AERODYNAMICS TASK-8

Steve Sunish Chiramal

27 June 2024

Contents
1 Chapter 6 - Micro Air Vehicles 4
1.1 Characteristics of Micro Air Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Aerodynamics of Airfoils at Low Re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Quest for Aerodynamic Efficiency 5

2.1 Measure of Aerodynamic Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 L/D for Large Wide-Body Commercial Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 What dictates the value of L/D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Sources of Aerodynamic Drag, Drag Reduction . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.1 Pressure Distribution and Skin Friction . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.2 Net Aerodynamic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.3 Early Aircraft and the Introduction of Streamlining . . . . 8
2.4.4 Types of Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.5 Drag Reduction Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Innovative Aircraft Configurations for High L/D . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Principles of Stability and Control 11

3.1 Static Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Dynamic Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Positive Dynamic Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 Neutral Dynamic Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.5 Negative Dynamic Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.6 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Moments of an Airplane 12

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5 Absolute Angle of Attack 12

6 Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability 13

6.1 Why a Conventional Airplane has a Horizontal Tail . . . . . . . . 13

7 Equations For Longitudinal Static Stability 14

8 Neutral Point 15

9 Static Margin 15

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List of Figures
1 Conceptual micro air vehicle as designed by R. J. Foch, Naval
Research Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 CFD over an airfoil, Re < 100, 000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 Illustration of the velocity increase for a totally streamlined airplane. 7
4 A truss-braced wing configuration based on NASA studies. . . . . 10
5 Generic Blended Body Wing Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Zero-lift line of the wing–body combination compared with that
of the complete airplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

List of Acronyms
CG Center of Gravity
CoL Center of Lift
NP or hn Neutral Point
AoA Angle of Attack
Re Reynolds Number
L/D Lift to Drag Ratio
CL Coefficient of Lift
CD Coefficient of Drag
Mac Moment About Aerodynamic Center
CM,ac Coefficient About the Aerodynamic Center
Mcg Moment About the Center of Gravity
CM,cg Coefficient About the Center of Gravity
Vinf inity Relative Wind
VH Tail Volume Ratio

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1 Chapter 6 - Micro Air Vehicles

Figure 1: Conceptual micro air vehicle as designed by R. J. Foch, Naval Research

Laboratory

1.1 Characteristics of Micro Air Vehicles

They are a special type of very small UAVs.
1. They can consist of wingspans upto 15cm.
2. They can weigh up to 0.09kg.
3. They are used for missions such as anti crime or anti terrorism
surveillance and can be made as small as insects.
4. Because of their small size and low speed, they fly with low
Reynolds Numbers (Re ) < 100,000.
5. They also consists of small aspect ratios in the order of 1 to 2.
6. Since the low aspect ratio and low Re flow over the wings both
aid to decrease lift and increase drag, Maximum lift-to-drag ratios
are usually on the order of 4 to 6.

1.2 Aerodynamics of Airfoils at Low Re

1. Laminar Flow: Usually at this low Re , flow above the airfoil is
laminar.A region of flow separation occurs over this airfoil even at

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 a zero AoA. This is due to the formation of a laminar separation
bubble which is a characteristic of low- Reynolds-number flow
over an airfoil with normal thickness. Due to this, the aircraft
the lift dramatically decreases, the drag skyrockets, and the all-
important L/D for the airfoil is reduced.
2. Turbulent Flow: If the flow is artificially made turbulent, attached
flow is obtained without flow separation. A lift coefficient of 0.45
is obtained in contrast to the 0.05 for the laminar flow.

Figure 2: CFD over an airfoil, Re < 100, 000

2 Quest for Aerodynamic Efficiency

2.1 Measure of Aerodynamic Efficiency
The measure of aerodynamic efficiency for an aircraft is its Lift to Drag ra-
tio, L/D. A higher value of L/D indicates a higher rate-of-climb.

For glider planes, having a high L/D is everything. It dictates the glide
angle, and hence the gliding distance covered over the ground. The higher
the L/D, the smaller the glide angle and hence larger the distance covered

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over the ground.

But the most powerful impact of the L/D on airplane efficiency is through
range and endurance. The higher the L/D, the higher are both range and
endurance for both propeller-driven and jet-propelled airplanes.

for a propeller-driven airplane, range is directly proportional to CL /CD , and

3/2
endurance is directly proportional to CL /CD
1/2
For a jet-propelled airplane, range is directly proportional to CL /CD and
endurance is directly proportional to CL /CD

Thus L/D has a direct effect on both range and endurance, which are im-
portant to determine the airplane efficiency.

L
For a jet airplane, maximum range is obtained by flying at M∞ D

2.2 L/D for Large Wide-Body Commercial Aircraft

For these huge aircraft such as the B747 or the A380,the Re based on length
is very large and skin friction coefficients are correspondingly smaller than
they would be for a smaller airplane. This aids to a very high L/D value often
in the range of 20s. This means that for every 20 pounds of lift produced
by the airplane, it costs only one pound of drag.In steady level flight, thrust
equals drag, so we are paying the cost of producing 20 pounds of lift through
the cost of the fuel consumed by the engine to produce one pound of the
thrust to counter the one pound of drag

2.3 What dictates the value of L/D

Since the lift must be equal to the weight of an aircraft at steady flight and
for a given airplane in steady, level flight, the necessary value of lift is fixed
by the weight. Hence, the value of L/D can be increased only by decreasing
drag.

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Figure 3: Illustration of the velocity increase for a totally streamlined airplane.

2.4 Sources of Aerodynamic Drag, Drag Reduction

2.4.1 Pressure Distribution and Skin Friction
1. Pressure Distribution: Pressure differences across the object’s
surface cause pressure drag. Areas of high and low pressure cre-
ate a net force that acts in the direction of the airflow, contributing
to the overall drag
2. Skin Friction (Shear Stress): As air flows over the object’s sur-
face, friction between the air and the surface creates skin-friction
drag. This drag is due to the viscous nature of the fluid and the
surface texture of the object.

2.4.2 Net Aerodynamic Force

The total aerodynamic force on an object is the sum of pressure and
shear stress distributions over the surface. The drag component of this
force acts in the direction of the airflow.

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2.4.3 Early Aircraft and the Introduction of Streamlining
Early aircraft, such as the Wright flyer and biplanes, had high pres-
sure drag due to flow separation, known as ”form drag.” These designs
were not streamlined, resulting in significant drag.

Sir B. Melvill Jones highlighted the importance of streamlining in his

1929 lecture, ”The Streamline Airplane.” His analysis demonstrated
that streamlining could significantly reduce drag and improve aircraft
performance.

Streamlining reduces flow separation, thereby minimizing form drag.

This concept led to a design revolution in the 1930s, transforming
box-like aircraft into streamlined models with much lower drag.

2.4.4 Types of Drag

1. Pressure Drag (Form Drag): Caused by flow separation around
the object. Reducing this drag involves designing shapes that
minimize flow separation, such as streamlined bodies.
2. Protuberance Drag: Created by objects projecting into the air-
flow (e.g., antennas, landing gear). Minimizing this drag involves
streamlining these protuberances or reducing their frontal area.
3. Cooling Drag: Occurs when part of the airflow is used for engine
cooling. For air-cooled radial engines, airflow over the cylin-
ders can cause high form drag. Properly designed cowlings can
channel this airflow efficiently, reducing drag. For liquid-cooled
engines, coolant passes through a radiator cooled by airflow, in-
creasing pressure drag. External vents for cooling the cockpit and
cabin also contribute to cooling drag.
4. Induced Drag: Caused by wingtip vortices and the redistribution
of surface pressure over a finite wing. It can be reduced by in-
creasing the wing’s aspect ratio or adding winglets. However,
higher aspect ratios require stronger, heavier wing structures.
5. Wave Drag: Associated with supersonic flight and caused by
shock waves pressing against the vehicle’s forward areas. Re-

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 ducing wave drag involves using wing sweep, thin wings with
sharp leading edges, and tailored fuselage designs.

2.4.5 Drag Reduction Techniques

1. Streamlining: Reduces flow separation and form drag. This was
a key innovation in the 1930s that dramatically improved aircraft
performance.
2. Laminar Flow: Encouraging laminar boundary layers reduces
skin-friction drag. Optimized airfoil shapes and smooth compos-
ite surfaces can help maintain laminar flow over larger surface
areas. Early attempts with NACA laminar flow airfoils showed
limited success due to manufacturing and field use realities. How-
ever, modern research using computational fluid dynamics and
smooth composite surfaces has shown promise.
3. Active Techniques: Methods like boundary-layer suction, which
involves sucking the boundary layer off the surface through pin-
holes, can reduce skin friction. These techniques are not yet
practical for production aircraft due to extra power and weight
requirements.

2.5 Innovative Aircraft Configurations for High L/D

1. Truss-Braced Wing Configuration: Incorporates the traditional tube-
and-wing design but innovates with wing aerodynamics and structural
support. Has a very high aspect ratio wing, which improves aerody-
namic efficiency.Supports the wing with an external truss, reducing the
need for heavy internal structures. The truss is anchored at the bottom
of the fuselage and attaches to the bottom of the high-mounted wing.
The truss is designed aerodynamically, contributing marginally to lift
and adding minimal drag. This configuration results in a lift-to-drag
ratio of about 26, which is more than 25% higher than that of conven-
tional aircraft.
2. Blended Wing Body (BWB): Combines a flying wing with a center
body that has a thick airfoil shape and a bullet nose. Replaces the
conventional tube fuselage with a center body that acts as an efficient
lifting surface, improving the span-wise lift distribution to be closer to
the ideal elliptical distribution. The BWB configuration can achieve

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 a lift-to-drag ratio of around 30, which is about 50% higher than a
conventional configuration.

Figure 4: A truss-braced wing configuration based on NASA studies.

Figure 5: Generic Blended Body Wing Design.

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3 Principles of Stability and Control
3.1 Static Stability
1. Statically Stable: Aircraft that are statically stable experience a restor-
ing force that brings it back to the previous attitude if disturbed.
2. Statically Neutral: Aircraft that are statically neutral continue in their
new attitude if disturbed.
3. Statically Unstable: Aircraft that are statically unstable keep deviating
from the original attitude if disturbed.

3.2 Dynamic Stability

Dynamic stability deals with how the motion caused by a disturbance changes
with time.

3.3 Positive Dynamic Stability

Considering a pitch up motion, the aircraft follows an oscillating patch
through the original altitude with the amplitude of the oscillations decreas-
ing with time until it resumes the original flight path (damped oscillations).

3.4 Neutral Dynamic Stability

Considering a pitch up motion, the aircraft follows an oscillating patch
through the original altitude but the amplitude of the oscillations do not
change with time.

3.5 Negative Dynamic Stability

Considering a pitch up motion, the aircraft follows an oscillating patch
through the original altitude with the amplitude of the oscillations increase
with time.

3.6 Control
The study of the deflections of the ailerons, elevators, and rudder neces-
sary to make the airplane do what we want and of the amount of force that

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 must be exerted by the pilot (or the hydraulic boost system) to deflect these
controls is part of a discipline called airplane control.

4 Moments of an Airplane
There exists a particular point about which the moments are independent of the
angle of attack. This point is defined as the aerodynamic center for the wing. The
moment and its coefficient about the aerodynamic center are denoted by Mac and
CM,ac , respectively, where CM,ac = qM ac
∞ Sc
.

at zero lift, Mac = Mc/4 = Manypoint

Hence,
CM,ac = (CM,c/4 )L=0 = (CM,anypoint )L=0

This says that the value of CM,ac (which is constant for angles of attack) can be ob-
tained from the value of the moment coefficient about any point when the wing is
at the zero-lift AoA. For this reason Mac is sometimes called the zero-lift moment.

The moment coefficient about the center of gravity is defined as

Mcg
CM,cg =
q∞ Sc

5 Absolute Angle of Attack

Consider a wing at an angle of attack such that lift is zero; that is, the wing is at
the zero-lift angle of attack αL=0 .

A line through the trailing edge parallel to the relative wind V ∞. This line is
defined as the zero-lift line for the airfoil and is a fixed line

Conventional cambered airfoils have slightly negative zero-lift angles; therefore

the zero-lift line lies slightly above the chord line.

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The angle between the zero-lift line and the relative wind is equal to the sum
of α and the absolute value of αL = 0 . This angle is defined as the absolute angle
of attack αa .
αa = α + αL=0

Figure 6: Zero-lift line of the wing–body combination compared with that of the
complete airplane

6 Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability

The necessary criteria for longitudinal balance and static stability are

1. CM,0 must be positive.

∂CM,cg
2. ∂αa
must be negative

6.1 Why a Conventional Airplane has a Horizontal Tail

Consider an ordinary wing with a conventional airfoil.

If the moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center is negative, the air-
foils will have a positive camber.

Now assume that the wing is at zero lift. In this case the only moment
on the wing is a pure couple, hence, at zero lift, the moment about one point

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 is equal to the moment about any other point.

In particular,
CM,ac = CM,cg
However,CM,0 is, by definition, the moment coefficient about the CG at zero
lift.

Hence,
CM,0 = CM,ac
So, for a wing with positive camber,CM,0 is also negative. Such a wing by
itself is unbalanced . To rectify this situation, a horizontal tail must be added
to the airplane.

If the tail is mounted behind the wing and if it is inclined downward to

produce a negative tail lift, then a clockwise moment about the CG will be
created. If this clockwise moment is strong enough, it will overcome the
negative CM,ac , and CM,0 for the wing–tail combination will become posi-
tive. The airplane will then be balanced.

7 Equations For Longitudinal Static Stability

The necessary criteria for longitudinal balance and static stability are

1. CM,0 must be positive.

∂CM,cg
2. ∂αa
must be negative

By combining the preceding results we obtain formulas for the direct calcula-
∂CM,cg
tion of CM,0 and ∂α a
.

Hence,
CM,0 = (CM,cg )L=0 = (CM,acwb ) + VH at (it + ϵ0 )
We know that CM,0 must be positive to balance the airplane. However, the previ-
ous sections have pointed out that (CM,acwb ) is negative for conventional airplanes.
Therefore, VH at (it + ϵ0 ) must be positive and large enough to more than coun-
terbalance the negative CM,ac . Both VH and at are positive quantities, and ϵ0 is

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usually so small that it exerts only a minor effect. Thus, it must be a positive
quantity .

Also,
∂CM,cg at ∂ϵ
= a[h − hacwb − VH (1 − )]
∂αa a ∂α
This equation clearly shows the powerful influence of the location h of the CG
and the tail volume ratio VH in determining longitudinal static stability.

8 Neutral Point
Consider the situation where the location h of the CG is allowed to move with
everything else remaining fixed.

There is a specific location of the CG where

∂CM,cg
=0
∂αa
The value of h when this condition holds is defined as the neutral point, denoted
by hn .

The location of the neutral point is readily obtained from

at ∂ϵ
hn = hacwb + VH (1 − )
a ∂α

Thus, for a given airplane design, the neutral point is a fixed quantity. It is in-
dependent of the actual location h of the CG.

For longitudinal static stability, the position of the CG must always be forward
of the hn .

9 Static Margin
If the CG location has been moved to hn , VH is therefore based on the moment
arm measured from the location of hn .

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 ∂CM,cg
= a(h − hn )
∂αa
and the distance hn − h is known as the static margin

hence
∂CM,cg
= −a(hn − h) = −a × (staticmargin)
∂αa

Static margin is a direct measure of longitudinal static stability. For static sta-
bility, the static margin must be positive.

Moreover, the larger the static margin, the more stable the airplane

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