ‘tion’, ‘ance’, ‘ent’, ‘ment’,
‘ize’, and ‘ility.’ Look at the following sentence to understand how you
normally complicate the message by tacking unnecessary endings.
 E.g.: “The continuation of our issuance of increments is dependent
upon the prioritization by employees of institutional objectives.”
Translated to simple and direct language it reads, “If you want to get
increments, meet institutional goals.”

5. Don't be trite: Try to avoid statements that are out of date and do not
mean anything in the present context. One commonplace expression
that you can avoid is “Please don’t hesitate to call.” Normally this phrase
gets no results and turns people off. A more sincere ending could be, "If
you need help, I'm available. Give me a call."
6. Don't give too many ‘whys’. Though it is important to explain why you
want something done, don't overdo it. One expert cautions that a reader
can probably only absorb no more than six or seven reasons at once. If
you must cite more whys, put them on a separate sheet of paper, and
staple the sheets together. This way, the basic memo message doesn't
get lost in a sea of details.
7. Check before you send the memo. It is a human tendency to commit
mistakes especially in names, dates, or numbers. But such mistakes
may cost you dearly. You should remember that memo establishes
accountability. It is a record of facts and decisions, which can be
referred in future if there is a need to find out who went wrong and at
what stage.
8. Close with a call to action. Many memos don't close with anything,
leaving the reader hanging. If you want a response by Friday at 3 p.m.,
say so.
7.2.2 Components of a Memo
The following are the components that make up a memo.
1. Header: This should appear at the top of a memo. This compact block
of information contains
a) Date – Remember to write the date in words (12th December 2006)
b) Name of the receiver(s) – In general, the title such as Professor or
Mr. is omitted. However, it is left to your discretion to follow the style
that your organization prefers. Do not use a salutation (Dear …) or
a closing (Sincerely…)
c) Name of the sender(s) – Write your initials after your name on the
"From" line.
d) Subject of the memo – Be specific when you write the subject. You
should not be too vague (e.g. Purchase). This example is unclear
because it could be a purchase of anything. Take another example,
‘Purchase of hose pipes for the month of March 2007’. This is

acceptable because it is more informative and focused. (the

particular relationship of this memo to the general topic.)
e) c.c. It is the abbreviation for Carbon Copy. Though it is an obsolete
term, it is still used to mean that the copy of the memo will go to the
person mentioned.
f) bcc – It means Blind Carbon Copy. This copy goes to a person, who
may not be directly involved. (may be an office assistant or a
secretary), but who should know what is going on. The people
mentioned in the cc list will not see the names mentioned in the bcc
list.
2. Purpose: This states the reason for writing the memo. If you answer the
questions who, what, when, where, and why, then your purpose is
fulfilled. E.g.: The purpose of this memo is to request the purchase of
hose pipes for our plant at Durgapur for the month of March 2007.
3. Summary: This is the miniature version of a memo. The summary
should not be limited to the contents of the memo alone, all important
information have to be mentioned here.
4. Action: Unless the purpose of the memo is simply to inform, you should
finish with a clear call for action. Who should do what, and how long do
they have to do it? Include alternatives, in the event that your readers
disagree with you. Be polite when you ask others to do work for you,
especially when they are not under your supervision. You may wish to
mention the actions that ‘you’ plan to take next, and what your own
deadlines are, so your reader can gauge how important the project is to
you.
7.2.3 Format of the memo
Whenever you type the memo or write one, see that the space in between
two lines is single (single spaced). In between two paragraphs, you have to
give two spaces. In other words, you will have to give a double space to
separate paragraphs. Use of charts, graphs and pictures to explain the
content of a memo is permitted. Usually the right side margin of text in a
memo is not justified (all lines need not be equal in length.)
When a paragraph begins in an essay or reports it is accepted practice to
start the first line after some space. Usually 5 Character spaces are given.
This is called Tab 'setting' or 'indenting'.

However, in a memo, the paragraphs are not indented. The example given
below will be able to help you to write a memo.
Steel India Limited, Durgapur

Inter office Memorandum
To: Store Manager Reference: SIL/P24

From : Purchase Officer Date: 12 Feb 2009
Subject: Purchase of Hose Pipes

As desired, the order for the supply of 5 hose pipes for the month of March
2009 has been placed with Patel Fire & Safety Equipment, Ahmedabad.
The order will be supplied by 25th February 2007.
c.c. Finance Officer

Safety Officer Veda Dhurania

1 Only officers authorized to issue them can issue memos concerning
disciplinary action. (True/False)
2 The miniature version of the memo is called as action. (True/False)
3 Use simple language without clichés while writing a memo. (True/False)
4 A memo begins with salutation and ends with conclusion like ‘yours
truly.’ (True/False)
5 You can use tables and charts in a memo. (True/False)
7.3 Circulars and Notices

A circular is also a document that is circulated within an organization. It is
usually an announcement sheet that is sent to specific groups of people.
For instance, if a manager wants to call a meeting of heads of department,
he will send a circular to only heads of department requesting them to
attend that meeting.
On the other hand a notice, depending on the information that is to be
conveyed, could be for employees alone or for the general public. A notice

is a legal document, which has to be put up on an official notice board.

However, some types of notices are addressed to individual employees also.
Let us look at some examples of circulars and then at some notices.
If you are the President of the science club in your college, and want to
conduct a meeting to plan for Science Project competition, you will have to
send some information to those whom you want to involve in organizing the
programs. If it is just a meeting to decide on how to conduct the competition,
you will probably call your Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer and a few
senior members of the club to attend this meeting. You may not want all the
members to attend because it will take a lot of time and there may be too
many suggestions. You may not be able to take any firm decisions.
Therefore, to invite only a few people you will send them a circular, but you
will not put up a notice. At this meeting if all of you agree on the rules of the
competition, date, venue and so on, you may decide to raise funds through
donations etc. You will not be able to raise enough funds without the support
of all the club members. So you will put up a notice announcing the
decisions taken at your meeting and requesting all the members to help with
fund raising.
A notice and circular both have similar functions but are used differently
depending on the nature of announcement or information that needs to be
passed on. A circular is meant for distribution to a small group, while a
notice is meant for a large group of people.
A circular may also be sent when an immediate feedback is expected. You
want to donate money for flood affected areas. What will you do? You may
think of requesting your classmates to make a contribution. Keeping in mind,
the economic capacity of the students, you may want to request only a
voluntary contribution. In other words, you may allow each student to
contribute only what they can afford. You may not suggest the sum. You
may then send out a circular along with a feedback sheet on which students
will have to write their names, the sum they wish to contribute and put their
signature. This document will help you estimate the total collection and also
help collect from those who have signed up.

Let us look at an example of a circular:
To: Management Authorities of Science Laboratories

CIRCULAR
Aspects of Safety in Science Laboratories
The purpose of this circular letter is to indicate the importance of safety in
science labs. The lab in-charges have a duty of care to pupils in their charge.
Fulfilment of this duty includes drawing their pupils’ attention to any hazard that
pertains to a particular activity. In this context, the lab in-charges should be
familiar with relevant guidelines on laboratory safety and they should be careful
at all times to observe standard safety procedures when conducting practical
activities in the laboratory.
Please bring this circular to the notice of the individuals concerned and to the
notice of parent and teacher representatives as appropriate, for transmission to
individual parents and teachers.
Ravi Kashyap,
Secretary General
March 2007
Let us look at a notice now:
Safety Constructions, December 5, 1999

Tiger Circle, Manipal Ref: ADM/ N/44-99
NOTICE
Sub: Temporary suspension of operations
We regret to inform you that due to unexpected problems with some of our
equipment, we are unable to carry out routine operations till December 7.
However the office will function during the weekend. We are making special
arrangements to meet your emergency needs. You may contact the
undersigned for help. Kindly excuse the inconvenience caused due to this
unforeseen emergency.
Manager
Manipal Branch
Copy to:
Head Office, Bombay
All Branches in Karnataka

It is evident from the above example that it is a notice from an organization

namely ‘Safety Constructions,’ to its clients. A notice has reference
numbers, date and subject. If it is in response to a previous letter or other
document, that document or letter will also be mentioned in a separate
reference under the subject.
Please note that copies of notices may be sent to other offices, which may
be affected by the content of the notice or simply for giving information.
Circulars and notices generally cover one subject. But a single notice may
cover several different issues related to one subject. For example, Staff may
be informed that a particular holiday is declared. Then the same notice may
mention a compensatory day off for those who work on the holiday or it
could also mention a different working day to compensate for that holiday. A
notice or circular can be issued only by officers designated for the purpose.
There are notices, which are sent to individuals under special
circumstances. If a staff in an organization is suspected of major misconduct
the organization may issue a Show Cause Notice. This notice will mention
the allegations against the staff concerned and ask for a written explanation
within a specified time. It will also clearly state what action would be taken if
there were no reply to the show cause notice.
Depending on the type of notice, the duration of display of a notice is
specified under various legal provisions. A notice is a document that can be
used as evidence in court cases. Therefore, words have to be chosen
carefully before writing a notice. Secondly, you must be very specific, clear
and precise in writing a notice. The temptation to be elaborate and verbose
(use too many words) should be avoided. The tone of the notice should be
firm but not offensive or arrogant.
Indenting of paragraph may be allowed in notices and circulars. One should
not be in too much of a hurry to put up notices. They are impersonal
communication. But then, they are read by a large number of people.
Therefore, care must be taken while writing notices.
6. ___ is sent to specific group of people whereas ____ may be meant
for general public.
7. When you want an immediate feedback, you normally send ___

8. At the topmost line of the circular, one must write the ___.
9. A circular or notice may by issued by only ____
10. A ____ is a document that can be used as an evident in legal cases.
7.4 Summary
Effective communication is the base for any organization to be a success
story. This communication depends upon the persons involved and the type
of communication.
We have learnt in this unit that there are certain types of documents used in
organizations for communication. Some are written on a prescribed format
for example a memo, and some are not. A memo is for internal
communication between colleagues, superiors and subordinates and it is
usually sent to a person who is expected to take some responsive action.
We then learnt about circulars, which are also documents for internal
communication. Circulars are sent to groups of staff. We found out that
some notices are meant for staff and others are meant for clients and the
general public. There are notices, which are sent to individuals also. All
these documents are written according to certain conventions and rules.

1. What are the rules for writing memos?
2. Write a short note on show cause notice.
7.6 Answers
1) True 2) False 3) False 4) False 5) True 6) circular; notice
7) circular 8) date 9) officers designated for the purpose 10) notice
TQs
1. Concise.... personal....simple language... avoid confusing words.... don’t
be trite.... Don't give too many ‘whys’.... check before you send the
memo....close with a call for action.
2. Notice sent to individuals under special circumstances. Reason...staff
suspected of major misconduct. It mentions allegations against the staff
concerned, asks for a written explanation within a specified time. States
what action would be taken if there were no reply to the show cause
notice.

REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Simple Sentences:
A simple sentence can be of one word or quite long. The most natural
sentence structure is the simple sentence. It remains by far the most
common sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written
work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader’s
attention, or for summing up an argument. However, one has to be careful
in using the simple sentence. Too many simple sentences could project the
written matter as immature and childish.
A simple sentence is not dependent and can stand alone to give complete
meaning. We can also call a simple sentence a Main Clause.
Ecologists oppose the use of nuclear power.
The circumstances make the matter serious.
The island was filled with many trails winding through the thick
underbrush, a small lake, and dangerous wild pigs.
Complex Sentences:
When we are adding a clause in order to develop some aspect of what we
are saying, we use a subordinating conjunction. As you know, the part of a
sentence that begins with a subordinating conjunction is a subordinate
clause. (See unit 6 for Phrases and Clauses)
Sentences containing a main clause, and one or more subordinate clauses
are often called complex sentences.
There are three main kinds of subordinate clause.
i) Noun Clauses
ii) Adjective Clauses
iii) Adverbial Clauses
When the telegram came, everyone was excited.
 When the telegram came – adverbial clause, beginning with the
subordinating conjunction ‘when’ ---- Subordinate clause
everyone was excited – main clause.
So, the sentence above has a subordinate clause and a main clause. So
the sentence is a Complex sentence. More examples of complex
sentence:

Compound Sentences:
When we are simply linking clauses, we use co-ordinating conjunction. The
sentence then becomes compound sentence.
The doctor diagnosed accurately and the patient improved.
Here both are main clauses – ‘The doctor diagnosed accurately’. ‘The
Patient improved’ are joined by the co-ordinating conjunction ‘and.’
Simple sentences that are related may be joined with a comma and a
coordinating conjunction. A coordinating conjunction shows the relationship
between the two original simple sentences, which when joined are more
accurately described as two ‘independent clauses.’ The main coordinating
conjunctions and their meanings are given in the following table:
Coordinating Conjunctions Meanings

for because, the reason
and addition
nor not this either
but difference, contrast
or an alternative
yet something unexpected
so conclusion or result
Exercise 1: Identify whether the following sentences are simple,

compound or complex
1. The boy climbed up to the top of the tower.
2. Gulliver came upon a country where there were only dwarfs.
3. Alan goes to the library and studies every day.
4. The teacher returned the book after correcting the errors.
5. The students are revising because they have an exam tomorrow.
Active and Passive voice
A large number of actions involve two people or things – one that performs
the action, and one that is affected by the action. These actions are typically
referred to using transitive verbs.
The tiger is chasing the deer.
In the above sentence, the tiger is subject and it is the performer. The deer
is the object, and it is affected by the action – ‘is chasing’ is the transitive
verb. When the subject of the sentence is doing something (here ‘is
chasing’) or active, we take the verb is active too. So we say is chasing is
the active verb and the sentence is in the active voice.
However, sometimes we may want to focus on the person or thing affected
by an action (object) of an active form of the verb. In that case, we make the
affected person or thing subject and make the verb passive.
My grandfather built this house. (active voice)
This house was built by my grandfather. (passive voice)
In the passive form, this house is inactive, it only suffers the action. So the
verb is said to be in the passive voice. (passive means not active)
Exercise 2: Say whether the sentences below are in the passive or
active form of the verb:
1. Somebody must finish the work.
2. Money was hidden under the tree by the miser.
3. The patient will be taken to the hospital tomorrow.
4. They took photographs by the seashore.
5. Your remark irritated me.
Direct and Indirect Speech
In our daily communication, we come across various types of conversations.
Of these, there are two ways of what one person has related to the other.
They are-
1. Direct Speech: This refers to the relating of the spoken words of one
person to the other, verbatim. We can recognize a direct speech with
the help of the punctuations. It is written within the inverted commas. A
coma or colon is placed immediately before the spoken words.
2. Indirect Speech: This is also called as ‘Reported Speech’ because it
refers to the meaning of the word spoken by one person though the
exact spoken words are not used.
The teacher said that I was improving.
He thought she was greatly worried

Like this, you usually use a report structure when you say what someone
thinks. A report structure consists of two parts. The first is the reporting
part, and the second, reported part.
Mother told her daughter that all pupils were intelligent.
Mother told her – reporting part
that all pupils at her schools were intelligent – reported part.
You usually put the reporting part first. This is to make it clear that you are
reporting rather than you are speaking directly yourself. In a reported
statement, you begin your reported clause with the conjunction that.
We shall learn how to report a) statements b) questions c) commands and
exclamations.
a) Reporting statements:
There are certain rules that you should follow while converting the direct
speech into indirect speech. It should be noted that if the reporting verb is in
the present tense, then there is no change in the tense in the speech.
However, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense in the speech
changes, but the meaning should remain the same.
 In the reporting verb,
– ‘said’ is used when there is no object.
– ‘told’ is used if there is an object.
Many other verbs can be used to make the sentence more interesting and
informative. They can be used suitably in relation to the tone of the spoken
words. Given below is the list of such verbs.
Accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologized, begged,
boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered,
ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.
Instead of ‘said to’, you can say told but not told to.
My friend said to me, “you can ask me if you want help.’
My friend told me that I could ask him if I wanted help.

 While reporting the direct speech into indirect, some of the words
are transformed as follows:
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
this that
these those
now then
here there
today that day
tomorrow the next day / the day after
yesterday the previous day / the day before
last night the night before / the previous night
ago before
must had to
Apart from word – changes, tense changes also take place as follows:
Direct Speech Indirect speech
Simple Present Simple Past
Rachel said, “ I sing songs.” Rachel said that she sang songs.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Rachel said, “I am singing songs.” Rachel said that she was singing
songs.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Rachel said, “I have sung songs.” Rachel said that she had sung
songs.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Rachel said, “I have been singing Rachel said that she had been
songs.” singing songs.”
Simple Past Past Perfect
Rachel said, “I sang songs.” Rachel said that she had sung
songs.

Past continuous Past Perfect Continuous

Rachel said, “I was singing songs.” Rachel said that she had been
singing songs.
Future Tense Conditional
Rachel said, “I shall sing songs.” Rachel said that she would sing
songs.
b) Reporting Interrogative Sentences

The changes that are required while converting an interrogative
sentence from direct to indirect speech are:
 The introductory verb is changed into ‘asked’, ‘inquired’, ‘demanded’.
 The word ‘that’ will not appear in the indirect speech.
 The question mark is dropped in the indirect speech, a period / full
stop takes its place.
Here, we are using two types of questions:
1. Yes/No questions – Questions beginning with auxiliaries (am, is, are
etc.)
2. Wh – questions – Questions beginning with who, what, when, why
etc.
Questions are always asked. So in the reported form asked is used, or more
or less its different shades – enquired, wanted to know etc.
With Yes/No questions:
A said to B, “Do you like sweets?” (Direct)
A asked B if he liked sweets. (reported)
A said to B, “Have you met the new doctor?”
A asked B if he had met the new doctor.
With wh – questions
These types of questions require an explanation as answer. Such types of
questions will retain the ‘wh’ words in the indirect speech. The verb follows
the subject.
A said to B, “where are you going?” (wh+verb+subject)
A asked B where he was going.(wh+subject+verb)
Note the reported form begins straight with a question word.
A said to B, “What colour is your new shirt?”
A asked B what colour his new shirt was.

c) Reporting Commands and Requests :

The changes that are required while converting an imperative sentence
(commands / requests) from direct to indirect speech are-
 The introductory verb ‘said’ is replaced by verbs such as ‘asked’,
‘commanded’, ‘ordered’, ‘requested’, ‘implored’, ‘advised’, ‘warned’.
 The verb in the sentence of Direct speech should be converted to
infinitive beginning with ‘to…’ in the indirect speech. Use not to if it is a
negative command or request.
 When a proposal or suggestion is made beginning with the word ‘let’, the
introductory verb should be ‘proposed’ or ‘suggested’. The auxiliary
‘should’ is used along with the verb in the sentence instead of infinitive.
Neil told Nell, “Let’s sleep late and enjoy the party.”
Neil suggested to Nell that they should sleep late and enjoy the party.
Exercise – 3
Rebecca is in front of the class holding a presentation on London. As
Rebecca is rather shy, she speaks with a very low voice. Your classmate
Neil does not understand her, so you have to repeat every sentence to him.
Complete the sentences in reported speech (no change of tense
required). Note the change of pronouns and verbs.
 Rebecca (R): I want to tell you something about my holiday in London.
 Neil: What does she say?
 You: She says that ––––––––––––––––––––– .
 R: I went to London in July.
 You: She says that ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– .
 R: My parents went with me.
 You: She says that –––––––––––––––––––––––––––.
 R: We spent three days in London.
 You: She says that –––––––––––––––––––––––––––.
 R: London is a multicultural place.
 You: She says that ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– .
 R: I saw people of all colours.
 You: She says that ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– .
 R: My parents and I visited the Tower.
 You: She says that –––––––––––––––––––––––––––.

 R: One evening we went to see a musical.

 You: She says that –––––––––––––––––––––––––––.
 R: I love London.
 You: She says that –––––––––––––––––––––––––––.
 R: The people are so nice there.
 You: She says that –––––––––––––––––––––––––––.
Answers
Exercise 1: Identify whether the following sentences are simple,
compound or complex
1. Simple 2. Complex 3. Compound 4. Complex 5. Complex
Exercise 2: Say whether the sentences below are in the passive or
active form of the verb:
1. Active 2. Passive 3. Passive 4. Active 5. Active
Exercise 3:
A) R: I want to tell you something about my holiday in London.
You: She says that – she wants to tell you something about her holiday
in London -
R: I went to London in July.
You: She says that she went to London in July.
R: My parents went with me.
You: She says that her parents went with her.
R: We spent three days in London.
You: She says that they spent three days in London.
R: London is a multicultural place.
You: She says that London is a multicultural place.
R: I saw people of all colours.
You: She says that she saw people of all colours.
R: Me and my parents visited the Tower.
You: She says that she and her parents visited the Tower
R: One evening we went to see a musical.
You: She says that One evening they went to see a musical.
R: I love London.
You: She says that she loves London.
R: The people are so nice there.
You: She says that the people there are so nice.

Acknowledgements, References and Suggested Readings

1. Green, David. Contemporary English Grammar Structures and
Composition. Madras: Macmillan India Limited,1971-1991.
2. Introduction to Management. ICFAI Center for Management Research.
2003.
3. Kahn, John Ellison (Ed.). Reader’s Digest: How To Write and Speak
Better. London: The Reader’s Digest Asociation Limited (1991 rpt.
2002).
4. Sharma R.C and Mohan Krishna. Business Correspondence and Report
Writing: A Practical Approach to business and Technical
Communication. Tata McGrawHill: New Delhi. 3rd edition.
5. Sonnenberg Frank K., “Barriers to Communication, ” Journal of Business
Strategy, Vol. 11, Issue 4 (July/August 1990): p 56-59.
6. Tele-Port: Training for the IT enabled Services Industry – Reference
Manual. Manipal Education Consortium. Manipal.
7. Thomson, A.J, Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Delhi:
Oxford University Press. 4th Edition.
Exercises are taken from the following sources:

http://www.easytraining.com/contact.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication
http://www.esl-lab.com
http://www.jobbankusa.com
http://www.nyu.edu/publicaffairs/newsreleases
http://wwwold.ccc.commnet.edu/writing/symbols.htm
–––––––––––––––––––––

Personality Development Unit 1
Unit 1 Personality
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Personality – an Explanation
1.3 Categories of Personality
1.4 Self Image
1.5 Improving the level of self-acceptance
1.6 Factors affecting Personality Development
1.7 Defence Mechanism
1.8 Personality characteristics in Organisation
1.9 Factors that determine our Attitude
1.10 Summary
1.12 Answers
1.1 Introduction
Our own experience is enough to tell us two things about human beings.
First, they are all unique. Each possesses a set of traits and characters
which cannot be completely duplicated by any other person. Second, these
traits remain stable over time. For comfortable interactions with each other,
it is better to first understand the meaning of personality and its types. Then
we can inculcate those traits in ourselves which paves our way to be a
successful individual in the society.
Manipal University Jaipur B0726 Page No. 1

Objectives:
After studying this unit, the students should be able to:
 understand the term personality
 explain the determinants of Personality
 discuss the various theories of personality.
 defence Mechanism
1.1 Personality – An Explanation

When we talk of personality, we don't mean a person who has charm, a
positive attitude towards life, a smiling face, or who has won a beauty
contest. When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic
concept describing the growth and development of a person's whole
psychological system. The word 'personality' has interesting etymological
origins. It can be traced to the Latin word "personare" which translates as "to
speak through". Personality traditionally refers to how people influence
others through their external appearances and actions. But for
psychologists, personality includes:
 External appearances and behaviour
 The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force, and
 The particular organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer.
Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person's

behaviour. Personality is defined as a relatively stable set of characteristics
that influence an individual's behaviour. For our purposes, you should think
of personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others.

1.2 Categories of Personality

A personality trait may be defined as an enduring attribute of a person that
appears constantly in a variety of situations. Describing an individual’s
behaviour in terms of personality has proved to be a tough job. However,
attempts are made to identify the basic personality types.
Carl Jung proposed two-part theory of personality. According to it, he type

casts all profile into two compartments.
1. Extroversion and Introversion

Extraversion (also "extroversion") is marked by pronounced engagement
with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of
energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be
enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's
go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert
themselves, and draw attention to themselves.
Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts.

They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less dependent on the social
world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness
or depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert
and more time alone to re-charge their batteries.
Sample Extraversion Items

 I am the life of the party.
 I don't mind being the centre of attention.
 I feel comfortable around people.
 I start conversations.
 I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
 I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)
 I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)
 I don't talk a lot. (reversed)
 I have little to say. (reversed)

 I keep in the background. (reversed)
Jung explains that at the base, the personality has four dimensions –
thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition.
a) Thinking: It includes logical, reasoning, rational and analytical.
b) Feeling: Refers to the interpretations of a thing or event on a subjective
scale (emotional effect)
c) Sensation: It deals with perception of a thing in general sense (factual
and concrete)
d) Intuition: It is based on unconscious inner perception of the
potentialities or events or things.
2. Type A / B Personalities
Meyer Friedman, an American cardiologist, noticed in the 1940's that the
chairs in his waiting room got worn out from the edges. They hypothesized
that his patients were driven, impatient people, who sat on the edge of their
seats when waiting. They labelled these people "Type A" personalities. Type
A personalities are workaholics, always busy, driven, somewhat impatient,
and so on.
Type B personalities, on the other hand are laid back and easy going. "Type
A personality" has found its way into general communication.
Type A Personality: Type A behaviour pattern is a complex of personality

and behavioural characteristics, including competitiveness, time urgency,
social status, insecurity, aggression, hostility and a quest for achievements.
Type A personality individual is "aggressively involved in a chronic,
incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if
required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other
persons".

Type A Personalities:
i. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly:
ii. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;
iii. Strive to think or do two or more things simultaneously;
iv. Cannot cope with leisure time; and
v. Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how
much of everything they acquire.
The alternative to the Type A behaviour pattern is the Type B behaviour

pattern. People with Type B personalities are relatively free of the Type A
behaviours and characteristics. Type B personalities are "rarely harried by
the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an
endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of time".
Type B Personality:
i. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying
impatience;
ii. Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or
accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation;
iii. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at
any cost; and
iv. Can relax without guilt.
Organizations can also be characterized as Type A or Type B organizations.

Type A individuals in Type B organizations and Type B individuals in Type A
organizations experience stress related to a misfit between their personality
type and the predominant type of the organization.
3. Agreeableness – Disagreeableness
Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation
and social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others.
They are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to

compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an

optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest,
decent, and trustworthy.
Disagreeable individuals place ‘self-interest’ above getting along with others.

They are generally unconcerned with others well-being, and therefore are
unlikely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their scepticism
about others motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and
uncooperative.
Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining

popularity. Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On
the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough
or absolute objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent
scientists, critics, or soldiers.
There is some criticism on the use of the terms altruism-egoism in this

context. Evolutionary Biology has extensively researched the mechanisms
of altruism and concluded that agreeableness differs fundamentally from
altruism.
Sample Agreeableness Items

 I am interested in people.
 I feel others emotions.
 I have a soft heart.
 I make people feel at ease.
 I sympathize with others feelings.
 I take time out for others.
 I am not interested in other people’s problems. (reversed)
 I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
 I feel little concern for others. (reversed)
 I insult people. (reversed)
4. Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and
direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time
constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be
an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting
spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be
seen by others as colourful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Conscientiousness
includes the factor known as Need for Achievement (NAch).
The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious

individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through
purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by
others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be
compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely
conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring.
Unconscientious people may be criticized for their unreliability, lack of
ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience many
short-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy (i.e. dull, boring,
unimaginative).
Sample Conscientiousness Items

 I am always prepared.
 I am exacting in my work.
 I follow a schedule.
 I get chores done right away.
 I like order.
 I pay attention to details.
 I leave my belongings around. (reversed)
 I make a mess of things. (reversed)
 I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)
 I shirk my duties. (reversed)

5. Neuroticism
Neuroticism, also known inversely as Emotional Stability, refers to the
tendency to experience negative emotions. Those who score high on
Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as
anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience several of these
emotions. People high in Neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They
respond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their
reactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to
interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as
hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for
unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood.
These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to
think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.
At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in Neuroticism are
less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm,
emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from
negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive
feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion
domain.
Sample Neuroticism Items

 I am easily disturbed.
 I change my mood a lot.
 I get irritated easily.
 I get stressed out easily.
 I get upset easily.
 I have frequent mood swings.
 I often feel blue.
 I worry about things.

 I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)

 I seldom feel blue. (reversed)
6. Openness to Experience
Openness to Experience describes a dimension of personality that
distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional
people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and
sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more
aware of their feelings. They therefore tend to hold unconventional and
individualistic beliefs, although their actions may be conforming
(see agreeableness). People with low scores on openness to experience
tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain,
straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle.
They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these
endeavours as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer
familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change.
1.4 Self Image

The ‘self-image’ is derived from Carl Roger’s ‘Self-Theory.’ According to
him, the ‘self’ consists of all the perceptions, ideas, values and features that
characterize ‘I’ or ‘Me’. It includes ‘what I am’ and ‘What I can do.’ Roger
defines the self concept as “an organised, consistent, conceptual gestalt
composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the I or Me and the
perceptions of the relationships of I or Me to these perceptions.” An
individual with a strong, positive self-concept is quite likely to view the world
differently from the one whose self-concept doesn’t necessarily mean or
reflect reality: an individual may be highly successful or respected, yet views
himself a failure.

Self-image is:
 How you regard yourself.
 The mental picture of how you believe you appear to others.
 How you picture your physical self.
 How you believe others see you physically.
 Your idea (positive or negative, rational or irrational) of how you present
yourself to others and how you are subsequently judged by them.
 A personal assessment of your character, personality, skills, abilities,
and other attributes.
 A powerful internal mechanism influencing how you feel about yourself.
 An accumulation of scripts you have been given (consciously or
otherwise) and have learned well throughout
What is involved in creating a self-image?

Your self-image is developed by how you assess the following factors
in your personhood:
 Physical appearance.
 Shape of your body.
 Accomplishments. in academics.
 Achievement in athletics.
 Social skills.
 Value system.
 Skills, abilities and competencies.
 Relationship with family, relatives, siblings, peer group, and others.
 Behavior in social and professional situations.
 Background and environment from which you came.
 Roles played in life at school, home, work and in the community.
 Jobs and job titles held.
 Goals, ambitions and aspirations for the future.

How does your self-image affect you?

It is from your self-image that you:
 Develop labels for yourself.
 Develop scripts as to how you believe you should act to fit the image.
If your self-image Then your script says you should:

label is:
Fat overeat and not exercise
drunk drink to excess
intelligent be a good problem solver and decision maker
control your eating and exercise habits, always
thin
look chic
be able to handle life's challenges with
competent
confidence, be successful in your endeavors
friendly be easy to get to know, sociable, outgoing
negative always see the dark, pessimistic side of life
have the looks that appeal to others, trendy
handsome/beautiful fashions and hairstyle, pay close attention to
physical self
compulsive act in a compulsive way
depressed act in a depressed way
loser act like a loser
winner act like a winner
Self Esteem Quiz

Take the self esteem quiz below and learn how to improve your level of
self-acceptance.
Kick the Approval Habit by Thelma Mariano
Years ago I based my feelings of self-worth on performance and how much
I could achieve in school or in business. When I turned to professional
writing, my internal rating system focused on the number of sales. But guess

what? My need for external approval was a bottomless pit. I could never get
enough.
Since then I worked on my personal development and have gradually gone

from being self-critical to self-accepting.
Many of us look outside ourselves to gain a sense of our own value,

through:
– what others think of us

– our performance through education, work or sports
– how we look (e.g. thin, , well-dressed)
– how wealthy we appear (including status symbols)
– how we compare to others
Unfortunately, we can lose favour with the people we are trying to impress,
our performance may suffer or our looks fade. And even sizeable assets can
take a beating on the stock market.
The only true source of approval is found within. The more we accept
ourselves, the more easily we will believe praise when it comes from
external sources.
Self-acceptance means acknowledging our positive qualities as well as our

little “quirks,” paying attention to our feelings and allowing ourselves to be
different. When we truly know and appreciate ourselves, we trust our own
judgment and create a life that is meaningful to us.
The questionnaire below will help you determine your OWN level of self-
acceptance.
How Self-Accepting are you ?

1. I allow myself to make mistakes, realizing that we all learn from
failure.
a) never or hardly at all b) sometimes c) frequently d) very often

2. My value as a person depends greatly on what others think of me.

3. Whether I’m celebrating a success or getting through a rough period, I
“reward” myself in self-defeating ways, e.g. overeating, drinking too
much, or going on a spending spree when I am already in debt.
4. I have trouble asking others for favours and tend to apologize a lot.
5. I’d rather keep an unsatisfactory item than return it to the store. In a
restaurant I’ll eat a meal, even if it isn’t what I ordered, rather than
return it to the waiter.
6. I berate myself for saying or doing the wrong thing, calling myself
“stupid.”
7. I would do something against my better judgment rather than risk
another person’s disapproval.
8. When I look at myself in the mirror, I see only my flaws.
9. I think of how my life would improve if only I were smarter or better
looking.
10. I graciously accept compliments and praise instead of tossing them
aside.
11. I do things which nurture, strengthen and relax my body.

12. I am able to accept my vulnerable feelings like sadness, fear or

anxiety.
13. When I need comfort, I am able to turn to friends or family and let
them know how I feel.
14. I am comfortable expressing my angry feelings.
15. I am able to assert my needs and wants with family members,
colleagues or my partner.
16. I recognize and value my need for solitude or “quiet time.”
17. I actively pursue and maintain friendships with people I truly like.
18. I balance my life with pleasure and fun, recognizing that I work harder
when I am well rested.
Scoring
Now add up all your points as shown below.
question 1: a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4
questions 2 through 9: a-4, b-3, c-2, d-1
questions 10 through 18: a-1, b-2, c-3, d-4
Results
1 – 18 Poor
You rely heavily on other people’s opinions and find it hard to assert yourself
in your professional or personal life. You are so anxious to please others
that you often ignore your own needs and wants. You are also prone to

rewarding yourself in self-destructive ways (e.g. overeating). It is important

for you to do things that will nurture you – such as reading a book,
swimming, walking in nature or just listening to music.
19 – 36 Fair
Although you make sure that you honour your commitments to others, you
are often self-critical and overly demanding of yourself. You are quick to
blame yourself when things go wrong. Learn to be more tolerant of your own
mistakes and pay less attention to what others may think. You do manage to
find time for what’s important in your life, which gives you a feeling of
satisfaction.
37 – 54 Good
You know who you are and what you need to be happy and usually are
willing to take the time to do something that will fulfill you. You are always
trying to improve yourself and surround yourself with supportive friends or
family. You see your strengths but may need to learn to work with your
weaknesses. For example, you may have a short attention span and work
best in spurts. By recognizing this and giving yourself frequent breaks, you
will be more productive.
55 – 72 Excellent
Congratulations! You have a deeply developed sense of self and are self-
nurturing. You respect your own feelings as well as those of others and
have no qualms about turning to friends or family when you are in need of
comfort. You are patient with yourself. If you feel a resistance to doing
something, you get to the root of your feelings instead of forcing yourself to
go ahead. You lead a healthy, well-balanced life.

1.5 Improving the Level of Self-acceptance

There are a number of ways to do this. Several are listed below:
 Journal
So often we act according to logic or what we feel we “should” do and ignore
our feelings. Journaling will help you get in touch with your emotion and give
you a safe place to let things out. By regularly listening to yourself in this
way, you will feel freer to be yourself and more self-accepting.
 Acknowledge and Follow your Life Values

Determine your most cherished values and define how you can achieve
them in your current life (e.g. autonomy, creativity, fitness, communication,
learning, personal growth, love and affection). By taking even the smallest
step towards your inner values and goals, you grow in self-acceptance.
 Search for the Gold

We all seem to know our weaknesses or flaws but rarely consider our
strengths. Find ten things you admire about yourself, relating to your
personality or abilities – e.g. resourceful, articulate, good with children, can
make people laugh, sensitive to others’ feelings. Write these down and
consult the list whenever you feel “down” on yourself.
In our image-conscious society, many of us are obsessed with appearance.

An exercise that can help you to accept your physical self: when you look at
yourself in the mirror, instead of focusing on what’s wrong (large nose, frizzy
hair), find three positive things to say about your appearance. For example
you have good skin, white teeth or nicely developed calves. If you have a
poor self-image, you will at first find this a challenge. Put your observations
on paper and watch the list grow!

Remember that someone meeting you for the first time sees the WHOLE
person and he or she is unlikely to be focused on your flaws. Also you
cannot realize the effect of your dazzling smile or the warmth in your eyes.
 Change your Self-talk

Pay close attention to your thoughts – observe whenever you are being
harsh or critical of yourself. In particular avoid generalizations, e.g. after
making a mistake you say to yourself, “I can never get anything right.”
Replace self-criticism with kindness: ask yourself if you’re tired or stressed
and what you can do to feel better.
 Allow yourself to Fail

It’s OK to rate your performance in various activities but NOT to base your
feelings of self-worth on how well or badly you do. You are an imperfect but
lovable human being who needs encouragement, not self-condemnation, to
keep going. Give yourself points for effort! Then determine what went wrong
and how you can do better next time.
 Surround yourself with Supportive Friends or Mentors

Beware of those who do not respect you or your values and discourage you
from doing what makes you happy. If family members fall into this category,
you need to cultivate friends who accept you as you are and give the
support you need.
Valuing and honouring your true self will increase your self-confidence.
When you are confident in who you are and what you can do, you are more
likely to take the steps you need to achieve a fulfilling life.
1.6 Factors Affecting Personality Development

What determines personality? Of all the complexities and unanswered
questions in the study of human behaviour, this question may be the most
difficult. People are enormously complex; their abilities and interests and
attitudes are diverse. An early argument in personality research was

whether an individual's personality was the result of heredity or
environment. Was the personality predetermined at birth, or was it the result
of the individual's interaction with his or her environment? Personality
appears to be a result of both influences. Additionally, today we recognize
another factor - the situation. The problem lies in the fact that cognitive and
psychological processes, plus many other variables, all contribute to
personality. the determinants of personality can perhaps best be grouped in
five broad categories: biological, cultural, family, social and situational.
1. Biological Factors: The study of the biological contributions to

personality may be studied under three heads:
a) Heredity: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at
conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex,
temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and
biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be
inherent from one's parents. The heredity approach argues that the
ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular
structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.
Research on animals has showed that both physical and

psychological characteristics can be transmitted through heredity.
But research on human beings is inadequate to support this
viewpoint. However, psychologists and geneticists have accepted
the fact that heredity plays an important role in one's personality.
b. Brain: The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role

that the brain plays in personality. Though researchers have made
some promising inroads, psychologists are unable to prove
empirically the contribution of the human brain in influencing
personality. The most recent and exciting possibilities come from the

work done with electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) and split-
brain psychology. Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation
of the brain (ESB) research indicate that a better understanding of
human personality and behaviour might come from a closer study of
the brain. Work with ESB on human subjects is just beginning. There
seem to be definite areas in the human brain that are associated
with pain and pleasure. This being true, it may be possible physically
to manipulate personality through ESB.
c. Biofeedback: Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that

certain biological functions such as brainwave patterns, gastric and
hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin
temperature were beyond conscious control. Now some scientists
believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously
controlled through biofeedback techniques. In BFT, the individual
learns the internal rhythms of a particular body process through
electronic signals that are feedback from equipment that is wired to
the body. From this biofeedback, the person can learn to control the
body process in question. More research is needed on biofeedback
before any definitive conclusions can be drawn, but its potential
impact could be extremely interesting for the future.
d. Physical features: A vital ingredient of the personality, an

individual's external appearance, is biologically determined. The fact
that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will
influence the person's effect on others and this in turn, will affect the
self-concept. Practically all would agree that physical characteristics
have at least some influence on the personality. According to Paul H
Mussen, "a child's physical characteristics may be related to his
approach to the social environment, to the expectancies of others,

and to their reactions to him. These, in turn, may have impacts on

personality development."
If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity,

they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter
them. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by
heredity. There are other factors also which influence personality.
2. Cultural Factors: Among the factors that influence personality formation

is the culture in which we are raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing
within the family, friends and social groups and other miscellaneous
experiences that impact us. Traditionally, cultural factors are usually
considered to make a more significant contribution to personality than
biological factors. The culture largely determines attitudes towards
independence, aggression, competition, cooperation and a host of other
human responses. According to Paul H Mussen, "each culture expects,
and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the
group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range
of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values
and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence
learned." Culture requires both conformity and acceptance from its
members. There are several ways of ensuring that members comply
with the dictates of the culture. The personality of an individual to a
marked extent is determined by the culture in which he or she is brought
up. It follows that a person reared in a western culture has a different
personality from a person reared in Indian culture.
3. Family Factors: While the culture generally prescribes and limits what a
person can be taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which
selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. Thus, the family probably
has the most significant impact on early personality development. A

substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home

environment created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence,
is critical to personality development. For example, children reared in
cold, un-stimulating homes are much more likely to be socially and
emotionally maladjusted than children raised by parents in a warm,
loving and stimulating environment.
The parents play an especially important part in the identification

process, which is important to the person's early development.
According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different
perspectives.
i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including
feelings and attitudes between child and model.
ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to be
like the model.
iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually
takes on the attributes of the model.
From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to

the understanding of personality development. The home environment
also influences the personality of an individual. Siblings (brothers and
sisters) also contribute to personality.
4. Social Factors: There is increasing recognition given to the role of other

relevant persons, groups and especially organizations, which greatly
influence an individual's personality. This is commonly called the
socialization process. Socialization involves the process by which a
person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural
potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately
synthesized and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial contact
between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of

the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or

friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the
work group - play influential roles.
Socialization process is especially relevant to organizational behaviour

because the process is not confined to early childhood, taking place
rather throughout one's life. In particular, evidence is accumulating that
socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees
behave the way they do in today's organizations.
5. Situational Factors: Human personality is also influenced by situational

factors. The effect of environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and
language are obviously acquired and represent important modifications
of behaviour. An individual's personality, while generally stable and
consistent, does change in different situations. The varying demands of
different situations call forth different aspects of one's personality.
According to Milgram, "Situation exerts an important pressure on the
individual. It exercises constraints and may provide push. In certain
circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind
of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions". We should
therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation.

1. _______ refers to those factors that were determined at conception.
2. _________ starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new
infant.
1.7 Defence Mechanisms

A defence mechanism is a technique used to defend against anxiety and to
maintain self-esteem, but it involves self-deception and the distortion of
reality. We use defence mechanisms to protect ourselves from failure and

from guilt arousing desires or actions. All of us use defence mechanisms to

some degree; it is only their overuse that is considered abnormal.
1. Repression: According to Freud, repression is the most important and

frequently used defence mechanism. Repression operates in two ways:
a. It can remove painful or threatening memories, thoughts, ideas or
perceptions from consciousness and keep them in the unconscious.
b. It can prevent unconscious but disturbing sexual and aggressive
impulses from breaking into consciousness.
2. Projection: We use projection when we attribute our own undesirable

impulses, thoughts, personality traits or behaviour to others, or when we
minimize the undesirable in ourselves and exaggerate it in others.
Projection allows us to avoid acknowledging our unacceptable traits and
thereby to maintain our self-esteem, but it seriously distorts our
perception of the external world. For example, (1) A sexually
promiscuous wife may accuse her husband of being unfaithful.
(2) A dishonest man may think everyone is out to cheat him.
3. Denial: is a refusal to acknowledge consciously or to believe that a

danger or a threatening condition exists. For example, (1) Smokers use
denial when they refuse to admit that cigarettes are a danger to their
health. (2) Many people who abuse alcohol and drugs deny that they
have a problem. Yet denial is sometimes useful as a temporary means
of getting through a crisis until a more permanent adjustment can be
made, such as when people initially deny the existence of a terminal
illness.
4. Rationalization: Occurs when we unconsciously supply a logical,

rational, or socially or personally acceptable reason rather than accept
the real reason for an action or event. Rationalization can be used to
justify past, present, or future behaviours or to soften the disappointment

connected with not attaining a desired goal. When we rationalize, we

make excuses for – or justify – our failures and mistakes.
5. Regression: Sometimes, when frustrated or anxious, we may use

regression and revert to behaviour that might have reduced anxiety at
an earlier stage of development. For example, an adult may have a
temper tantrum, rant and rave or throw things.
6. Reaction Formation: is at work when people express exaggerated
ideas and emotions that are the opposite of their disturbing, unconscious
impulses and desires. In reaction formation, the conscious thought or
feeling masks the unconscious one. For example, a former chain smoker
becomes irate and complains loudly at the faintest whiff of cigarette
smoke.
7. Displacement: Occurs when we substitute a less threatening object or
person for the original object of a sexual or aggressive impulse. For
example, if your boss makes you angry, you may take out your hostility
on your wife.
8. Sublimation: With sublimation, we re-channel sexual or aggressive
energy into pursuits or accomplishments that society consider
acceptable or even praiseworthy. For example, an aggressive person
may re-channel the aggression and become a football player. A boxer
with a 'bad guy' image, like 'Iron' Mike Tyson, might talk of becoming an
evangelist. Freud viewed sublimation as the only completely healthy ego
defence mechanism.
1.8 Personality Characteristics in Organizations

Managers should learn as much as possible about personality in order to
understand their employees. Hundreds of personality characteristics have
been identified. We have selected eight characteristics because of their
particular influences on individual behaviour in organizations. They are:

1. Locus of Control
2. Machiavellianism
3. Self-esteem
4. Self-efficacy
5. Self-monitoring
6. Positive / Negative Affect
7. Risk Taking
1. Locus of Control
Some people believe they are masters of their own fate. Other people see
themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their
lives is due to luck or chance. An individual's generalized belief about
internal (self) versus external (situation or others) control is called locus of
control.
a. Internals: Those who believe they control their destinies have been
labelled internals. Internals (those with an internal locus of control) have
been found to have higher job satisfaction, to be more likely to assume
managerial positions, and to prefer participative management styles. In
addition, internals have been shown to display higher work motivation, hold
stronger beliefs that effort leads to performance, receive higher salaries and
display less anxiety than externals (those with an external locus of control).
b. Externals: Externals are those individuals who believe that what

happens to them are controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
Externals prefer a more structured work setting and they may be more
reluctant to participate in decision-making. They are more compliant and
willing to follow directions.
Research on locus of control has strong implications for organizations. A

large amount of research comparing internals with externals has
consistently shown that individuals who rate high in externality are less

satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated
from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than internals. Why
are externals more dissatisfied? The answer is probably because they
perceive themselves as having little control over those organizational
outcomes that are important to them. Knowing about locus of control can
prove valuable insights to managers. Because internals believe that they
control what happens to them, they will want to exercise control in their work
environment. Allowing internals considerable voice in how work is performed
is important. Internals will not react well to being closely supervised.
Externals, in contrast, may prefer a more structured work setting, and they
may be more reluctant to participate in decision-making.
Therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks - which includes most

managerial and professional jobs – that require complex information
processing and learning. Additionally, internals are more suited to jobs that
require initiative and independence of action. In contrast, externals should
do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and where success
depends heavily on complying with the directions of others.
2. Machiavellianism
Niccolo Machiavelli was a sixteenth century Italian statesman. He wrote
"The Prince", a guide for acquiring and using power. The primary method for
achieving power that he suggested was manipulation of others.
Machiavellianism then is a personality characteristic indicating one's
willingness to do whatever it takes to get one's way. An individual high in
Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes
that ends can justify means. "If it works, use it", is consistent with a high-
Mach perspective.
High-Machs believe that any means justify the desired ends. They believe
that manipulations of others are fine if it helps achieve a goal. Thus, high-

Machs are likely to justify their manipulative behaviour as ethical. They are
emotionally detached from other people and are oriented towards objective
aspects of situations.
R Christie and F.L Geis, have found that high-Machs flourish

a. When they interact face-to-face with others rather than indirectly.
b. When the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus
allowing latitude for improvisation, and
c. When emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts
low-Machs.
A high-Mach individual behaves in accordance with Machiavelli's ideas,

which include the notion that it is better to be feared than loved. High-Machs
tend to use deceit in relationships, have a cynical view of human nature and
have little concern for conventional notions of right and wrong. They are
skilled manipulators of other people, relying on their persuasive abilities.
High-Machs are suitable in jobs that require bargaining skills or where there
are substantial rewards for winning (example: commissioned sales).
3. Self-esteem
Self-esteem is an individual's general feeling of self-worth. Individuals with
high self-esteem have positive feelings about themselves, perceive
themselves to have strength as well as weaknesses, and believe their
strengths are more important than their weaknesses. Individuals with low
self-esteem view themselves negatively. They are more strongly affected by
what other people think of them, and they compliment individuals who give
them positive feedback while cutting down people who give them negative
feedback.
Research on self-esteem (SE) offers some interesting insights into

organizational behaviour.
i. High-SEs: People with High SEs

 Believe they possess more of the ability they need in order to

succeed at work.
 Individuals with high SE will take more risks in job selection and are
more likely to choose unconventional jobs.
 They are more satisfied with their jobs,
ii. Low-SEs: People with low SEs

 Are more susceptible to external influence.
 They depend on the receipt of positive evaluations from others.
 They tend to be concerned with pleasing others and therefore, are
less likely to take unpopular stands.
 They are less satisfied with their jobs.
Self-esteem may be strongly affected by situations. Success tends to raise

self-esteem, whereas failure tends to lower it. Given that high self-esteem is
generally a positive characteristic; managers should encourage employees
to raise their self-esteem by giving them appropriate challenges and
opportunities for success.
4. Self Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you
have in your ability to succeed in a task. So, in difficult situations, we find
that people with low self-efficacy are more likely to slacken their effort or
give up altogether, whereas those with high self- efficacy will try harder to
master the challenge. In addition, individuals high in self-efficacy seem to
respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation; those
low in self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort when given negative
feedback.

Individuals with high self-efficacy believe that they have the ability to get
things done, that they are capable of putting forth the effort to accomplish
the task, and that they can overcome any obstacles to their success. There
are four sources of self-efficacy:
 Prior experiences.
 Behaviour models - witnessing the success of others.
 Persuasion from other people and
 Assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities.
Believing in one's own capability to get something done is an important

facilitator of success. There is strong evidence that self-efficacy leads to
high performance on a wide variety of physical and mental tasks. Managers
can help employees develop their self-efficacy. This can be done by
providing avenues for showing performance, and rewarding an employee's
achievements.
5. Self-monitoring
A characteristic with great potential for affecting behaviour in organizations
is self-monitoring. Self-monitoring refers to an individual's ability to adjust his
or her behaviour to external situational factors.
High self-monitors pay attention to what is appropriate in particular

situations and to the behaviour of other people, and they behave
accordingly. Low self-monitors, in contrast are not as vigilant to situational
cues, and act from internal states rather than paying attention to the
situation. As a result, the behaviour of low self-monitors is consistent across
situations. High self-monitors, appears to be more unpredictable and less
consistent because their behaviour varies with the situation. High self-
monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their
public persona and their private self. Low self-monitors can't disguise
themselves this way.

6. Positive/Negative Affect: Individuals who focus on the positive aspects

of themselves, other people, and the world in general are said to have
positive affect. In contrast, those who accentuate the negative in
themselves, others, and the world are said to possess negative affect.
Employees with positive affect are absent from work less often. Individuals
with negative affect report more work stress. Negative individual affect
produces negative group affect and this leads to less cooperative behaviour
in the work group. Managers can do several things to promote positive
affect, including allowing participative decision making and providing
pleasant working conditions.
7. Risk-taking: People differ in their willingness to take chances. This

propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on
how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information
they require before making their choice. High-risk-taking managers make
more rapid decisions and use less information in making their choices than
low-risk-taking managers.
While, it is generally correct to conclude that managers in organizations are

risk aversive, there are still individual differences on this dimension. As a
result, it makes sense to recognize these differences and even to consider
aligning risk-taking propensity with specific job demands. For example, a
high-risk-taking propensity may lead to more effective performance for a
stockbroker but these personality characteristics might prove a major
obstacle for an auditor.

3. An individual’s generalized belief about internal versus external control
is called ___________.
4. ______________ is a personality characteristic indicating one’s
willingness to do whatever it takes to get one’s way.

5. ___________ is an individual’s general feeling of self-worth.

6. What are the four sources of self-efficacy?
1.9 Factors that Determine our Attitude

Are we born with attitudes or do we develop them as we mature? What are
the factors that form our attitudes?
If you have a negative outlook on life because of your environment, can you
change your attitude? Most of our attitude is shaped during our formative
years.
There are primarily three factors that determine our attitude.

 Environment
 Experience
 Education
Let’s evaluate each of the factors individually.
RMA – It's the Only Way

I believe that if you have the RMA (Right Mental Attitude) your dreams can
become true. Therefore, I have taken the eight letters in the word attitude
and created eight, "I Can" principles (ideas) that can help you achieve your
goals in life. (Remember a goal is a dream not yet realized).
A – Always Believe in Yourself

No one can make you feel inferior unless you let them. So like yourself and
others will like you. You are a wonderful, unique individual, and you can do
whatever you want to do. If you believe in your ability, others will too.
Believing in yourself is a very important factor in succeeding at whatever
you do. When you believe and have confidence in yourself, you CAN do
anything.

T – Think Positively in Any Situation

Positive thinking is a form of thought, which always looks for the best results
from the worst conditions. It is possible to look for something to build on; it is
possible to expect the best for yourself even though things look bad, and the
remarkable fact is that when you look for the good, you are likely to find it.
T – Try Again if Things Go Wrong

Many things will go wrong during the course of your life. It's important to
know and understand this so you can allow for them.
Thomas Edison's teachers called him "too stupid to learn." He made 3,000
mistakes on his way to inventing the light bulb. During his life, he held 1,093
patents.
"I think success has no rule, but you can learn a great deal from failures."
(Jean Kerr)
You won't win if you don't begin! You must think… RMA and try again if
things go wrong.
I – Initiate a Positive Self-image

Self-image is defined as one's concept of oneself or one's role. If you have
the RMA, you'll see yourself in a positive light, which helps you to keep the
right perspective (outlook) on you and your personality.
You have to love yourself before anyone else can love you. Loving yourself
is a step toward being positive about yourself and others around you.
Be your own best friend. Give yourself a pat on your back when you deserve
it, and encourage yourself when you're upset.
Benefits of having a positive self-image are:

 You'll feel better.
 People will respect you more.
 You'll be more confident.

 You'll be able to accept failure and learn from it.

 You won't have to worry about what others think of you.
 You'll find something good in a negative situation.
 You'll be a role model and others will follow you.
If you have the RMA, and a positive self-image, you'll be able to accomplish
almost anything in life.
T – Trust Others and be Trustworthy

Trust is the single most important element in any relationship whether it is
between friends, family or acquaintances. However, trust is not an easy
word to define.
Trust can defined, though, in its most basic form, as an understanding that
one person has with another person that neither will intentionally hurt the
other. Trusting someone is having confidence in them, to be able to depend
on them. You rely on and believe in that person due to their position,
previous performance or experiences with them. In essence, then, trust is
simply a relationship that is shared with another, a mutual bond between the
two individuals in which all doubt is removed. Trust, in its highest level, is
called trustworthiness.
When I think of trustworthy, I think of an internal characteristic in a person

that invites complete honesty and helps them to build loving relationships
with others. A trustworthy person's characteristics include: being reliable,
listens well and keeps an open mind and heart. Having someone you feel is
a trustworthy person is having the highest level of trust and type of
relationship possible with that person. Without trust and people who are
trustworthy, life would be dull and unlivable. So always trust others and be
trustworthy!

U – Understand that People Make Mistakes

Mistake means to accept as a fact without positive knowledge and belief.
Mistake… is an error in judgment or opinion.
Let's think back to when you were a child and when you tried to walk for the
first time… you fell down. You quit and said, "Well, that's failure. It's not
going to work!"
Just think, you wouldn't be here now. Suppose that the first time you made
an error in a simple math problem… you just quit. You would never be able
to change money or go shopping or do anything…. right?
It seems that making mistakes is an essential part of growing, and if we

avoid doing things because of the fear of making a mistake, we would
deprive ourselves of all that is good in growth and in life.
Whatever mistakes you have made in the past, they have been a vital part
of your education and simply mean that you should dust yourself off and
begin again, not just quit and give up because you made a mistake and it
didn't work. Every mistake that you ever made in your whole life has led you
to your current state of understanding. Bless your mistakes, give thanks for
them, dust yourself off and go on again. You will probably make more
mistakes during your life, but you learn from every single one and no
mistake is ever fatal unless you make it so.
You are not a lousy person just because you make a mistake.
"He who never made a mistake never made a discovery." (Samuel Smiles)
D – Decide you can do anything through hope, faith and love

Faith is a belief that does not require proof or evidence. Faith is loyalty or
devotion to some person or thing. Faith has to do with the foundation, the
ground on which we stand.

Love is a deep and tender feeling of affection or attachment or devotion to a

person or persons. Love is being dedicated to your loved ones. Love is just
being there and trusting each other.
Hope is a feeling that what is wanted will happen. Hope can be defined as
faith directed toward the future. Hope is reaching out for something to come.
Happiness is our key to the future. The three major ingredients are hope,
faith and love.
E – Enjoy Life like a Winner

Life is the time a person is alive or exists. Winners are positive thinking
people who intend to be successful in life.
With RMA you'll:

 Always remember the best things in life are free and happiness doesn't
come in bottles, boxes or bags.
 Never keep secrets. Honestly share your fears, hopes and dreams.
 Give, give in, forgive and never keep score.
 Keep faith in yourself and your loved ones. Live happily.
1.10 Summary
Personality of a person describes consistent emotional, thought, and
behavior patterns in a person. This unit identifies different categories of
personality – Extrovert, introvert, Type A and Type B, Agreeableness –
Disagreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to
Experience. The concept of ‘Self-Image’ is explained. The unit also has
helped you to recognise various factors that affect personality development
and their roles that contribute to personality development. You have been
familiarised with the personality characteristics that you find in an
organisation. These aspects of personality will help you to shape up the
desired attitude that you want to inculcate, thereby improvise on your
personality style.


1. Write the difference between introvert and extrovert personality types.
2. What are the benefits of high conscientiousness?
3. Explain the cultural factors that affect personality development.
1.12 Answers
A. Self Assessment Questions
1. Heredity
2. Socialization process
3. locus of control
4. Machiavellianism
5. self-esteem
6. The four sources of self-efficacy are:
a) prior experiences
b) behaviour models –witnessing the success of others.
c) persuasion from other people
d) assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities
B. Terminal Questions
1. Refer 1.3
2. Refer 1.3
3. Refer 1.5

Unit 2 A Stitch in Time Saves Nine

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Concept and Applications of Time Management
2.3 Recognizing the Importance of Time
Theories of Time Management
2.4 Causes for Wastage of Time
2.5 Methods for Managing Time Efficiently
2.6 Summary
2.8 Answers
2.1 Introduction
Tick, tick, tick ...No, it's not the beginning to 60 MINUTES. It's time moving
on. Time management is a skill few people master, but it is one that most
people need.
Do you agree? You have so many competing demands on your time:

friends, movies, studying lectures, home, relationships and on and on. How
can you come to grips with all of it? Most time management experts say that
one of the first things people need to do to manage their time is to determine
how they spend it.
Did you catch that? Time really can't be managed. You can't slow it down or
speed it up or manufacture it. It just IS. Time Management is Managing
Yourself.

Objectives:
After learning this unit, you will be able to:
 manage time effortlessly.
 identify and focus on the activities that give you the greatest returns in a
short time.
 function effectively, even under intense pressure.
 identify your personal attitudes toward time management.
 discuss key steps in planning/prioritizing your work.
2.2 Concept and Applications of Time Management

Time management is a set of skills, tools, and systems that help you use
your time to accomplish what you want in an efficient way. Time is often
equated with money, and just as we often find ourselves short of cash, we
also find ourselves with short of time.
The various applications of Time Management cover almost all areas of our
life, some examples are:
 Children use time tables in schools
 Executives use diaries and planners
While it is true that many methods of managing time are available, all
underdeveloped personalities are bad time managers. Good time-managers
are people who are always on time. They do things on time and are
respected and promoted to the best positions in life.

1. Time is often equated with _________.
2. What is Time Management?

2.3 Recognizing the Importance of Time

Here are the top reasons why time management is of great importance to
your personal and career success:
 Time is Limited – Time is a very special resource in that you cannot
store it or save it for later use. Everyone gets the same amount of time
each and every day. If you don't use your time wisely, you can never get
it back.
 Time is Scarce – Most people feel like they have too much to do and
not enough time. Lack of time is blamed for everything from not getting
enough exercise, poor finances, unachieved goals, too much stress, bad
relationships, and even an unfulfilled life. Time management helps you
use the time that you have in better ways.
 You Need Time to get What You Want Out of Life – You need time to
do almost anything worthwhile in life. Waiting for more free time is a
losing game that almost never results in getting time for what you want.
You need to learn how to make time for the things that are important to
you. Even if you can only afford to give a small amount of time each

week to your goals, you'd be surprised at how much progress you can
make.
 You can Accomplish more with Less Effort – When you become
more productive using improved time management skills and tools, you
can accomplish more with less effort. Reducing wasted time and effort
gives you even more productive time throughout the day. Both of these
allow you to make time for a wide range of activities that bring more
balance and fulfillment to your life.
 Too Many Choices – In this day and age, there are so many ways you
can spend your time that you need some sort of plan to make intelligent
choices.
Time management helps you make conscious choices so you can spend
more of your time doing things that are important and valuable to you.

3. Say whether the following statements are true or false.
i) Lack of time is not blamed for unachieved goals.
ii) One should learn to make time to do things of importance.
iii) One should plan one’s time intelligently.
iv) Time is unlimited.
2.3.1 Theories of Time Management

The 80:20 Rule
This is neatly summed up in the Pareto Principle, or the '80:20 Rule'. This
argues that typically 80% of unfocussed effort generates only 20% of
results. The remaining 80% of results are achieved with only 20% of the
effort. While the ratio is not always 80:20, this broad pattern of a small
proportion of activity generating non-scalar returns recurs so frequently as to
be the norm in many areas.

By applying the time management tips and skills in this section you can
optimize your effort to ensure that you concentrate as much of your time and
energy as possible on the high payoff tasks. This ensures that you achieve
the greatest benefit possible with the limited amount of time available to you.
ABC Analysis
A technique that has been used in business management for a long time is
the categorization of large data into groups. These groups are often marked
A, B, and C – hence the name. Activities that are perceived as having
highest priority are assigned an A, those with lowest priority are
labeled C. ABC analysis can incorporate more than three groups.
POSEC Method
POSEC is an acronym for Prioritize by Organizing, Streamlining,
Economizing and Contributing.
The method dictates a template which emphasizes an average individual's

immediate sense of emotional and monetary security. It suggests that by
attending to one's personal responsibilities first, an individual is better
positioned to shoulder collective responsibilities
Prioritize: Your time and define your life goals by:

 Organizing: Things you have to accomplish regularly to be successful
(Family and Finances)
 Streamlining: Things you may not like to do, but must do (Work and
Chores)
 Economizing: Things you should do or may even like to do, but they're
not pressingly urgent. (Past-times and Socializing)
 Contributing: By paying attention to the few remaining things that
make a difference. (Social obligations)


4. Fill in the blanks
i) The Pareto principle is also known as ___.
ii) The highest priority activities are labeled as ___; whereas, the lowest
priority are ___.
iii) ___ method suggests that a person could shoulder collective
responsibility by attending to personal responsibility first.
2.4 Causes for Wastage of Time

 Interruptions
 Unclear goals
 Trying to get other’s cooperation
 Procrastination
 Lack of planning
 Lack of priorities
 Indecision
 Slow reading skills
 Physical or mental exhaustion
 Not being able to say “no”
 Low motivation
A few of them are explained below:
2.4.1 Interruptions
Interruptions are a normal part of work life, especially if you are a smart and
talented student or manager. It’s natural for your college mates or
colleagues and staff to want to talk to you if you can help them with their
work. That being said, interruptions can also be a tremendous drain and
time waster. The key to handle interruptions effectively is to ensure that you
are making the best use of your time in each case.

2.4.2 Unclear Goals
An ancient sage was teaching his disciples the art of archery. He put a
wooden bird as a target and asked them to aim at the eye of the bird. The
first disciple was asked to describe what he saw. He said, “I see the trees,
the branches, the leaves, the sky, the bird and its eyes.
The sage asked this disciple to wait. Then he asked the second disciple the
same question and he replied, “I only see the eye of the bird.” The sage
said, “Very good, then shoot.” The arrow went straight and hit the eye of the
bird.
Moral: Unless we focus, we cannot achieve our goal. It is hard to focus

and concentrate, but it is a skill that can be learned.
Setting goals and managing them give returns in all areas of life. By
knowing precisely what one wants to achieve, makes clear what to
concentrate and improve on. But if you are not sure about the goals or the
time you want to allot to achieve each goal, it becomes a hindrance. This

leads to doing unimportant tasks and neglecting of really important ones.

This in turn leads to wastage of time.
2.4.3 Procrastination
Procrastination is the deferment or avoidance of an action or task to a later
time. For the person procrastinating this may result in stress, a sense of
guilt, the loss of productivity, the creation of crisis, and the chagrin of others
for not fulfilling one’s responsibilities or commitments. While it is normal for
individuals to procrastinate to some degree, it becomes a problem when it
impedes normal functioning.
Some students struggle with procrastination due to a lack of time

management or study skills, stress, or feeling overwhelmed with their
work.
2.5 Methods for Managing Time Efficiently

 Being Assertive
 “To Do” Lists
 Weekly Planners
 Time Diary
 SMART Goals

2.5.1 Being Assertive

Assertiveness can help delegate, increase work effectiveness and
productivity, achieve greater control of their daily activities and overcome
work stressors.
Benefits of assertiveness resulting in time management:

 Increased productivity through more effective communication
 Reduced interruptions at work
 Gained more time for creative and development opportunities
 Managed time more effectively and enjoyed greater self-esteem
 Improved decision making and reduction in procrastination
enjoyed a more balanced lifestyle
 Increased work effectiveness and productivity
 Felt more in control of their daily activities
2.5.2 “To Do” Lists

Most successful people use "TO DO" lists. They range from the top CEOs of
multi-national companies to entrepreneurs of small businesses.
You can also use these lists to keep you focused on what really needs to be
done, and keep you away from un-important tasks that have no value. The
result - more time to do what you want!

 Make It A Daily Record

Every day you should make a "TO DO" list. You will find it invaluable in
helping you decide where your priorities lie.
 The Nuts and Bolts of Your "TO DO" List

Write down all your outstanding tasks on a sheet of paper, then carefully go
through deciding if an item is to be graded as:
A. Urgent.
B. Important but not urgent.
C. Not urgent nor important.
Within categories A and B it will be necessary for you to prioritize. So the

most urgent task becomes A1, then the next becomes A2 etc. Similarly with
the set of tasks you have decided are B. This is not necessary with the C
tasks, of course. Some people prefer to colour code the items instead. So,
with such a system, the A tasks may be coloured red, the B tasks blue etc.
You may choose whatever colours have meaning for you. It really is an
individual choice.
 Using the "TO DO" List

Each morning you must update your "TO DO" list. Bring forward the A, B,
and C items not completed the day before on to another sheet of paper. Add
new items to the lists after considering carefully where each new item
should go. Then review the list and start on the top priorities, crossing off
each one as it is finished throughout the day. Some managers prefer to
have separate sheets for each type i.e. one sheet for the "A" list, another
sheet for the "B" list etc. That way you know you are working on the most
urgent tasks from the listing itself because the A list should always be on
top. So what do you do with the C items? If you have staff, then delegate - if
not, decide if you are going to complete them or not.

Dispose off all items you decide are not worth doing. Instead of re-writing
your list each morning an alternative method is to spend the last 15 minutes
of your day on your list, so that you can start immediately the next day.
2.5.3 Weekly Planners

How does it help?
The planner is built around Stephen Covey’s methods and books The 7
Habits of Highly Effective People and First Things First. It helps you focus
on four steps for focusing your time on what you value the most and what
you want to accomplish in life.
They are:
 Identify values
 Set Goals
 Plan Weekly
 Plan Daily
Learning from Your Log

Once you have logged your time for a few days, analyze your daily activity
log. You may be alarmed to see the amount of time you spend doing low
value jobs!
Plan your week instead of your day. Each Sunday, look at your roles and
goals from your mission statement, and assign activities throughout your
week which fulfil these roles and goals. Double and triple them up.

Below is a sample of a Weekly Planner Chart:
Hours Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

6:00 am
6:30
7:00
7:30
8:00
8:30
9:00
9:30
10:00
10:30
11:00
11:30
NOON
12:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
Summary of Activities
At the end of the week, summarize your activities on the chart below. Once
you evaluate where your time goes, print a copy of the Planned Weekly
Schedule and fill it in with your course schedule, study time and other
activities. Try to follow your schedule to improve your time use.

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES
Activity Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Total Percent*
Class & Lab
Study
School Related Clubs &
Organizations
Total
Work
Social &
Recreational
Personal
TV & Stereo
Total
Eating, Bathing,
Exercise, etc.
Health-related
Sleep
Total
Travel
Out-of-school
Commitments
Other
Total Hours 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 168 100
*To determine percentage, divide the number of hours in an activity by

168. For example; 56 hours of sleep divided by 168 = 33.3%
2.5.4 Time Diary

Still can’t figure out where the time goes? Keep a diary for about two weeks:
 Include personal time
 List time that was needed to do each task
 Prioritize what should have been done; compare it to the actual work
accomplished
 Analyze what can be cut/compressed
 Note time wasters

2.5.5 SMART Goals

Why are goals important?
Goals give a sense of direction. People confuse goals with dreams and
wishes. Dreams and wishes are nothing more than desires. However,
desires become strong when they are supported by,
 Direction
 Dedication
 Determination
 Discipline
 Deadlines
That is what differentiates a desire from a goal. Goals are dreams with a
deadline and an action plan. Goals can be worthy. It is passion, not wishing
that turns dreams into reality.
If you ask most people what is their one major objective in life, they would
probably give you a vague answer, such as , “ I want to be successful, be
happy, make a good living,” and that is it. They are all wishes and none of
them are clear goals. Goals should be SMART.
 S – Specific: For example, “I want to lose weight.” This is wishful
thinking. It becomes a goal when I pin myself down to “I will lose 10lbs in
90 days.”
 M – Measurable: If we cannot measure it, we cannot accomplish.
Measurement is a way of monitoring our progress.
 A – Achievable: Achievable means that it should be out of reach
enough to be out of sight, otherwise it becomes disheartening.
 R – Realistic: A person who wants to lose 50lbs in 30days is being
unrealistic.
 T – Time Bound: There should be a starting date and a finishing date.

2.5.6 Time Management Principles

As a student, there are some basic Principles of Time Management that you
can apply.
 Identify "Best Time" for Studying: Everyone has high and low periods
of attention and concentration. Are you a "morning person" or a "night
person". Use your power times to study; use the down times for chores
and errands.
 Study Difficult Subjects First: When you are fresh, you can process
information more quickly and save time as a result.
 Use Distributed Learning and Practice: Study in shorter time blocks

with short breaks between. This keeps you from getting fatigued and
"wasting time." This type of studying is efficient because while you are
taking a break, the brain is still processing the information.
 Make Sure the Surroundings are Conducive to Studying: This will

allow you to reduce distractions which can "waste time."
 Make Room for Entertainment and Relaxation: You need to have a

social life, yet, you need to have a balance in your life.
 Make Sure you Have Time to Sleep and Eat Properly: Sleep is often
an activity (or lack of activity) that students use as their time
management "bank." When they need a few extra hours for studying or
socializing, they withdraw a few hours of sleep. Doing this makes the
time they spend studying less effective because they will need a couple
hours of clock time to get an hour of productive time. This is not a good
way to manage yourself in relation to time.
 Try to Combine Activities

2.6 Summary
I would like to summarize this whole unit by a short story on “How to
manage time effectively?”
There was a little girl named Annie. She was hard working, intelligent and
was always ready to learn something new. Ms Miller, her music teacher at
school, encouraged her to learn playing the piano. Annie was a fast learner
and quickly followed the music lessons at school. Ms Miller advised Annie to
practice the lessons again at home. Soon Annie's exams approached and
she slowly lost her focus on the piano. Ms Miller was concerned and spoke
to Annie about the same. Annie said,"Ms Miller, I really want to play the
piano, but I am very short on time. There is homework to finish, and the
exams are about to start as well. I am unable to find an hour to practice the
piano everyday". Looking at Annie's worried face, Ms Miller replied,"Annie, I
understand your problem. You have a lot to achieve in one day, and finding
an hour at a stretch, to practice piano everyday will indeed be difficult. But if
you practice for 10 minutes in morning before leaving for school, 10 minutes
after coming back, then 15 minutes after finishing the homework, another 10
minutes before starting your dinner and final 15 minutes before going off to
sleep, you will definitely make it". Annie wasn't sure, but she tried following
what her teacher said. To her own surprise, she was playing piano even
during her exams and yet doing everything else in time. So when Annie
thanked her, Ms Miller replied,"If you will look for time in plenty, it will just
slip like sand from your hand, but if you can find small intervals in between,
you will never run short of it." Annie now plays several instruments as she
learnt to find time in between her busy time table.


1. “Time Management is very important for personal success.” Elucidate.
2. Write a short note on the POSEC theory of Time Management.
3. Why are goals important? Why should they be SMART?
2.8 Answers
1. money
2. Time management is a set of skills, tools, and systems that help you use
your time to accomplish what you want in an efficient way.
3. i) False ii) True iii) True iv) False
4. i) 80:20 rule ii) A ; C iii) POSEC
1. Refer 2.3
2. Refer 2.3.1
3. Refer 2.5.5

Unit 3 Leadership
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Leadership – Explanation
3.3 Role & Functions of a Good Leader
3.4 Criticality of Team Leadership
3.5 Research of different kinds of leaders
3.6 Methods of developing effective leaders
3.7 Leadership styles
3.8 Leader’s Three top mistakes
3.9 Challenges of faced by a Leader
3.10 Summary
3.11 Terminal questions
3.11 Answers
3.1 Introduction
We have already learnt the concept of personality in the previous chapter.
One of the most important aspects of enhancing one’s personality so as to
command respect from associates, is the leadership quality. Earlier, it was
believed that ‘leadership’ is in-built. But, now it can be developed; Infosys
Leadership Institute, created in early 2001 is a proof for the changed belief.
It is an institute that would help promising employees at all levels to develop
into efficient and able leaders.
Objectives:
After learning this unit, you will be able to:
 define the role and functions of a good leader
 understand the importance of team-leadership

 identify different kinds of leaders

 explain and inculcate the methods to develop as an effective leader
 avoid mistakes that usually a leader makes
3.2 Leadership – Explanation

Now, let’s define leadership. Leadership is a process by which a person
influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in
a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leaders carry out this
process by applying their leadership attributes, such as beliefs, values,
ethics, character, knowledge, and skills. Although your position as a
manager or supervisor gives you the authority to accomplish certain tasks
and objectives in the organization, this p o w e r do not make you a leader...it
simply makes you the b o s s . Leadership differs, in that it makes the
followers w a n t to achieve high goals, rather than simply bossing people
around.
Leadership is required because someone has to point the way, and that
same person has to ensure that everyone concerned gets there.
Organizational effectiveness depends on the quality of leadership.
Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you
can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never
ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience.
3.3 Role & Functions of a Good Leader

The overall aim of a leader is to achieve the task with the help of his group.
To meet the overall aim, the leader has three main objectives :
 To gain the commitment and cooperation of his team
 To get the group into action to achieve agreed objectives.
 To make the best use of the skills, energies and talents of the team

Leadership is a complex process because it is dealing with complex

situations and complex human beings. And the leader has many different
roles to play.
Leadership roles can be classified into two groups :

1. Primary functions, which are essential to the process of leadership,
namely :
 The Leader as Visionary: He has a vision of the future and conveys
his belief to his team.
 The Leader as Executive: He determines the objectives of the
group and directs and coordinates the group’s activities in achieving
them.
 The Leader as a Planner: He decides how the group should
achieve its ends.
 The Leader as Policy Maker: He participates in formulating policies
in the shape of continuing guidelines on what the group does.
 The Leader as an Expert: He has the expertise and information
required by the group.
 The Leader as Controller of Relationships in the Group: He
decides how the group should be organized and influences how
people in the group work together.
 The Leader as Purveyor of Rewards and Punishments: He has
the power to apply rewards and punishments and thus exercise
control over group members.
2. Accessory functions, are those which a leader may assume or be
assigned because of his leadership position , namely:
 The Leader as an Exemplar: He serves as a model of behavior for
the group members.
 The Leader as a Symbol of the Group: He provides a focus for
group unity.
 The Leader as a Father Figure: He can become an object for

identification or even submissiveness.
 The Leader as a Scapegoat: He may become the target for the
aggressions of a frustrated, disappointed, disillusioned group.
3.4 Criticality of Team Leadership

1. Know yourself
2. Know your situation
3. Select leadership styles which are appropriate to the situation
4. Satisfy task needs
5. Satisfy team needs
6. Satisfy individual needs
Know Yourself:
As a leader you will start with certain abilities and by experience you will
have developed certain skills. To improve your leadership qualities your first
step is an analytical one – know yourself. Check each of the ten qualities
and skills listed below and see how to measure up to them.
1. Ability to work with people
2. Ability to gain respect and support of people
3. Decisiveness
4. Enthusiasm
5. Imagination ( vision)
6. Ability to inspire others with your enthusiasm and vision
7. Willingness to work hard
8. Analytical ability
9. Integrity
10. Ability to change leadership style to suit occassion

Assess you strengths and weaknesses under each heading. Analyse the
occasions when you have succeeded or failed and why. Try to assess how
you exercised these abilities or skills and answer these questions:
a) Was it directive?
b) Was it supportive?
c) Was it appropriate to the situation ?
d) Did it work ? And if so, why ? And if not, why not?
If following this analysis, you know your strengths, you can develop them,
and if you know what works in particular circumstances you have a good
idea of the approach you should adopt in similar situations ( as long as they
are similar) If you are aware of your weaknesses you can do your best to
manage them, remembering, however, that there is no point in trying to
invent an entirely new persona.
“ Best be yourself , imperial , plain and true .” –
Robert Browning
Know your Situation

Having got to know something about yourself as a leader – your strengths
and weaknesses – you have to carry on using your analytical powers to
understand the situation, so that you can exploit your strengths, minimize
your weaknesses and adopt the most appropriate management style. Your
situational analysis should answer the following questions:
1. The Task
 What needs to be done and why?
 What results have to be achieved?
 What problems have to be overcome?
 Is the solution to these problems straightforward or is there a
measure of ambiguity?

 Is this a crisis situation?

 What is the time-scale for completing the task?
 What pressures are going to be exerted on me ?
2. The Team
 What is the composition of the team?
 How well is the team organized?
 Do the members of the team work well together?
 What will they want to get out of this?
 How am I to get this team’s commitment?
 How am I to get results by satisfying their needs?
 How are they likely to respond to the various leadership styles or
approaches I might adopt?
3. The Individuals in the Team :
 What are the strengths and weaknesses of each member of the
team?
 What sort of things is likely to motivate them?
 How are they likely to respond individually to the various leadership
techniques or styles I might adopt?
4. Select an Appropriate Leadership Style
Adopt a situational approach to leadership by using your analysis of
yourself, the task, the team and its individual members to decide on the
most appropriate style or styles to adopt. The styles to you are :
 Tell
 Sell
 Test
 Consult
 Join

But be prepared to flex your styles in accordance with the changing needs
of the task and the group and the variety of individual needs present among
the members of your team.
6. Satisfy Task Needs

You have been appointed to your task and given the authority and rank to
do it, but you still have to inspire enthusiasm in your group and gain respect
in order to complete the task successfully. Inspirational leadership, however,
is not just about being charismatic, although it can help. It is also about
adopting a cool and deliberate approach to satisfying the need of the task.
To do this, you need to :
1. Know where you are going. You convey your vision of what you want to
do and your enthusiasm for it. You define precisely the objectives of the
assignment.
2. Know how you are going to get there. You structure your team
appropriately and make and communicate clear plans for achieving your
objectives.
3. Know what you expect each member of your team to achieve, ensuring
that work programmes, targets and standards of performance are
defined and understood by all concerned.
4. Know what you are doing – you deal with problems decisively as they
occur, go ahead with the completion of the task in accordance with the
progress, adapt the task as necessary, and provide the expertise and
guidance that the less experienced members of the team need.
Satisfy team Needs

In satisfying task needs you will have provided the structure within which
your team should be able to work well. To ensure that this happens you
need to build up team sprit and morale. You have to induce in your team a
feeling of shared responsibility for achieving results. You must establish and

maintain mutual confidence and trust and create feeling of interdependence.

You do this by :
1. Involving the group in agreeing objectives and reviewing results.
2. Ensuring that communications flow freely between all members of the
team.
3. Encouraging informal meetings and contacts between members.
4. Taking steps to resolve unnecessary conflict but recognizing that
differences of opinion, if sensible discussed, can be productive.
5. Being approachable but maintaining sufficient distance from group to be
able to use your authority when the occasion demands it.
Satisfying Individual Needs

To satisfy individual needs, you should ensure that each member of your
team :
1. Feels a sense of personal achievement in the work he is doing.
2. Receives adequate recognition for his achievements.
3. Feels that the job is challenging, demands the best of him and give him
the opportunity to use his abilities.
4. Knows that he is advancing in experience and knowledge, but also
appreciates what he must do to improve his performance.
5. Understands what rewards he will get for good performance and what
will happen if he fails. This means giving positive feedback for success,
ie praise and rewards, and negative feedback for failure, ie constructive
criticisms or disciplinary sanctions.

i) To improve your leadership qualities your first step is to _____.
ii) The leader as a scapegoat becomes the target for the _____of a
frustrated, disappointed, disillusioned group.

iii) Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to

accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that
makes it more _____ and ________.
iv) Organizational effectiveness depends on the _____ of leadership.
v) Good leaders develop through a never ending process of ____,
_______, _______ and _____
3.5 Research on Different Kinds of Leaders

Researchers at leadership development consultancy Harthill Consulting
analysed the makeup of senior managers across a wide range of
organisations, including Hewlett-Packard, Volvo and the Probation Service.
In doing so, they identified seven different action logics or leadership
profiles, ranging from the highly ineffective Opportunist at one end of the
scale, to the Alchemist – the ultimate leadership model that all leaders
should aim for – at the other. Crucially, researchers found that no matter
where a leader sits on their leadership scale, they can always progress to a
better leadership profile. And yet they found relatively few leaders try to
understand their own action logic let alone explore the possibility of
changing it.
Self-awareness is the key to improved leadership. By understanding your

existing action logic and consciously working to progress to the next stage,
Harthill found that leaders can transform not only their own capabilities, but
those of their organisations too. Finding your own leadership profile in
Harthill's seven stages is the first step towards the next - and better - stage.
1. The Opportunist
Opportunists see the world and other people as opportunities to be
exploited. They treat other people as objects or as competitors, who are
also out for themselves. Opportunists tend to regard their own bad
behaviour as legitimate in the cut and thrust of an eye-for-an-eye world.
They reject feedback, deflect blame and retaliate harshly. Such leaders are
mercifully rare - only 5% of respondents profiled as Opportunists. And they
don't remain managers for long, because their style of self-promotion and
rule breaking is the exact opposite of the kind most people want to work
with.
2. The Diplomat
Diplomats seek to please higher-status colleagues and look to control their
own behaviour rather than influence events or other people. In a support
role, the Diplomat has a lot to offer. They are social glue to their colleagues
and ensure that others' needs are met, which is probably why the majority of
Diplomats work at the most junior levels of management. In top leadership
roles they are much more problematic because they try to ignore conflict,
find it virtually impossible to give challenging feedback to others and avoid
initiating change.
3. The Expert
By far, the most common action logic, Experts try to exercise control by
perfecting their knowledge, and are great individual contributors because of
their pursuit of improvement, efficiency and perfection. However, as leaders
they can be problematic, because they are often so sure that they are right.
Experts view collaboration as a waste of time and frequently treat the
opinion of people less expert than themselves with contempt.
4. The Achiever
Achievers have a more complex view of the world than the Expert - their
focus is on deliverables and the plans and tactics necessary to ensure
success. They know that creative transformation and conflict resolution
requires sensitivity to relationships and the ability to influence others.
Achievers can also lead a team to implement new strategies while balancing
immediate and long-term objectives. The downside is that their approach is

often pace-setting, which can pressurize other people and inhibit

imaginative thinking.
5. The Individualist
Individualists put personalities and ways of relating into perspective, and
communicate well with people of other action logics. Unlike Achievers, they
are aware of the possible conflict between their principles and actions,
between an organisation's values and its implementation. Individualists also
tend to ignore rules they regard as irrelevant, which often makes them a
source of irritation to both colleagues and bosses.
6. The Strategist
Unlike Individualists, Strategists focus on organisational constraints and
perceptions, which they treat as discussable and transformable. Whereas
the Individualist masters communication, the Strategist is concerned with
the organisational impact of actions and agreements. The Strategist can
create shared visions across different action logics, and is good at handling
conflict and dealing with resistance to change.
7. The Alchemist
The very few leaders identified as Alchemists have the ability to renew or
even re-invent themselves and their organisations in historically significant
ways. They can talk with both kings and commoners, and deal with
immediate priorities without losing sight of long-term goals. Alchemists are
typically charismatic individuals, who focus intensely on the truth. They have
the ability to seize unique moments in the history of their organisations, and
create symbols and metaphors that speak to people's hearts and minds.
3.6 Methods of Developing Effective Leaders

The key to any team’s or group’s success is the individual who is able to
inspire subordinates to perform exceedingly well. Given below are the traits

found in leaders, who will succeed in bringing out the best from their
subordinates.
1. Setting Proper Objectives: This is a very effective technique, which
enables a leader to establish specific as well as challenging goals. They
are clear in defining their goals, which provide the right direction to their
subordinates. They also help their followers if they encounter any
problems.
2. Providing Meaningful and Interesting Work: It is common that the
subordinates have inherent desire for higher achievements. So it is the
duty of the leader to provide interesting and challenging work to his
followers. Not only that, he should also reward them for the work well
done. Eventually, as they gain experience and become proficient, they
should be given higher responsibilities.
3. Aim at Improving Communication Skills: The leader should be an
effective and efficient communicator. He should be clear and specific,
without being ambiguous, while giving instructions or directions to his
followers. He should try to remove or avoid all barriers of
communication to achieve this. He should be a good listener, thereby
showing concern to employee problems and address them
appropriately. At the same time a good leader should also give correct
feedback to his follower, so that necessary improvements can be made
by the follower.
4. Use Effective Performance Appraisal for Subordinates: The leader
should be able to appraise his followers effectively. The actual
performance should be compared to the one which is desired. The
appraisal should reward the subordinate and help him to enhance his
performance. Not only that, the leader should also guide the follower in
areas of concern to achieve improvement.

5. Suitable Delegation of Authority and Responsibility: An effective

leader is the one who can delegate appropriate authority and
responsibility to his followers. If this is done, the subordinates will be
motivated to do important jobs and thereby will be determined to take up
more responsible tasks.
6. Team Building: It is the duty of the leader to ensure that each member
in his team understands the importance of his role and performs
effectively. He also impresses on his followers the mission of the
organisation and shows that their contribution is vital for the profitability
of the organisation. Thus the followers feel that they are a part of the
team and this motivates them to work better.
7. Standard Procedures for Effective Decision Making: An effective
leader, to be one, should be certain that any decision that he makes is of
value. He should ensure that this decision is taken well within a time
frame and accepted by the followers. This requires the leader to make
procedures for decision-making.

i) ____ can lead a team to implement new strategies while balancing
immediate and long-term objectives.
ii) _____are typically charismatic individuals, who focus intensely on the
truth
iii) _____focus on organisational constraints and perceptions, which they
treat as discussable and transformable
3.7 Leadership Styles

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction,
implementing plans, and motivating people. There are normally three styles
of leadership (U.S. Army Handbook, 1973) :

 Authoritarian or autocratic
 Participative or democratic
 Delegative or Free Reign
Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally
dominate, bad leaders tend to stick with one style.
Authoritarian (Autocratic)
This style is used when the leader tells her employees what she wants done
and how she wants it done, without getting the advice of her followers.
Some of the appropriate conditions to use it are:
 when you have all the information to solve the problem
 you are short on time
 your employees are well motivated.
Some people tend to think of this style as a vehicle for yelling, using
demeaning language, and leading by threats and abusing their power. This
is not the authoritarian style; rather it is an abusive, unprofessional style
called bossing people around. It has no place in a leaders repertoire.
The authoritarian style should normally be used only on rare occasions. If

you have the time and want to gain more commitment and motivation from
your employees, then you should use the participative style.
Participative (Democratic)
This type of style involves the leader including one or more employees in
the decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it).
However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. Using this
style is not a sign of weakness; rather it is a sign of strength that your
employees will respect.

This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your
employees have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know
everything – this is why you employ knowledgeable and skilful employees.
Using this style is of mutual benefit -- it allows them to become a part of the
team and allows you to make better decisions.
Delegative (Free Reign)

In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decision.
However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This
is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine
what needs to be done and how to do it. You cannot do everything! You
must set priorities and delegate certain tasks.
This is not a style to use so that you can blame others when things go
wrong, rather this is a style to be used when you have the full trust and
confidence in the people below you. Do not be afraid to use it, however, use
it wisely!
3.7.1 Forces
A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved
between the followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples
include:
 Using an authoritarian style on a new employee, who is just learning the
job. The leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is
motivated to learn a new skill. The situation is a new environment for the
employee.
 Using a participative style with a team of workers, who know their job.
The leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information.
The employees know their jobs and want to become a part of the team.
 Using a delegative style with a worker, who knows more about the job
than you. You cannot do everything! The employee needs to take

ownership of her job. Also, the situation might call for you to be at other
places, doing other things.
 Using all three: Telling your employees that a procedure is not working
correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for
their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative).
Delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative).
Forces that Influence the Style to be Used Include:

 How much time is available.
 Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect?
 Who has the information - you, your employees, or both?
 How well your employees are trained and how well you know the task.
 Internal conflicts.
 Stress levels.
 Type of task. Is it structured, unstructured, complicated, or simple?
3.7.2 Positive and Negative Approaches

There is a difference in the ways leaders approach their employee. Positive
leaders use rewards, such as education, independence, etc. to motivate
employees; whereas the negative employees emphasize penalties. While
the negative approach has a place in a leader's repertoire of tools, it must
be used carefully due to its high cost on the human spirit.
Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe
the only way to get things done is through penalties, such as loss of job,
days off without pay, reprimand employees in front of others, etc. They
believe their authority is increased by freighting everyone into higher lever of
productivity. Yet what always happens when this approach is used wrongly
is that morale falls; which of course leads to lower productivity.

Also note that most leaders do not strictly use one or the other approach,
but are somewhere on a continuum ranging from extremely positive to
extremely negative. People who continuously work out of the negative are
bosses, while those who primarily work out of the positive are considered
real leaders.
Use of Consideration and Structure

Two other approaches that leaders use are:
Consideration (employee orientation) – Leaders are concerned about the

human needs of their employees. They build teamwork, help employees
with their problems, and provide psychological support.
Structure (task orientation) – Leaders believe that they get results by

consistently keeping people busy and urging them to produce.
There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style
are higher performers and are more satisfied with their job (Schriesheim,
1982).
Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other,
thus they should not be viewed on opposite ends of a continuum. For
example, a leader who becomes more considerate, does not necessarily
mean that she has become less structured.
3.8 Leader's Insight: Leaders' Top Three Mistakes

Now that you have learnt what qualities make a good and efficient leader,
you should also realise that there are certain qualities that invariably is
mistaken for the characteristics of a good leader. However, they may be a
mistake one should avoid committing. They are:
1. Managing instead of Leading:
"Managing has more to do with directing day-to-day tasks, whereas leading
has more to do with casting a vision, goal setting, and motivation," .

When a leader spends more time managing than leading, morale suffers
among the troops. Most people would prefer a goal to shoot for and some
freedom to figure out how to reach that goal. "We all crave at least a partial
sense of control,"
In a study several years ago, two teams of leaders were given a difficult
problem to solve. The complex problem involved mental gymnastics, difficult
decisions, and intense concentration. Both teams participated in the project
in a room where distracting sounds were piped in through speakers. The
music, noise, and voices were enough to drive you to distraction, which, of
course, was the point.
Team A couldn't do anything about the distracting sounds. They just had to
put up with them. Team B was told that by pushing a button they could
silence the distractions for five minutes. The only catch was that they could
only use the button once each hour. Each team was then scored on various
phases of their group task.
Not too surprisingly, Team B consistently outscored Team A. The kicker is,
Team B never pushed the button. Team B at least thought they had control
over their environment. Just knowing that they had a little freedom within
their boundaries boosted their confidence level.
When leaders micromanage, they take away that sense of control vital to
team dynamics and problem-solving. Former U.S. President Dwight D.
Eisenhower summed this up when he said, "Pull the string, and it will follow
wherever you wish. Push it, and it will go nowhere at all."
2. Mistaking Individual Loyalty for Team Building:

Have you seen that little desk toy that has several steel balls hanging from a
crossbeam, all in a row? If you pull one of the balls away from the others
and let it go, when it strikes the row of spheres the one on the opposite end

swings away from the rest in direct response to the force of the first ball. It's
called "Newton's Cradle."
The next mistake is a bit more subtle and difficult to detect. It is called , "The
Newton's Cradle approach to leadership."
Let's say that you are the person at the top of the leadership chain in your
organization. You are the crossbeam. Those steel spheres hanging beneath
the crossbeam are the people who work closely with you. The plastic
connectors are the individual relationships you make with those people.
You, the leader, pull one of your team members away from the others and
get him pumped up about a change that needs to be made. That's like
pulling one of the steel balls and holding it there. Then when you let him go,
you expect him to return to the rest of the team, where they will all function
with superb team dynamics, solving the current problems, achieving team
goals, and making changes.
What really happens – "The leader lets that team member go, and he just
bangs against the other team member closest to him, and that one bangs
quickly into the team member next to him, and so on. So all that really
happens is that this one team member bangs into the others, and they
swing back and forth, bumping into each other."
We shouldn't neglect the individual relationships with those who work

closely with us. We also can't miss the important steps necessary to putting
those people together in team situations where they learn what it means to
work together.
3. Failing to Apply What Motivates Us:

"What motivates you?". "The ability to create? The freedom to apply what
you know in order to solve problems? The thrill of a new challenge? Ask
most leaders what motivates them and those items will surface. But when

we get our jobs down to a science and there are no new challenges, we get
bored or lose interest."
A leader may know what motivates him, but he forgets that the same things
motivate those who work for him.
People have to be competent so that everything always runs smoothly. But

when we lock people into the routine of sameness, we wind up killing their
motivation. When we stretch people into new areas of challenges, we know
they are going to make mistakes. But when we keep them "safe," we take
the motivational wind out of their sails.
It means we have to risk other people's failure. It means we have to bite our
lips and let some people toddle out into the unknown world. Yet they'll thank
you for allowing them to tackle a new challenge, even if they stumble a few
times.
Like a parent who prays harder when the teenager begins to drive, a leader
must accept that new challenges are frightening to us but freeing to others.
3.9 Challenges Faced by a Leader
Organisational Politics:
Organisational politics is one of the biggest problems that a developing
leader has to face. People confuse ‘politics’ with the inevitable complexity
that results from moving upwards in an organisation. When a transition is
made from a functional role to management, one has to work harder to
differentiate the relevant person t deal with from the one who would support
you.
Max Landsberg, a former McKinsey partner turned author and leadership

coach, argues that flatter corporate structures have exacerbated the
problem. He says: “Over the past 10 years, companies have become a lot

less hierarchical, losing the old command-and-control structure. Nowadays,

firms are more randomly networked, which makes it harder for an executive
to know where to win support from, who to go to help solve a problem and
who the key people with influence are. In fact, organisations are less
political, but as networks they are harder to navigate.”
The transition of Leadership brings not only increased responsibilities, but

also the pressure to perform against all odds. You have to deal with peer
pressure, the jealousy of colleagues and last but not least, the expectations
of management.
Male and Female Differences

There are differences in what women and men regard as the hardest
challenges in making the transition into leadership. Women’s greater need
for confidence often means that they “are more likely to turn down
assignments they feel they are not fully qualified for, while men assume they
will learn what they don’t yet know.” Research suggests that women have
more difficulty building informal networks, which in turn are an important
source of confidence and support.
The Mental Shift

After ‘navigating organisational politics’, the second most difficult aspect of
transition, is ‘dealing with ambiguity and uncertainty’. It seems that for many
people, promotion can feel like being thrown into an unknown world.
Establishing new networks, both internally and across the wider industry,
can create anxiety and uncertainty. The need to think on a more macro level
creates a further mental challenge: making those big strategic decisions
requires a very different use of time to hitting the targets and ticking the
boxes of a more functional role.

The fact is that many aspects of a more senior role are hard to define. Ibarra
says: “A lot of things can seem unclear. Much of the transition to leadership
is about learning to be proactive and strategic. Doing the ‘substance’ like
you used to do is no longer your role - you need to be looking at the bigger
picture. The trouble with that is that some leaders - and some people around
them – might view that, naively, as not ‘work’.”
For many leaders, networking is one of the hardest skills to master. Being
wellconnected and having the ability to use those connections to your and
your company’s advantage is not only a daunting challenge, but a severe
demand on a leader’s time. Given the challenges involved in moving to a
new and more complex role, it is not surprising that the majority of
managers surveyed said that they would have made the transition with
greater ease had they had more prior understanding of the mental shifts
involved.
The mental transition into leadership often lags the physical one. That’s why
so many people struggle. They are taking an old mindset into a totally
different role. It’s not just a question of adding new competencies - going
into leadership is actually about using your old competencies less and less.
While selecting leaders for higher positions, the companies rightly figure out
the intellectual capacity of the individual that fits into the role. But an
estimated 50% of new leaders don’t survive in their new roles for more than
two years. This is because they are under prepared for the ‘social journey’
involved.
Leadership in Context
Promotion into a leadership position can be rewarding and fulfilling, but it
can also be stressful. The importance of ‘home networks’ to balance the
stresses of work and career transition can be seen clearly in the important
supporting role played by family and friends.
Money or Job Satisfaction

Money is not the chief motivator for promotion, according to the survey. The
main attraction for those seeking a move up is the ability to enact things
quickly. Respect from peers is also highly important, although men seem to
be less concerned about respect than women. Men are slightly more
concerned with money.
Company Support
Nowadays, progressive-looking companies see coaching and integrating
new leaders into the organisation as vital in keeping and nurturing their best
talent. Spotting future leaders early, helping them gain the right experience
and mentally preparing them for the leap into leadership are among the
areas that employers have attempted to improve.
According Landsberg, “True leaders carve out opportunities for themselves.

The people who are not cut out for leadership tend to be more reactive,
asking for support or taking the next step only when it is offered.” He adds
that in his experience, support tends to follow a ‘70-20-10’ pattern, where
70% tends to be in the form of on-the-job experience, 20% comes from
relationships with mentors and 10% from formal training programmes.
3.10 Summary
Leadership is that quality of an individual that helps him to nurture a group
of other individuals under him, to recognise a goal and go ahead to achieve
it. We all possess the capacity for leadership, but only those who cultivate
it will ever become truly effective leaders. You are introduced to the
functions of a true leader like, primary function, including qualities like
visionary, executive, planner, expert policy maker, and controller of
relationships to lead the team harmoniously. The other functions that make
an individual an effective leader are, exemplary behaviour, symbol of unity,

a father figure and sometimes, also a scapegoat. While performing these

functions as a leader, an individual may be bracketed into sects like
authoritarian or autocratic, Participative or democratic and Delegative or
Free Reign categories. Thus, he may be an opportunist or a diplomat, as
the situation makes him.

1. Explain the traits in a leader that help in bringing out the best from his
subordinates.
2. Write short notes on any two kinds of leaders.
3. “Organisational politics is one of the biggest problems that a developing
leader has to face.” Elucidate
3.12 Answers
A. Self- Assessment Questions
1. i) know yourself. ii) aggressions iii) cohesive and coherent.
iv) quality v) self-study, education, training, and experience.
2. i) Achievers ii) Alchemists iii) Strategists
1. Refer 3.6
2. Refer 3.5
3. Refer 3.8

Unit 4 Interpersonal Behaviour

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Understand Self
4.3 Diagnosis of Type of Self / Identifying own type of self
4.4 Effect of Interpersonal Behaviour of Interpersonal Relationship
4.5 Transactional Analysis
4.6 Open Self Personality – How do we Develop it?
4.7 Summary
4.9 Answers
4.1 Introduction
A person influences (or at
least attempts to influence)
other persons with whom he
or she interacts. In some
roles, e.g. Managerial and
helping roles, ‘influence’ is a
central function. One of the
main functions of a manager
is to influence others for the
achievements of work
objectives. Another managerial function is to help one’s subordinates to
develop, Even more directly involved in influencing others are teachers,
trainers, consultants and counselors. The process of helping someone to
learn and change is essentially the process influencing the individual’s
ideas, values, attitudes and behaviour.
Those in influencing roles not only solve problems and help others, but they
also have an impact on others’ ability to solve future problems . They can
develop others or they can make them dependent, limiting their autonomy.
Their habitual ways of interacting with their employees, participants,
trainees, or clients can be called Interpersonal styles.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 identify your ‘self’
 improve your inter-personal behaviour, thereby enhance your inter-
personal relationship
 understand an individual with the help of transactional analysis
 develop open self personality
4.2 Understand Self – Different Categories

In order to improve inter personal relationships, it is first essential to identify
and understand ourself. One such noted method of understanding of ‘self’
is Johari Window.
Johari Window : The Johari Window, named after the first names of its
inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, is
one of the most useful models describing the
process of human interaction. A four paned
"window," as illustrated above, divides
personal awareness into four different types,
as represented by its four quadrants: open,
hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines
dividing the four panes are like window
shades, which can move as an interaction
progresses.

In this model, each person is represented by his own window. Let's describe
each of them:
1. The "open" quadrant represents things that both one knows about
oneself, and that the others know about the individual. For example,
I know my name, and so do you, and if you have explored some of my
website, you know some of my interests. The knowledge that the
window represents, can include not only factual information, but the
feelings, motives, behaviours, wants, needs and desires of an individual;
indeed, any information describing who he is. When you first meet a new
person, the size of the opening of this first quadrant is not very large,
since there has been little time to exchange information. As the process
of getting to know one another continues, the window shades move
down or to the right, placing more information into the open window, as
described below.
2. The "blind" quadrant represents things that the others know about an
individual, but that the individual is unaware of. So, for example, we
could be eating at a restaurant, and you may have unknowingly gotten
some food on your face. This information is in your blind quadrant
because others can see it, but you cannot. If the others now tell you that
you have something on your face, then the window shade moves to the
right, enlarging the open quadrant's area. Now, you may also have blind
spots with respect to many other much more complex things. For
example, perhaps in your ongoing conversation with your friends, you
may notice that eye contact seems to be lacking. Your friends may not
say anything, since they may not want to embarrass you, or they may
draw their own inferences that perhaps you are being insincere. Then
the problem is, how can you get this information out in the open, since it
may be affecting the level of trust that is developing between you and

your friends? How can you learn more about yourself? Unfortunately,
there is no readily available answer.
3. The "hidden" quadrant represents things that you know about yourself,
that others do not know. So, for example, you have not told your friends,
nor mentioned anytime during your conversations, what one of your
favourite ice cream flavours is. This information is in your "hidden"
quadrant. As soon as you tell them that you love "Barrista’s" chocolate
flavoured ice cream, you are effectively pulling the window shade down,
moving the information in your hidden quadrant and enlarging the open
quadrant's area. Again, there are vast amounts of information, virtually
your whole life's story, that has yet to be revealed to others. As you get
to know and trust each other, you will then feel more comfortable
disclosing more intimate details about yourself. This process is called:
"Self-disclosure."
4. The "unknown" quadrant represents things that neither you know about
yourself, nor others know about you. For example, you may disclose a
dream that you had, and as both your friend and you attempt to
understand its significance, a new awareness may emerge, known to
neither of you before the conversation took place. Being placed in new
situations often reveals new information not previously known to self or
others. Thus, a novel situation can trigger new awareness and personal
growth. The process of moving previously unknown information into the
open quadrant, thus enlarging its area, has been likened to Maslow's
concept of self-actualization. The process can also be viewed as a
game, where the open quadrant is synonymous with the win-win
situation.
Much, much more has been written on the Johari window model of
human interaction. The process of enlarging the open quadrant is called

self-disclosure, a give and take process between you and the people
you interact with. Typically, as you share something about yourself
(moving information from your hidden quadrant into the open) and
simultaneously, if the other party is interested in getting to know you,
they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information in their hidden
quadrant. Thus, an interaction between two parties can be modelled
dynamically as two active Johari windows. However, self-disclosure
has its own dangers. We are often better off not telling secrets regarding
our, mental health problems or large-scale failures. Be forewarned that
most secrets get passed along to at least two more parties. People also
misjudge how others respond to secrets. Sometimes you get negative
feedback.
As one’s level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively
invite others to comment on one's blind spots. A teacher may seek
feedback from students on the quality of a particular lecture, with the
desire of improving the presentation. Active listening skills are helpful in
this endeavour. On the other hand, we all have defences, protecting the
parts of ourselves that we feel vulnerable. Remember, the blind
quadrant contains behaviour, feelings and motivations not accessible to
the person, but which others can see. Feelings of inadequacy,
incompetence, impotence, unworthiness, rejection, guilt, dependency,
ambivalence for loved ones, needs to control and manipulate, are all
difficult to face, and yet can be seen by others. Fortunately, Nature has
provided us with a variety of defence mechanisms to cope with such
events, such as denial, ignoring, rationalizing, etc.
The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can

also reveal difficulties in this area. In Johari terms, two people attempt to
communicate via the open quadrants. On the simplest level, difficulties
may arise due to a lack of clarity in the interaction, such as poor
grammar or choice of words, unorganized thoughts, faulty logic etc. This

induces the receiver to criticize you, the sender, by revealing something
that was in your blind quadrant. Then, if the feedback works, you correct
it immediately or perhaps on a more long term approach, take a course
in reading and writing. On a deeper level, you may be in a group
meeting, and while you secretly sympathize with the minority viewpoint,
you voted with the majority. However, blind to you, you actually may be
communicating this information via body language, in conflict with your
verbal message. On an even deeper level, you in an interaction with
others may always put on a smiling, happy face, hiding all negative
feelings. By withholding negative feelings, you may be signalling to your
friends to withhold also, and keep their distance. Thus, your
communication style may seem bland or distant.
And let's not forget the parable of the blind men and the elephant. Our
society is constructed so that many of us get very specialized, knowing
only a small academic field very well, while being virtually ignorant of all
others. This specialization is blinding many of us to what is happening in
the world today. According to R. Buckminister Fuller, this system of
education was done on purpose, to channel the most intelligent people
into specialties, enabling them to be more easily controlled.
It takes a lot more than a shoeshine and a manicure to give a

person polish – Shiv Kera

i) The habitual ways of interacting by the people in influence roles with
others is called ________.

ii) Johari Window is named after __________ and ___________.

iii) Johari Window divides personal awareness into, ____________,
____________, ____________, ____________ types.
iv) The ____ quadrant represents things that neither you know about
yourself, nor others know about you.
v) As one’s level of ___________ and ____________ develops, one
may actively invite others to comment on one’s blind spots.
4.3 Diagnosis of Type of Self / Identifying Own Type of Self

Different people behave differently. Each individual has a unique personality
and so, a unique style of his own. Given below are various styles of
individuals that shape their personality.
Rescuing Style: This style indicates a dependency relationship, in which an

individual perceives his or her main role as that of rescuing another as his
main role. E.g.: The manager, trainer, or consultant considering the
rescuing of his subordinate, participant, trainee or client. Another feature of
this style in that support is provided conditionally, contingent on deference to
the provider. The general attitude is one of superiority; the person’s support
constantly reminds others of their dependence. Obviously, the style does
not help the other people to become independent and to act by themselves.
Supportive Style: In this style, support is provided when needed. James

(1975) uses the term “Supportive Coaches” for managers with this style.
They encourage their subordinates and provide the necessary conditions for
continuous improvement. The consultant, in this style, shows patience in
learning about the problems of his clients and has empathy with them.
Prescription Style: People with this style are critical of the behavior of
others and develop rules and regulations to impose them on others.

Managers using this style make quick judgments and insist that certain
norms be followed by all their subordinates. A consultant may advise the
clients and prescribe solutions to their problems, rather than help them to
work out alternative solutions for their problems.
Normative Style: These individuals develop proper norms of behaviour. At

the same time, they help the followers of these norms to understand the
importance over other norms. A consultant with this style not only helps
clients to solve a specific problem but also helps them to develop ways of
approaching a problem and raises questions about relevant values. Such a
consultant emphasizes the development of a general approach to the
problem. Trainers with this style influence the participants through
modelling behaviour. They also raise questions about the appropriateness
of some aspects of behaviour and work.
Task Obsessive Style: People with this style are most concerned with the
task. Matters not directly related to the task are ignored. They are not
concerned with feelings and, in fact, fail to recognize them, since they do not
perceive them as related to the task. They attempt to function like
computers. A task–obsessive individual is insensitive to the emotional
needs, personal problems, and apprehensions of the others.
Problem- Solving Style: In this style, an individual is concerned with

solving problems, but does not see the problem as being merely confined to
the task. For such persons, the problems have various dimensions. The
focus of the manager, consultant, or trainer is on dealing with and finding
out solution to problems. In this process they solicit the help of and involve
subordinates, clients, trainees and participants.
Bohemian Style: The creative child is active in this style. The person has
lots of ideas and is impatient with current practices. The person is less

concerned with how the new ideas work than with the ideas themselves.
Such people are non conformists and enjoy experimenting with new
approaches, primarily foe fun. They rarely allow one idea or practice to
stabilize before going on to another.
Innovative People: People with this style have enthusiasm about new
ideas and new approaches and take others along with them. However, they
pay enough attention to nurturing an idea, so that it results in concrete
action and becomes internalized in the system. Such people are innovators.
Aggressive Style: People with this style are fighters. They show their
aggression toward others. They may fight for their subordinates, clients, or
participants, or for their ideas and suggestions, hoping that this will help
them to achieve their desired results. Their aggressiveness, however,
makes people avoid them and not take them seriously.
Confronting Style: In this style, the person is concerned with the

exploration of a problem. Perseverance is the main characteristic. They
confront the organization to get things done for their subordinates or clients.
They are more concerned with confronting problems than with confronting
other persons for the sake of confrontation. A consultant with this style may
also confront the client in order to help the client to openly explore various
dimensions. Such people are frank and open, but are equally perceptive and
sensitive. They respect the feelings of others.
Sulking Style: People with this style keep their negative feeling to
themselves, find it difficult to share them, and avoid meeting people if they
have not been able to fulfil their part of the contract. Instead of confronting
problems, a person in this style avoids them and feels bad about the
situation, but does not express these feelings openly.

Resilient Style: In this style, persons show creative adaptability – learning

from others, accepting others’ ideas, and changing their approaches when
change is needed.
Persons in influence roles (managers, consultants, counsellors or trainers)

may show several of the behaviours described above. Each person,
however, uses one style more frequently than others.

i) James uses the term ___ for managers in supportive style.
ii) A ____ individual is insensitive to the emotional needs, personal
problems and apprehensions of others; but only concerned with the
task.
iii) The creative child is active in ____.
iv) Perseverance is the main characteristic of the people of ____ style.
v) Individuals show creative adaptability in the ____ style.
4.4 Effect of Interpersonal Behaviour on Interpersonal

Relationship
We all want to be popular, but this desire could always stand as a hurdle in
the way of career success in the competitive modern office. On the contrary,
if used correctly, the ability to get on with people and be liked is a powerful
management tool. This can be achieved with appropriate interpersonal
behaviour.
When Jane Jaryd started a new job in a publishing company she was
desperate to make a good impression from the outset, so on her very first
day she brought in a tin of biscuits and passed them around to everyone.
But the gesture backfired. Instead of the acceptance she craved, Jane was

treated with suspicion. Why was she trying so hard? What did she want from
them?
One colleague later told her: 'My first impression was that you were just far
too pushy with your biscuits. I wasn't sure about you at all.'
Her mistake demonstrates how important it is for many of us to gain the

approval of those we work with. The more cynical people might claim
popularity is an overrated attribute in business, but there can be no denying
that we all have a deep-seated desire to be liked.
'We have evolved as social animals as part of a tribe,' explains Andy Smith,
training director of Coaching Leaders and author of ‘Achieve your Goals:
Strategies to Transform your Life.’ From early in our evolution, being popular
will probably have meant better nutrition, getting into fewer fights and
winning more mates (in the biological sense). 'How we were treated in that
tribe was important, so many of us do have a need to be popular.'
While helping in small errands and doing minor chores for colleagues or
peers, might win you immediate popularity, it won't guarantee the ingrained,
long-term popularity that many of us crave. To be genuinely liked and
respected by your colleagues and team your actions must go far deeper
than well intentioned gestures. To win this kind of esteem requires a
fundamental understanding of human relationships, a sincere interest in
your fellow worker, a sense of fair play and, most important of all, an ability
to see the other person's point of view.
'Popularity is about being able to relate to lots of different situations all of the
time,' says Roy Gaynor, managing director of the consultancies Navisys
Transformation and Navisys Academy. 'You've got to be able to show that
you can step into the other person's world.'

A desire to be popular may not be part of the typical make-up of leaders but
few can deny that the effects of being liked by your team and colleagues
can be both career- and business-enhancing. It is easier to influence and
persuade people who like, respect and trust you and it is easier to motivate
them if you have a connection. And with the bottom line in mind, people are
more likely to buy from someone that they like.
In his book Life's a Game so Fix the Odds, Hesketh recalls how he
repeatedly missed out on business from one potential client - even though
he was offering a better service at a better price - simply because the
contact 'didn't particularly like him'. His replacement, however, sealed a deal
within a month. 'People buy people first,' he writes in his book.
In short, you don't have to be popular to be a good manager or leader, but it

helps. Which is why emotional intelligence and empathy are increasingly
seen as crucial management attributes. 'Relationship skills are gaining more
popularity. This calls for the balancing of task and relationship focuses to
achieve the much desired ‘belongingness.’
Popularity may not be synonymous with emotional intelligence, but being

the sort of person who can quickly and naturally make a connection with
other people gives you a head start. By developing your social intelligence,
you can maximise the benefits of the inbuilt capacity for co-operation. Given
below are strategies that enable you to satisfy your desire to be popular,
without damaging your career.
1. Listen and Let People Talk

Everybody wants their voice to be heard and their stories listened to - so
give them what they want. 'Ask questions that other persons will enjoy
answering,' writes Dale Carnegie in How to Win Friends and Influence
People. 'Encourage them to talk about themselves and their
accomplishments.'
In Life's a Game so Fix the Odds, Philip Hesketh says you should listen with
'rapt attention' – the highest form of flattery. You should listen to truly
understand how others feel about what they're saying. This helps you see
things from their point of view. They will like you more and at the same time,
you too would learn in the exchange.
2. Take an Interest in Others

By doing so, you are tapping into humans' inbuilt self-absorption. Dale
Carnegie says, when an individual is genuinely interested in others, he will
be welcome anywhere.
Managers can earn social kudos by the bucket load simply by taking a
genuine interest in their team. For example, as well as work-related matters
such as career aspirations and motivations, make a note of the name of
each member's partner and what they like to do at weekends.'
3. Give Credit When it’s Due

Being appreciated feeds our need to feel important and worthwhile and so it
is vital for managers to offer praise for a job well done. Leaders cannot
achieve by themselves. They must give credit and be more sharing,
especially if they want things to happen as they should when they are not
there.' Be lavish in your praises.
4. Show Some Emotion

A high emotional intelligence (EI) rating doesn't guarantee you'll be popular,
but it helps. Increasing your EI means you'll enhance those skills that enable
you to understand and manage your own and other people's emotions more
positively. Heightening your self-awareness should help you to understand
and improve your EI.
'Perhaps spend 10-20 minutes a day meditating or reflecting on how you've

behaved,' suggests Andy Smith, training director of Coaching Leaders and

an expert in emotional intelligence. 'Keeping an emotional journal is another

possibility and when you make changes to your behaviour, monitor what
response they get.
5. Criticise Carefully
We assume that as long as the criticism we give to people is constructive, it
will have the desired effect of improving performance rather than upsetting
the individual concerned. However, even constructive criticism can be
damaging. Instead, regularly tell people what you think they are good at
and 'leave out the "but" and "however".' This is how you have to prepare
them. Then when you do come to offer something a little more critical they
are much more likely to take it.
Interpersonal / Human Skills

How to Handle Difficult People?
A bully at your work is difficult for you to face. He is demanding you do part
of his job without pay or credit. How do you handle it?
Your father is unhappy about your career choice. He constantly criticizes

your work and points out what he thinks you should do. How do you deal
with him? Difficult situations are part of everyone’s life. Employers and
employees can’t get along. Partners clash over money. Spouses cannot
resolve disagreements. If you ignore these situations, they always get
worse. Employees get fired, partnerships and marriages break up, everyone
is miserable. Disconnecting from the problem or from the person is not
always wise or practical. Losing employees, supporters and friends because
you needlessly disassociate from them may reduce your stress, but you
might also become lonely .

The Best Solution is to Confront and Handle People

"The ability to stand up to and confront and handle whatever comes
the way of the organization depends utterly on the ability of the
individuals of the organization to stand up to, confront and handle
what comes the individual's way." – L. Ron Hubbard
When you face and resolve the problem yourself, you feel wonderful. You
are in control of your life. You not only conquer the opposition, you conquer
your fear. Few accomplishments are more satisfying than confronting
someone who is difficult to face and handling the conflict
 Write down a Plan or List of Points You Need to Make to Support Your
Goal:
 Facts, Reasons and explanations you may need the other person to
understand.
 List the points in order of priority or importance.
For example, to get Joe to understand why he must pay you, you might
make these points:
A. Joe requested the service.
B. Joe signed an agreement to pay for the service.
C. We provided the service as promised.
D. Joe was happy with the service.
E. Etc.
 Write down objections, reactions or disagreements the other

person may have. Include everything you are afraid might happen
during the meeting. Putting specific concerns and fears in writing
reduces their impact on you.

For each objection, reaction or disagreement you expect will happen,

write a solution of how you will deal with each.
 Organize your notes and gather supportive documents.
 Arrange the meeting where you will not be disturbed, preferably in a
space you control.
Effective Communication
It is apparent that meaningful communication does not take place
automatically in interpersonal relationships. But there are a number of
factors, which appear to foster effective communication – ranging from an
awareness of one’s own stimulus value to active listening. Here we shall
simply mention three interrelated factors which seem to be of key
importance.
1. Be a Good ‘Sender’: As a sender, each of us has to know what we are

trying to communicate and how to code the message in such a way that
the ‘ receiver ‘ can interpret it accurately. If we are unclear about the
message we are trying to convey or fail to code the message so that it is
meaningful to the other person, the message will probably not be
received accurately. The high incidence of failure here is evidenced by
frequent complaints such as “ I didn’t mean that “ and “ You
misunderstood what I was trying to say.”
2. Be a Good “Receiver”: To be good receivers, we must listen actively

and make a sincere effort to understand what the other person is trying
to communicate to us. We have probably all had the experience of
felling that the other person was not really listening- not really tuning us
in. Perhaps the person who is too busy to take time to listen, did not
want to hear what we had to say, or was busy thinking about what to say
next.

Active listening requires the development of specific skills which help us

to accurately interpret what the other person is trying to communicate.
One of the most important of these skills is being sensitive to the
feelings of others, for as we have noted earlier, there are many
situations in which we are called upon to interpret feelings rather than
spoken words.
3. Use Metacommunication: One key approach to fostering better

understanding in communication involves the concept of
metacommunication- examining the ways in which we typically
communicate with the other person in an intimate relationship.
This might entail an analysis of such factors as

a) the amount of relevant information communicated vs. “ noise”
b) the typical emotional climate created by talking about problems
c) who does most of the talking and who does most of the listening
d) what areas or problems seem to elicit particular difficulties in
communicating and understanding.
"I think one lesson I have learned is that there is no substitute

for paying attention. " – Diane Sawyer

3. Say whether True or False
i) We all have a deep seated desire to be liked.
ii) It doesn’t require a fundamental understanding of human
relationships to win the genuine respect of your colleagues.
iii) By developing your intelligence quotient, you can maximise the

benefits of the inbuilt capacity for co-operation.
iv) Listening with rapt attention is the highest form of flattery.

v) You should never be lavish in your praises.

vi) Constructive criticism never upsets people.
vii) Disconnecting from the problem or person is the practical solution to
handle difficult situation and difficult people.
viii) You should listen actively to enhance effective communication.
ix) To actively listen, one should be sensitive to others’ feelings.

x) Meta communication means examining ways in which individual
communicates with other person in an intimate relationship.
4.5 Transactional Analysis

Transactional analysis, commonly known as TA to its adherents, is a
psychoanalytic theory of psychology developed by psychiatrist Eric Berne
during the late 1950s.
Revising Freud's concept of the human psyche as composed of the id, ego,
and super-ego, Berne postulated instead three "ego states" – the Parent,
Adult and Child states – which were largely shaped through childhood
experiences.
Parent ("exteropsychic"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think

in response to an unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other
parental figures) acted. For example, a person may shout at someone out of
frustration because they learned from an influential figure in childhood the
lesson that this seemed to be a way of relating that worked.
Adult ("neopsychic"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think in

response to what is going on in the "here-and-now," using all of their
resources as an adult human being with many years of life experience to
guide them. While a person is in the Adult ego state, he/she is directed
towards an objective appraisal of reality.

Child ("archaeopsychic"): a state in which people revert to behaving,

feeling and thinking close to how they did in childhood. For example, a
person being told off by the boss at work may look down and feel shame or
anger, as they used to when being told off as a child.
Within each of these are sub-divisions. Thus parental figures are often either
nurturing (permission giving, security giving) or criticizing(comparing to
family traditions and ideals in generally negative ways), childhood
behaviours are either natural (free) or adapted to others. Each of these
tends to draw an individual to certain patterns of behaviour, feelings and
ways of thinking, which may be beneficial (positive) or dysfunctional/
counterproductive (negative).
Ego states also do not correspond directly to thinking, feeling, and judging,
as these behaviours are present in every ego state.There is no "universal"
ego state; each state is individually and visibly manifested for each person.
For example, a child ego state is individual to the specific human being, that
is, it is drawn from the ego state they created as a child, not some
'generalised childlike' state.
Each person involved in transactions with others has three ego states:
1. The Parent regulates behaviour ( through prescriptions and sanctions)
and nurtures ( by providing support)
2. The Adult collects information and processes it.
3. The Child has several functions primarily with
a) Creativity, curiosity and fun
b) Reactions to others ( including rebellion)
c) Adjusting to others’ demands or sulking .
Each ego state is important. However, the functional or dysfunctional roles

of these ego states depends on the general existential or life position a
person takes. Harris (1969) has conceptualized four primary existential or

life position takes. (1) I’m OK, You’re OK : (2) I’m not OK , you’re OK (3) I’m
OK, you’re not OK: and (4) I’m not OK, you’re not OK.
The interpersonal style of an individual depends on the person’s

combination of the six ego states with the life positions. Combining the six
ego states with the four life positions, we obtain twenty-four influences
styles. James (1975) has suggested that, in general, the concepts of OK
and not-OK can be used to understand how bosses behave. Avery(1980)
has similarly proposed OK and not-OK dimensions of the six ego states.
Savorgnan(1979) has discussed the Ok and not-Ok dimensions of the two
Parent ego states.
Unhealthy childhood experiences could damage the Child or Parent ego

states, which would bring discomfort to an individual and/or others, in a
variety of forms including many types of mental illness.
Since individuals interact with one another, their ego states affect each set
of transactions. Unproductive or counterproductive transactions are
considered to be signs of ego state problems. Analysing these transactions,
according to the person's individual developmental history, would enable the
person to "get better". Virtually everyone has something problematic about
their ego states and that negative behaviour would not be addressed by
"treating" only the problematic individual.

4. Match the following
A B
1. James a) discussed OK – Not OK dimensions of
2 parent ego states
2. Avery b) conceptualised 4 primary existential or life
position takes.

3. Savorgnan c) Concepts of OK – Not OK is used to

understand how bosses behave.
4. Eric Berne d) proposed OK & Not OK dimensions of
6 ego states
5. Harris e) developed Transactional Analysis
4.5.1 Transactions and Strokes

Transactions are the flow of communication, and more specifically the
unspoken psychological flow of communication that runs in parallel.
Transactions occur simultaneously, at both explicit and psychological levels.

Example: sweet caring voice with sarcastic intent. To read the real
communication requires both surface and non-verbal reading.
Strokes are the recognition, attention or responsiveness that one person

gives another. Strokes can be positive (nicknamed "warm fuzzies") or
negative ("cold pricklies"). A key idea is that people hunger for recognition,
and that lacking positive strokes, will seek whatever kind they can, even if it
is recognition of a negative kind. We test out as children what strategies and
behaviours seem to get us strokes, of whatever kind we can get.
People often create pressure in (or experience pressure from) others to

communicate in a way that matches their style, so that a boss, who talks to
his staff as a controlling parent will often engender self-abasement or other
childlike responses. Those employees, who resist, may get removed or
labeled as "trouble".
Transactions can be experienced as positive or negative depending on the

nature of the strokes within them. However, a negative transaction is
preferred to no transaction at all, because of a fundamental hunger for
strokes.

4.5.2 Kinds of Transactions

The nature of transactions is important to understand communication. The
different kinds of transactions are:
1. Reciprocal or Complementary transactions
2. Crossed transactions
3. Duplex or Covert transactions
1. Reciprocal or Complementary Transactions

A simple, reciprocal transaction occurs when both partners are addressing
the ego state the other is in. These are also called complementary
transactions.
 Example 1
A: "Have you been able to write the report?" (Adult to Adult)
B: "Yes - I'm about to email it to you." (Adult to Adult)
 Example 2
A: "Would you like to come and watch a film with me?" (Child to Child)
B: "I'd love to - what shall we go and see?" (Child to Child)
 Example 3
A: "Is your room tidy yet?" (Parent to Child)
B: "Will you stop hassling me? I'll do it eventually!" (Child to Parent)
Communication like this can continue indefinitely. (Clearly it will stop at

some stage - but this psychologically balanced exchange of strokes can
continue for some time).
2. Crossed Transactions
Communication failures are typically caused by a 'crossed transaction'
where partners address ego states other than that their partner is in.
Consider the above examples jumbled up a bit.

 Example 1a:
A: "Have you been able to write that report?" (Adult to Adult)
B: "Will you stop hassling me? I'll do it eventually!" (Child to Parent)
is a crossed transaction likely to produce problems in the workplace. "A"

may respond with a Parent to Child transaction. For instance:
A: "If you don't change your attitude you'll get fired"
 Example 2a:
A: "Is your room tidy yet?" (Parent to Child)
B: "I'm just going to do it, actually." (Adult to Adult)
is a more positive crossed transaction. However there is the risk that "A" will
feel aggrieved that "B" is acting responsibly and not playing his role, and the
conversation will develop into:
A: "I can never trust you to do things!" (Parent to Child)
B: "Why don't you believe anything I say?" (Child to Parent)
which can continue indefinitely.
3. Duplex or Covert Transactions

Another class of transaction is the 'duplex' or 'covert' transactions, where the
explicit social conversation occurs in parallel with an implicit psychological
transaction. For instance,
A: "I need you to stay late at the office with me." (adult words)
body language indicates sexual intent (flirtatious child)
B: "Of course." (adult response to adult statement).
winking or grinning (child accepts the hidden motive).

4.5.3 Phenomena Behind the Transactions

1. Life (or Childhood) Script
 Script is a life plan, directed to a pay-off.
 Script is decisional and responsive, ie decided upon in childhood in
response to perceptions of the world and as a means of living with
and making sense of. It is not just thrust upon a person by external
forces.
 Script is reinforced by parents (or other influential figures and
experiences)
 Script is for the most part outside awareness
 Script is how we navigate and what we look for, the rest of reality is
redefined (distorted) to match our filters.
Each culture, country and people in the world has a Mythos, that is, a
legend explaining its origins, core beliefs and purpose. According to TA, so
do individual people. A person begins writing their own life story (script) very
young, as they try to make sense of the world and their place within it.
Although it is revised throughout life, the core story is selected and decided
upon typically by age 7. As adults it passes out of awareness. A life script
might be "to be hurt many times, and suffer and make others feel bad when
I die", and could result in a person indeed setting themselves up for this, by
adopting behaviours in childhood that produce exactly this effect. Or it could
as easily be positive.
2. Redefining and Discounting

Redefining means the distortion of reality when we deliberately (but
unconsciously) distort things to match our preferred way of seeing the world.
Thus a person whose script involves "struggling alone against a cold hard
world" may redefine others' kindness and state that they are just trying to
get something by manipulation.

Discounting means to take something as worth less than it is. Thus to give
a substitute reaction which does not originate as a here-and-now Adult
attempt to solve the actual problem, or to not choose to see evidence that
would contradict one's script. Types of discount can also include: passivity
(doing nothing), over-adaptation, agitation, incapacitation, anger and
violence.
3. Injunctions and Drivers

TA identifies twelve key injunctions, which people commonly build into their
scripts. These are injunctions in the sense of being powerful "I can't/mustn't
..." messages that embed into a child's belief and life-script:
 Don't be (don't exist), Don't be who you are,
 Don't be a child, Don't grow up,
 Don't make it in your life, Don't do anything!,
 Don't be important, Don't belong,
 Don't be close, Don't be well (don't be sane!),
 Don't think, Don't feel.
In addition, there is the so-called episcript, "You should (or deserve to)
have this happen in your life, so it doesn't have to happen to me."
Against these, a child is often told other things they must do. There are six
of these 'drivers':
 Be perfect!
 Please (me/others)!
 Try Hard!
 Be Strong!
 Hurry Up!
 Be Careful!

Thus, in creating their script, a child will often attempt to juggle these,
example: "It's okay for me to go on living (ignore don't exist) so long as I try
hard".
This explains why some change is inordinately difficult. To continue the

above example: When a person stops trying hard and relaxes to be with his
family, the injunction, ‘You don't have the right to exist,’ which was being
suppressed by their script, now becomes exposed and a vivid threat. Such
an individual may feel a massive psychological pressure which they
themselves don't understand, to return to trying hard, in order to feel safe
and justified (in a childlike way) in existing.
Driver behaviour is also detectable at a very small scale, for instance in

instinctive responses to certain situations, where driver behaviour is played
out over five to twenty seconds.
Broadly, scripts can fall into Tragic, Heroic or Banal (or Non-Winner)
varieties, depending on their rules.
4.5.4 Series of Transactions

Rituals
A ritual is a series of transactions that is complementary (reciprocal),
stereotyped and based on social programming. Rituals usually comprise a
series of strokes exchanged between two parties.
For instance, two people may have a daily two stroke ritual, where, the first
time they meet each day, each one greets the other with a "Hi". Others may
have a four stroke ritual, such as:
A: Hi!
B: Hi! How do you do?
A: Getting along. What about you?

B: Fine. See you around.
The next time they meet in the day, they may not exchange any strokes at
all, or may just acknowledge each other's presence with a curt nod.
Some phenomena associated with daily rituals are:

 If a person exchanges fewer strokes than expected, the other person
may feel that he is either preoccupied or acting high and mighty.
 If a person exchanges more strokes than expected, the other person
might wonder whether he is trying to butter him up or get on good terms
for some vested interests.
 If two people do not meet for a long time, a backlog of strokes gets built
up, so that the next time they meet, they may exchange a large number
of strokes to catch up.
Pastimes
A pastime is a series of transactions that is complementary (reciprocal),
semi-ritualistic, and is mainly intended as a time-structuring activity.
Pastimes have no covert purpose and can usually be carried out only
between people on the same wavelength. They are usually shallow and
harmless. Pastimes are a type of small talk.
Individuals often partake in similar pastimes throughout their life, as

pastimes are generally very much linked to one’s life script and the games
that one often plays. Some pastimes can even be understood as a reward
for playing a certain game. For example, Eric Berne in Games People Play
discusses how those who play the "Alcoholic" game often enjoy the
"Morning After" pastime, in which participants share their most amusing
hangover stories.

Games and Their Analysis

Definition of Game
A game is a series of transactions that is complementary (reciprocal),
ulterior, and proceeds towards a predictable outcome. Games are often
characterized by a switch in roles of players towards the end.Each game
has a payoff for those playing it. The antithesis of a game, that is, the way to
break it, lies in discovering how to deprive the actors of their payoff.
Students of transactional analysis have discovered that people, who are
used to a game, are willing to play it, even if as a different actor from what
they originally were.
Analysis of a Game
One important aspect of a game is its number of players. Games may be
two handed (that is, played by two players), three handed (that is, played by
three players), or many handed. Three other quantitative variables are often
useful to consider for games:
 Flexibility: The ability of the players to change the currency of the
game (that is, the tools they use to play it). In a flexible game, players
may shift from words, to money, to parts of the body.
 Tenacity: The persistence with which people play and stick to their
games and their resistance to breaking it.
 Intensity: Easy games are games played in a relaxed way. Hard
games are games played in a tense and aggressive way.
Based on the degree of acceptability and potential harm, games are

classified as:
 First Degree Games are socially acceptable in the agent's circle.
 Second Degree Games are games that the players would like to
conceal though they may not cause irreversible damage.

 Third Degree Games are games that could lead to drastic harm to one
or more of the parties concerned.
Games are also Studied Based on their:

 Aim
 Roles
 Social and Psychological Paradigms
 Dynamics
 Advantages to players (Payoffs)
Rackets
A racket is the dual strategy of getting "permitted feelings" and covering up
those which we truly feel, as being "not allowed".
More technically, a racket feeling is "a familiar set of emotions, learned and
enhanced during childhood, experienced in many different stress situations,
and maladaptive as an adult means of problem solving".
A racket is then a set of behaviours, which originate from the childhood

script rather than in here-and-now full Adult thinking, which (1) are employed
as a way to manipulate the environment to match the script rather than to
actually solve the problem, and (2) whose covert goal is not so much to
solve the problem, as to experience these racket feelings and feel internally
justified in experiencing them.
Examples of racket and racket feelings: "Why do I meet good guys who turn
out to be so hurtful", or "He always takes advantage of my goodwill". The
racket is then a set of behaviours and chosen strategies learned and
practised in childhood, which in fact help to cause these feelings to be
experienced. Typically, this happens despite their own surface protestations
and hurt feelings, out of awareness and in a way that is perceived as
someone else's fault. One covert pay-off for this racket and its feelings,

might be to gain in a guilt free way, continued evidence and reinforcement

for a childhood script belief that "People will always let you down".
In other words, rackets and games are devices used by a person to create a
circumstance, where they can legitimately feel the racket feelings, thus
abiding by and reinforcing their childhood script. They are always a
substitute for a more genuine and full adult emotion and response, which
would be a more appropriate response to the here-and-now situation.
The first such game theorized was ‘Why don't you/Yes, But…’ in which one
player (White) would pose a problem as if seeking help, and the other
player(s) (Black) would offer solutions. White would point out a flaw in every
Black player's solution (the "Yes, but" response), until they all give up in
frustration. The secondary gain for White is that he can claim to have
justified his problem as insoluble and thus avoid the hard work of internal
change; and for Black, to either feel the frustrated martyr ("I was only trying
to help") or a superior being, disrespected ("the patient was uncooperative").
4.6 Open Self Personality – How do we Develop it?

Several simple communication skills are required for developing
openness.
 There must be a good reason for being open
 Openness is not an absolute value
 Openness involves risk taking.
 Openness is sharing, not to be thrust open.
 Defences are not all bad.
 Openness means accepting the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of the

other as facts.

 The aim of openness is not to change the other, but to share an

understanding of your views and feelings.
 Being open is not the same as being “ personal”.
Helpful Suggestions for Developing Openness
 Separate out behaviour from feelings.
 Be descriptive of behaviour rather than evaluative or judgemental of the

person.
 Be specific rather than general.
 Separate out thoughts from feelings.
 Let the other person draw his own conclusions.
 State the other’s idea in your own words to check out if you have
properly understood. This is called paraphrasing.
 Be provisional rather than absolute.
Examples:
 Avoid generalizations – “ You are always picking on me!”
Instead say – “ I feel threatened by you”
 Avoid name calling – “ You idiot”
Instead say – “ I am angry with you”
 Avoid assumptions – “ You enjoy putting people down”
Instead say – “ What you just said hurt me”
 Avoid questions – “ Is it safe to drive so fast?”
Instead say – “ I am afraid og going this fast”
 Avoid sarcasm – “ Who need friends like you?”
Instead say – What you just did was not helpful”
 Avoid commands – “ Shut up!”
Instead say – I’m so angry I can’t think”

 Avoid Silence
 Avoid “ Why “ questions – “ why did you say that “?
Instead say – “ I would like you to clarify to me what you said just now”
Feedback Is Constructive If………..
 It is asked for rather than imposed.
 It is well timed. (Often immediately; sometimes after a cooling period)
 It is not saved up and dumped all at once.
 It is checked to ensure accurate and clear communication based on

data.
 It is checked for validity against the perceptions of others.
 It is intended to be helpful to the recipient.
 It is specific rather than general.
 It leaves the recipient free to do with it what he wants, to change or not

as he chooses.
 It is given a climate of trust, with a feeling of caring and support.
 It focuses on things the recipient can do something about.
 Negative feedback is preceded by positive feedback.
 It is received non-defensively, that is, if recipient ask only clarifying

questions without defending one.
 The recipient has a chance to say what he thinks and feels about the
feedback.
"I think one lesson I have learned is that there is no substitute for
paying attention." – Diane Sawyer


5. Match the following
A B
1. Adult a) set of emotions that originate from
the childhood script.
2. Parent b) over adaptation
3. Child c) distortion of reality
4. Transactions d) covert transaction
5. Reciprocal transaction e) communication failure
6. Crossed transaction f) complementary transaction
7. Duplex transaction g) flow of unspoken psychological
communication
8. Redefining h) creative, curious, sulks
9. Discounting i) regulates behaviour
10. Racket j) collects information and processes it.
4.7 Summary
In dealing with the various aspects of communication we are also dealing
with coping behaviours and styles in interpersonal relationships. For better
or worse, our interpersonal style does affect our ability to transmit and
receive information, and hence, it will affect the quality of relationships we
are able to achieve.
Life is an Echo
A little boy got angry with his mother and shouted at her, “I hate you, I hate
you.” Because of fear of reprimand, he ran out of the house. He went up to
the valley and shouted “I hate you, I hate you.” and back came the echo, “I
hate you, I hate you,” This was the first time in his life he had heard an echo.
He was scared, went to his mother for protection and said there was a bad
boy in the valley who shouted, “I hate you, I hate you.” The mother
understood and she asked her son to go back and shout, “I love you, I love
you.” The little boy went and shouted, “I love you, I love you,” and back
came the echo: That taught the little boy a lesson – which our life is like an
echo: We get back, what we give.

1. Explain the concepts Redefining and Discounting.
2. What do you mean by rituals and pastimes?
3. How do you develop open self-personality?
4. Write a short note on:
a) Hidden Quadrant of Johari Window.
b) Blind Quadrant
c) Child ego as described in Transactional Analysis
5. Explain any two strategies that enable an individual to satisfy his desire
to be popular.
4.9 Answers
1. i) Interpersonal styles
ii) Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham
iii) open, hidden, blind, unknown
iv) unknown
v) confidence and self-esteem
2. i) supportive coaches ii) task-obsessive
iii) Bohemian style iv) confronting v) Resilient style
3. i) True ii) False iii) False iv) True v) False
vi) False vii) False viii) True ix) True x) True
4. 1-c; 2-d; 3-a; 4-e; 5-b 5. 1-j ; 2-I ; 3-h; 4-g; 5-f; 6-e; 7-d; 8-c; 9-b; 10-a
1. Refer 4.5.3 2. Refer 4.5.4 3. 3. Refer 4.6
4. Refer 4.2 5. Refer 4.4

Acknowledgements & References

 Luft, Joseph (1969). "Of Human Interaction," Palo Alto, CA: National
Press
 Kelly, Anita E. and McKillop, Kevin J. (1996), "Consequences of
Revealing Personal Secrets." Psychological Bulletin,
 Books by Eric Berne (Popular)
 (1964) Games People Play. New York: Grove Press.
 (1996) (Paperback reissue ed.) New York: Ballantine Books.
 (1975) What Do You Say After You Say Hello?
 Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy
 The Structure and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups

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Fundamentals of Communication Skills Unit 1

Unit 1 Language and Communication

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1.2 Concept of Communication

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strengthen relationships. You may also say that communication links

1.3 Process of Communication

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medium called ‘channel.’ A channel connects the sender to the receiver.

Fig. 1.1: Communication Process

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Self Assessment Questions

1.4 Barriers to Effective Communication

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unnecessary jargon, accent, pronunciation and the failure to clarify

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vi) Lack of Planning: Communication would be ineffective, if the person,

1.5 Types of Communication

1.5.1 Verbal communication

 Reporters during press conferences, use gestures to communicate

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Fig. 1.2: Facial Expressions

It can be nearly impossible to avoid expressions for certain emotions,

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Non verbal communication generally takes place as a supportive form of

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In any communication event there is a source (thoughts or ideas or facts),

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1.7 Terminal Questions

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Conversion of Masculine to Feminine Nouns:

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Exercise 3: Turn the nouns into plurals wherever it is possible. Make

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9. before names of islands. E.g.: Easter Islands

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Unit 2 Oral Communication

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2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication

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2.3 One-to One Oral Communication

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Use the map to ask for and give directions.

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You: _______! Go _________ Station Road, turn _____ ________ High

Change A’s questions into more polite forms.

1. A: How far is it to Delhi? B: ---------------------------------

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2.3.2 Communication through telephone

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Self Assessment Question

A: 777172 A: 396577 A: 6438657 A: 605040

B: Hello, Mohan B: Hello. It’s Sam B: Hello, this is B: Hello, my

B: O K B: Right B: All right. B: Right

A: Sorry, but she’s A: I am afraid A:I think she’s A: Sorry, but

A: I’d be glad to! A: Yes of course! A: certainly! A: With

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You: _! Go _ Station Road, turn _ ______ High