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Lead-acid battery, Battery care, Charging, Hydrometer_
Lead-acid battery, Battery care, Charging, Hydrometer_
2023-03-02
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2. Remove filler caps and check the electrolyte level each month.
Fill the battery with deionized water or distilled water to just above the battery plates.
Do not overfill.
Mop and dry any spillage of water.
7. When working on a battery, do not smoke or have a naked flame nearby, because batteries produce hydrogen gas.
8. Before trying to jump start by pushing the car or using jump start cables, make sure that you understand the electrical design of that
particular make of car.
Do not try to jump start a car fitted with electronic systems, but get expert assistance.
9. Battery patrol check list
9.1 No load battery voltage
9.2 Discharge test voltage
9.3 Discharge test gassing
9.4 Physical damage evident
9.5 Electrolyte level
9.6 Terminal security and cleanliness
9.7 Discharge to earth
9.8 Alternator drive tension
9.9 Alternator output
9.10 Age of battery
6 volt battery
The 6 volt battery has three identical lead-acid cells connected in series, so their voltage is added.
The current is the same in all cells.
Charging or discharging current must pass through all the cells in the battery.
The positive and negative plates correspond to the positive and negative electrodes of a primary cell.
Battery plates
These thin plates expose a large surface to the action of the electrolyte.
The plates are constructed from a lead-antimony grid filled with lead (IV) oxide, PbO, in the positive plate and a spongy form of pure grey
lead (Pb) in the negative plate.
Separators are insulators to prevent contact between the plates and allow circulation of the electrolyte, a dilute solution of sulfuric acid in
water.
The order of plates within the cell is negative plate, separator, positive plate, separator with the final plate in the series a negative plate.
Voltage
The voltage (emf ) of a lead-acid cell varies from 2.3 volts when the cell is fully charged to 1.9 volts, when the cell is fully discharged.
A voltmeter connected to the battery terminals of a discarded battery containing some liquid will still show some reading.
When a lead cell accumulator is fully charged, the concentration of sulfuric acid is at maximum.
Electrolyte
When the accumulator is fully discharged, "flat battery", the concentration of sulfuric acid is at a minimum.
A battery hydrometer is used to read the relative density (specific gravity) of the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte and check the charge of the
battery.
The density varies from about 1.28 in a fully charged battery to 1.15 in a discharged battery.
The density of sulfuric acid purchased for use in accumulators is about 1.25 at 20oC.
Discharging
When the battery is discharging, lead (IV) oxide in the positive plate combines with sulfuric acid (sulfuric acid) in the electrolyte to form lead
sulfate (lead sulfate) and water.
Lead in the negative plate combines with sulfuric acid to form lead sulfate and water.
How much lead sulfate is produced is directly proportional to how much current flows.
The electrolyte not only takes part in the conversion of the stored chemical energy to an electric current, but also provides a low resistance
path for the current through the cell.
The battery is discharged when not enough sulfuric acid is left in the electrolyte for effective chemical action and most of the active materials,
lead (IV) oxide and lead, in both sets of plates have been converted into lead sulfate.
During discharge the electrolyte becomes weaker as the acid combines with the plates.
The lead sulfate that has formed fills the pores of the plates so circulation of the electrolyte decreases and the voltage of the battery drops.
The battery is fully discharged when the electrolyte cannot reach the remaining active material of the plates and react with it fast enough to
maintain the working voltage and produce an effective current.
Charging
When the battery is charging, current passes through the battery in the reverse direction to the flow on discharge to reverse the chemical
reactions and reform the dark brown lead (IV) oxide on the positive plates and spongy lead on the negative plates.
When the battery is fully charged, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is restored to its original value.
If electricity is passed through the battery after it is fully charged then more electrical energy is being supplied to the battery than can be
converted to chemical energy.
The excess electricity decomposes the water in the electrolyte to form hydrogen gas and oxygen, called "gassing".
32.5.3.4 Cell connections of a lead cell battery
See diagram 32.5.3.4 Cell connections of 6 volt batteries.
The lead-acid cell has a voltage of two volts when in average working condition.
Each cell has two terminals, the positive terminal and the negative terminal.
Inside the cell, the positive terminal is connected to the positive plates and the negative terminal to the negative plates.
The direction of conventional current flow is from the positive terminal to the negative terminal in the circuit outside the cell.
The movement of current carrying particles, i.e. electrons, is in the opposite direction.
In most of the electrical devices on motor vehicles it does not matter which way the current flows.
In most motor vehicles the negative terminal of the battery is connected to earth, so the current flows from the insulated live side of the circuit
down through the appliance to earth.
However, in motor vehicles using alternators and rectifiers a wrong connection can cause damage.
A 6 volt battery has three 2 volt cells connected in series.
To simplify connection, the centre cell is placed in the container the opposite way round to the end cells.
Two complete 6 volt batteries form a 12 volt battery.
Two batteries may be connected in parallel for heavy duty operation.
Two identical batteries connected in parallel give the voltage of only one battery, but their capacity is double the capacity of each.
An extra battery may be connected in parallel with the battery in a vehicle to start the engine.
If a battery is put on charge with its negative terminal connected to the positive terminal of the charger, the battery may be badly damaged by
reversal of the polarity of the plates.
If the name plate is facing the observer, the positive terminal will be at the front right hand corner.
Reverse assembly, the positive terminal will be at the front left hand corner.
The polarity of each individual cell can be found with a moving coil permanent magnet voltmeter with its terminals marked.
The positive post may be painted red, or becomes a dark chocolate colour after a very short period of use.
The negative terminal always looks cleaner and remains light grey in colour.
Each inter cell connector becomes discoloured in the same way, one end dark brown and the other end light grey.
The dark brown end is connected to the positive terminal of a cell, and the light grey end is connected to the negative terminal of the adjacent
cell.
A lead-acid battery may self-discharge at the rate of 1% of its capacity per day.
Amp-hour meter
Measure with an amp-hour meter which monitors all power moving in and out of the battery by time, and the state of charge is determined by
comparing flow rates.
Electrolyte density
Measure the density, specific gravity, of the sulfuric acid electrolyte with a battery hydrometer.
This is the most accurate test, but yet it is only applicable to flooded lead-acid batteries.
Electrolyte density is lower when the battery is discharged and higher as the cells are charged.
The battery's chemical reactions affect the density of the electrolyte at a constant rate that is predictable enough to get a good indication of the
cell's state of charge.
Battery hydrometer
For battery testing, the hydrometer floats in a syringe.
The electrolyte is drawn into a glass tube so that level can be observed in relation to the scale marked on the narrow stem of the hydrometer.
Always take readings at eye level, i.e. your line of sight must be horizontal.
The battery hydrometer indicates the state of charge of each cell.
The electrolyte expands when heated and contracts when cooled so a reference temperature standard is needed.
State of charge
The specific gravity, SG, of the electrolyte in each cell of a battery shows the battery's state of charge:
Fully charged, SG = 1.280. Three quarter charged, SG = 1.240, Half charged, SG = 1.200, Quarter charged, SG = 1.160,
Discharged, SG = 1.120.
The state of charge of a battery is not a true indication of its internal condition if the battery has any bulging, cracking, leakage of electrolyte,
or lifting of the cell covers at the positive post end.
Check that you have enough electrolyte above the plates to make a hydrometer test then read the specific gravity of the electrolyte in each cell.
If any reading is below 1.225, the battery has been recharged following the manufacturer's instructions.
A low reading in one or more cells after the battery has been recharged indicates internal trouble.
Test the ability of the battery to do the work required of it by drawing the normal starter motor current and measuring the voltage of the
individual cells while they are discharging at a high rate with an accurate voltmeter.
No cell should read less than 1.5 volts.
As the cells of a battery are connected in series, each receives the same charging current and the same amount of current also flows through
each on discharge.
If the cell voltages do not fall below 1.5 volts while the starter is being operated and the specific gravity readings are at least 1.250, the battery
is in good condition.
2. The electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries is a solution of chemically pure sulfuric acid in deionized water.
The efficiency and ultimate life of a battery depends on the purity of the electrolyte.
Always use deionized water or, demineralized water or rainwater to maintain the level of electrolyte in the cells, topping up.
Do not add tap water or water that has been in contact with metals, especially iron, because impurities cause secondary chemical reactions and
the battery can self-discharge.
Do not fill above an electrolyte marker or the top of the splash guards, just fill to cover the separators that extend upwards above the top edges
of the plates.
The electrolyte should be able to expand and rise when warmed without spilling out through the vent holes in the filler plugs.
BE CAREFUL! REMEMBER: ACID TO WATER, NEVER WATER TO ACID!
3. Charge the battery at the normal rate until the specific gravity stops rising and the cells are gassing.
If the SG is too high, draw off some electrolyte with the battery hydrometer syringe and replace it with deionized water or demineralized water
or rain water.
If the SG is too low, draw off some electrolyte and replace it with 1.300 specific gravity acid.
Charge the battery for a further two hours after any replacement to mix the electrolyte thoroughly before taking another reading.
Use a clean glass container for mixing the electrolyte.
Put the water required into the container first then pour the acid slowly into the water while stirring.
Let the electrolyte cool to room temperature before taking the final specific gravity reading.
Keep the battery and its surrounding parts clean and dry to avoid corrosion of metal parts.
Overcharging may cause loosening and shedding of the active material from the plate grids.
The hot electrolyte may attack the separators and the life of the battery will be very short.
4. A battery is left for a long time in a partially discharged state is harder to recharge to its original capacity, because the fine crystalline lead
sulfate may harden and become more dense, the battery becomes "sulfated".
To avoid sulfation, the generator must run long enough to restore the chemical energy used to start the engine and operate the lights and
accessories while the engine is idle.
The internal resistance of the battery is higher when cold, and a short run may not raise the electrolyte temperature sufficiently to lower its
resistance, so the voltage regulator operates earlier in the charging cycle, and at a lower specific gravity than it would do normally.
Do not allow the electrolyte level to become too low to expose the plates to the air, because oxygen in the air will combine with the spongy
lead of the negative plate to form a layer of lead (IV) oxide.
6. Fix two lead foil strips in a beaker and add 200 mL of 1 mol per litre sulfuric acid. Connect the lead electrodes to a power pack set at 2 V
and switch it on for two minutes. The lead strip connected to the positive terminal becomes covered with brown lead dioxide. Disconnect the
power pack and connect the lead strips to a torch battery. The battery glows, but the brown leads dioxide on the positive terminal does not
disappear. Repeat the experiment with increasing charging times. The time the battery glows increases with charging time up to 30 seconds
then hardly changes. Repeat the experiment with different charging voltages. Different charging voltage makes hardly any difference in the
time the battery glows. However, at high charging voltages hydrogen is produced at the negative electrode and oxygen at the positive
electrode. Charging
At the positive electrode: Pb(s) + 2H2O(l) --> PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-
At the negative electrode: 2H+(aq) + 2e- --> H2(g)
Also, lead reacts with the sulfuric acid to produce lead sulfate
At the positive electrode: PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) --> PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42- + 2e-
At the negative electrode: PbSO4(s) + 2e- --> Pb(s) + SO42-(aq)
So sulfuric acid is produced during charging and is consumed during discharging. As sulfuric acid has about twice the density of water, the
density of the electrolyte shows the state of charge of the battery.
7. When the battery is fully charged, the specific gravity = 1.280, electrode A is lead and electrode, B is lead dioxide.
When the battery is discharging, electrode A changes from lead to lead sulfate, electrode, B changes from lead dioxide to lead sulfate, and the
concentration of sulfuric acid decreases.
When the battery is being charged, these processes are reversed.
The concentration of sulfuric acid suggests the state of charge of the battery so this concentration can be measured with a battery hydrometer.
Electrode A: Pb + SO42- --> PbSO4 + 2e-
Electrode B: PbO2 + 4H3O+ + SO42- + 2e- --> PbSO4 + 6H2O
In a motor car battery, the electrodes have a coat of lead (II) oxide (PbO) and lead powder (Pb).
In the electrolyte, electric current converts the PbO to Pb on the negative plate, and the PbO to lead (IV) oxide (lead peroxide) PbO2 on the
positive plate.
Discharging -->
PbO2 + 2H2SO4 + Pb < = > 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
<-- Charging
If you pass electricity through the battery after it is fully charged, "gassing" occurs, i.e. water is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen gas.
Never smoke or allow a naked flame near a charging battery.
Amp-hour capacity
The approximate amp-hour capacities of some common batteries:
1. Typical automotive battery: 70 amp-hours at 3.5 A (secondary cell)
2. D-size carbon-zinc battery: 4.5 amp-hours at 100 mA (primary cell)
3. 9 volt carbon-zinc battery: 400 milliamp-hours at 8 mA (primary cell)
10-hour rating
For automobile batteries, a common standard rating is the 10-hour rating. It is the steady discharge current, in amperes, to reduce the cell
voltage to 1.8 in 10 hours at 15oC, with specific gravity of the electrolyte 1.120 when fully discharged.
The full theoretical capacity of a battery cannot be used, because the discharge current that must diffuse into the plates fast enough to replace
the electrolyte used in the production of an electric current.
Lead sulfate clogs the pores of the plates and restricts the movement of the electrolyte so that chemical action is reduced, the voltage generated
by the cell is lowered, and the useful current is reduced.
Also, the resistance of the materials on the plates increases as the cells are discharged and the resistance of the electrolyte increases as the
battery discharges and the acid content of the electrolyte falls.
Both a 6 volt 50 ampere-hour battery and a 12 volt 50 ampere-hour battery will deliver a current of 5 amperes for 10 hours, so the stated
capacity of 5 × 10 = 50 ampere-hours.
The advantage of the 12 volt automobile battery is that it has twice the watt-hour capacity of the 6 volt battery, i.e. it stores twice the amount
of electrical energy.
The 6 volt battery delivers its 5 amperes at 6 volts, but the 12 volt battery delivers the same current for the same length of time at 12 volts.
Watt-hour capacity
Power from 6 volt battery, W = V × I = 6 × 5 = 30 watts.
Energy capacity of 6 volt battery = power × time = watts × hours = 30 × 10 = 300 watt hours.
Power from 12 volt battery, W = V × I = 12 × 5 = 60 watts.
Energy capacity of 12 volt battery = power × time = watts × hours = 60 × 10 = 600 watt hours.
Thus, watt hours = ampere-hours × voltage.
These calculations show that the watt hour capacity is equal to the ampere-hour capacity multiplied by the battery voltage.
Watt hour capacity = ampere-hour capacity × battery voltage.
Battery capacity
Amp hours is the most common unit for battery capacity.
Amp hours = current X time.
Batteries used in photovoltaic systems are rated in Ampere Hours, (AH).
So a 100 AH battery can supply 1 amp for 100 hours, or 100 amps for one hour.
Small cells have storage capacity up to 200 milliamperes, nAH.
Large lead-acid batteries have storage capacity more than 100 AH.
If a battery is rated 10 AH at 12 volts DC, Power, P in watts = VI, volts × amps, multiply both sides by t, Watt-hours, Pt = VIt = 12 × 10 = 120
watt-hours.
The Ampere hour rating, Ah, is the current available when discharged evenly over a 20-hour period, the standard time length for rating
batteries.
Reserve capacity
Reserve capacity is the number of minutes that a battery can supply a useful voltage (10.5 volts or more), under a 25 amp discharge rate.
Reserve capacity is used for batteries that run heavy loads.
For example, a battery specification "RC@ 25A = 160 minutes" means that at 80oF (about 27oC), the battery can supply 25 amps of current at
a usable voltage for 160 minutes.
Reserve capacity is often a truer test of battery life than amp hours, depending on how the battery is used.
Shelf life
The "shelf life" is the length of time a battery can remain in storage, (not connected to a load), without losing its energy capacity.
However, the metal plates eventually leak and react with each other, even though the battery is not in use.
Some people store their flashlight / torch batteries in a refrigerator, because they think this will extend the shelf life of the batteries.
Maximum deliverable current is the largest current a battery can push through a load without drop in its output voltage.
Sulfuric acid
When a lead cell accumulator is fully charged, the concentration of sulfuric acid is at maximum.
When the accumulator is fully discharged, "flat battery", the concentration of sulfuric acid is at minimum.
Use a battery hydrometer to read the relative density (specific gravity) of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte and check how charged the battery is.
The density varies from about 1.28 in a fully charged battery to 1.15 in a discharged battery.
The density of sulfuric acid purchased for use in accumulators is about 1.25 at 20oC.
Equations
Charging cell
Pb (s) + 2H2O (l) --> PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e- (anode)
4H+ (aq) + 4e- --> 2H2 (g) cathode
Discharging cell
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e- --> Pb2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) (anode)
Pb (s) --> Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-(cathode)