Aerodynamics Task - 8

Introduction to Flight

Contents

1 Elements of Airplane performace 2

1.1 Micro Air Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Aerodynamic efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 Measure of Aerodynamic efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.2 What affects the L/D ratio, Lift or Drag? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.3 Sources of Aerodynamic Drag and reduction techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Principles of Stability and Control 5

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.2 Stability and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.2.1 Static Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.2.2 Dynamic Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2.3 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.3 Moments on the Airplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.4 Absolute Angle of Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.5 Equations for Longitudinal Static Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.6 Neutral Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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 2.7 Static Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

List of Figures

1 A flying wing Micro Air Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Relation between glide angle and the range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Axes of control in an aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Lift curve for Geometric and Absolute angle of attack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1 Elements of Airplane performace

1.1 Micro Air Vehicles

Micro Air Vehicles (MAVs) are a class of small, unmanned aerial vehicles designed for various applica-

tions like surveillance, environmental monitoring, search and rescue, etc. Due to the low speed and small

size of these vehicles, they have a low Reynolds number (Re¡100,000) compared to every other aircraft

which fly at Reynolds number in millions. At such low Reynolds number the aerodynamics acts quiet

different. The observations on a CFD of the Wortmann FX63-137 airfoil were as follows, the flow over

the airfoil is laminar and separates even at zero angle of attack due to the laminar separation bubble. The

result of such separation is decrease in lift, dramatic increase in drag and the lift-to-drag ratio is reduced.

But when the flow is made turbulent in the CFD, the coefficient of lift was higher in the turbulent flow

case. MAVs have low aspect ratio, in the order of 1 to 2 and have low Reynolds number, where both tend

to decrease lift and increase drag.

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 Figure 1: A flying wing Micro Air Vehicle

1.2 Aerodynamic efficiency

Aerodynamic efficiency refers to how effectively an object minimizes drag and maximizes lift as it moves

through the air. High aerodynamic efficiency is crucial because it enhances performance by reducing fuel

consumption and increasing speed and range. This efficiency improves overall performance and minimizes

environmental impact by reducing emissions, making it a critical factor for both economic and ecological

sustainability in the aviation industry.

1.2.1 Measure of Aerodynamic efficiency

Lift-to-Drag ratio of an aircraft is what essentially decides the aerodynamic efficiency of the same. Higher

Figure 2: Relation between glide angle and the range

the L/D ratio, smaller is the glide angle increasing the range of the aircraft depending on the height of the

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aircraft. Range for a jet- powered aircraft is given by

R = V∞ ∗ L/D

in which

V∞ = a∞ M∞

where a∞ is the speed of sound and M∞ is the Mach number of the aircraft. This shows the essence of

L/D ratio when it comes to the range of an aircraft.

1.2.2 What affects the L/D ratio, Lift or Drag?

One might naturally think that increasing the Lift of the aircraft increases the aerodynamic efficiency of

the aircraft, but considering a level flight since lift is equal to the weight of the aircraft, increasing it will

result in a climb. therefore, to increase the L/D ratio of the aircraft essentially means to decrease the drag.

1.2.3 Sources of Aerodynamic Drag and reduction techniques.

Aerodynamic drag refers to the resistance encountered by an object as it moves through the air. This

resistance is caused by the friction and pressure differential between the moving object and the surrounding

air molecules. The major contribution to the overall drag of the aircraft is the form drag which is caused

due to the flow separation resulted by the pressure difference/gradient encountered by the flow. This drag

can only be reduced my making the aircraft more streamlined. A lecture given by the British Aeronautical

Engineer Sir B.Melvill Jones at the Royal Aeronautical Society titled ”The streamline Airplane”. In this

lecture Mr. Jones demonstrated how streamlining the aircraft can drastically improve the velocity of the

aircraft with respect to the power. This influence of this lecture initiated the ”design revolution” in the

1930s.

Protuberances on aircraft like pitot tube, landing gear, antennas, etc. cause the flow to separate and result

in form drag which is often called as ”Protuberance Drag” in this case, this drag can be reduced by making

the protuberances streamlined, use of Flush-rivets, retractable landing gears helped to reduce this drag.

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In air-cooled radial engines the air flow is passed over the engine to keep it cool, however this adds to the

drag of the aircraft. which is called as the ”Cooling Drag”, It is reduced by the usage of NACA cowlings

introduced in the 1920s which helps manipulate the airflow efficiently to cool the engine and reduce the

drag.

’Induced drag’ in aircraft is caused by the production of lift. It occurs as a byproduct of generating lift

with finite wings, resulting in a rearward component of force that opposes the aircraft’s forward motion.

It can be reduced through the use of winglets, wing taper, higher aspect ratio.

Wave drag is experienced by the aircraft at super sonic speeds, which is caused to the pressure difference

over the wing resulting in shock waves, this drag can be reduced by sweeping the wing of the aircraft, use

of thin wings with sharp leading edge.

L/D ratio can be drastically improved by reducing the skin-friction drag, which can be done by having

a laminar flow. Passive techniques like manipulating the shape of the body can encourage the growth of

laminar boundary layer or Active techniques like Laminar flow control by sucking the air on the surface

through tiny holes where the nature is actively being used to control the flow.

2 Principles of Stability and Control

2.1 Introduction

Aircraft control involves three primary axes: pitch (Lateral Axis), roll (Longitudinal axis), and yaw (Nor-

mal axis). These axes correspond to the aircraft’s movements around its center of gravity. Pitch controls

the nose-up and nose-down movements, roll controls banking left or right, and yaw controls the side-

to-side movement of the nose. Pilots use control surfaces such as elevators (longitudinal controls) are

mounted at the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer and controls the pitch (longitudinal motion) of the

aircraft, ailerons(lateral controls) are mounted at the trailing edge of the wing and controls the roll (lateral

motion) of the aircraft , and rudder(directional controls) is mounted on the vertical stabilizer and controls

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 Figure 3: Axes of control in an aircraft

the yaw (directional motion) of the aircraft. These control surfaces manipulate these axes and maintain

stability and control during flight. Understanding and effectively managing these axes are fundamental to

piloting and maneuvering an aircraft safely and accurately.

2.2 Stability and Control

There are two types of stability namely Static Stability and Dynamic Stability.

2.2.1 Static Stability

Static stability refers to the aircraft’s tendency to return to its trimmed flight after the disturbances in its

flight path. There are three main types of static stability:

• Positive Stability: In this case, when the aircraft is disturbed from its original position, it tends to

return to its initial position over time.

• Neutral Stability:when the aircraft is disturbed, it neither returns to its original position nor con-

tinues to move away from it. It remains in the new position indefinitely unless a control input is

applied.

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 • Negative Stability:This occurs when a disturbance causes the aircraft to move further away from

its original position over time.

2.2.2 Dynamic Stability

Dynamic stability refers to the behavior of an aircraft over time after it has been disturbed from its equi-

librium position. It considers how the aircraft returns to its original flight path, considering the oscillatory

motions that may occur. Suppose an aircraft is flying in a level flight at a certain angle of attack called

the trimmed angle of attack. The angle of attack is increased due to a gust of wind after which the stable

plane experiences moment that comes in affect to return the aircraft to the level flight but overshoots and

the process continues resulting in damped periodic oscillations of the aircraft. There are three types,

• Positive Dynamic Stability:When an aircraft has positive dynamic stability, it returns to its original

position over time after a disturbance. This often involves damped oscillations, where the amplitude

of the oscillations decreases progressively until the aircraft stabilizes back to its initial state.

• Neutral Dynamic Stability: The aircraft does not return to its original position nor does it deviate

further away over time after being disturbed. The oscillations maintain a constant amplitude.

• Negative Dynamic Stability:An aircraft with negative dynamic stability will diverge from its origi-

nal position over time after a disturbance. The oscillations increase in amplitude, leading to increas-

ingly unstable flight conditions.

2.2.3 Control

Control in aircraft involves using control surfaces like ailerons, elevators, and rudders to manage the

plane’s orientation and movement. Pilots use cockpit controls to adjust these surfaces, directing the air-

craft’s pitch, roll, and yaw for safe navigation, maneuvering, and landing.

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2.3 Moments on the Airplane

Moments on an airplane refer to the rotational forces that affect its pitch, roll, and yaw. These moments

are generated by aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft’s control surfaces and structural components.

Properly managing these moments is essential for stable and controlled flight, ensuring the airplane can

perform desired maneuvers and maintain its intended flight path. The point where changes in lift do not

produce a change in the pitching moment, making it a key reference for analyzing aerodynamic stability

and control is called the Aerodynamic center. There exists a Moment about the Center of Gravity which is

fundamentally essential for the stability and control of the aircraft. The aircraft is said to be in equilibrium

if the Moments about Center of Gravity are zero.

2.4 Absolute Angle of Attack

Absolute Angle of Attack is the angle between the relative wind and the Zero-lift line. Majority of the air-

foils today generate lift even at zero angle of attack (geometric) due to the camber of the airfoil. Therefore

these airfoils have slightly negative zero-lift angle.

Figure 4: Lift curve for Geometric and Absolute angle of attack.

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2.5 Equations for Longitudinal Static Stability

Longitudinal static stability refers to the aircraft’s tendency to return to its trimmed angle of attack after

being disturbed. It’s typically calculated using the equations that include Coefficient of moment due to the

aerodynamic center and the tail volume is considered to incorporate factors like tail’s area, moment arm

and the aerodynamic characteristic relative to the main wing. It plays a very important role in determining

the longitudinal static stability.

2.6 Neutral Point

The neutral point of an aircraft is the point along its longitudinal axis where changes in angle of attack do

not produce pitching moments. Mathematically, it can be defined as the aerodynamic center (AC) location

relative to the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG). Neutral point is basically the Aerodynamic Center with

respect to the whole aircraft and not just the wing, The Aerodynamic Center of the wing and Aircraft are

not same due to the lifting ability of the tail, which possess its own Aerodynamic Center influencing the

AC of the main wing, then the Neutral Point can be calculated using both the ACs.

2.7 Static Margin

Static Margin is a direct measure of the Longitudinal Static Stability. Indicating the relative position of the

center of gravity (CG) to the neutral point (NP). If the static margin is positive the aircraft will be statically

stable and depending on the value, the aircraft can be highly stable and less stable. If the static margin is

zero the aircraft will be neutrally stable. A negative static margin indicates highly unstable aircraft.