2410124 Ring Theory >

2Q Gallian
Linear Algebra-4Q Fredberg

Internal Test from PYQ (last years

Ring of Polynomial over R .

Def" Let R be commutative ring

:

a .

the set of formal symbols :

R(n) 29nx"+ ancn+

=

. . .
+ a ,x +

90 199tR]
is called the ring of polynomial over R in the indeterminate R .

Ring (R ,
+
,
* )
(R ,+) Abelian
Group
·
-

·
(R ,x) -
Semi-Group closure ,
associative , disty

two elements of RIn]

f(x) A ,x 1322+ antin

=

a + +

...
+

g() b, bax box+ batte

+
=
+ + . . .

flu)=g(u) if ai=bi Xi=1 . 2 ... nin+1 .

f(x) A ,x 1322+ antin

=

a + +

...
+

g(x)
=
b, +

bax bax2+ +
. . .
+

Dat

I m
=
n

II m>n 4 an+1=0 , an+2 =

0 ... am
=
oh
Ill >m
(bm+1 = 0 , bm + 2
=
0 ... bm =
04
29/01124

RIX] R is a commutative Ring

f(x) 90x a x acx+ an-1-+ane"
= +
+
+

,
...

aieR
2z(x)
10 )
f(x) x 1 0
=

, , ....

10
g(x) =
x3 ,
0 ,
0 1 , ,
0 ...
)

f(x) ,
g(x) as a function in Ze
f(x)
:

23 - Is

g(x) 2
:

,
-
13

f 10) = 0
g(0) =
0

+(1) =
1
g(1)
=
1

f(2) 2
g(2) 8 2
= =
=

Homomorphism
R R2 rings
-
..

① R , -R2
:

① is a homomorphism

% (a +
b) =
G(a) +

0(b)
% (a b) .
=

0(a) . (b)

① R[x] R
:

-(f(x)) f(a) =

f(x) =

90 + 9 , x+ . . .
+

Anx
To Prove & is homomorphism
:

->
 Theovem 16 2 .
- Division
Algorithm Test-2019 2022 2023 , ,

*
* will this
come
year

define :
⑰ (f(x) g(x)) +
=

0(f(x)) +

0 (g(n)) = fla) +

g(a)
0 (f(x) g(x)) .
=

0(f(x)) (g(x)) .
=

f(a) .

g(a)

f(x) =

90+ ap+den+ ...

+ An-ixn+anx" - R(n)

g(u) bo b ,x bx+ bm+xm+ bakm -R(nS

=
+ + +
...

ai ,
bit R

flul+g(n) 190+ b) (aitbi)x+ last bs(x g(n)+f(x) commutative

=
+ =
+
. . .

S =
Max (n m) ,

f(x) g(u) co +( , x (2x2 (n mentm g(a) f(x) commutative

=
+
+ +
:
.
... + .

(c apb + a, Dz a - 1b ,
abo
= + +
+ +

_
. . .
-

Et " =

f(x)
Anantana
90 + 9, a & 92+
=
+ +

,
...

g(u) bo b,a bac+ b bam

=
+ + +
+
...

0 (f(x)+g(n)) =
(90+ bo) -
+
(ai+b) a + . . .
+

las+bslas
S =
Max (n m) ,

fal+g(a) =

90 + 9 ,a +
02a2+ . . .
+

anan+bo+b , at ...
+

ba
⑪(f(x) g(n)) +
= f(a) g(a) +
=

G(f(u)) 0(g(n)) +

X(f(x) .

g(u)) 0(co =

+c , x +

(2x2 +

.. .
+

(n man
+
+

m)
=Lo+( , a +

224+ ...
+
(n+mantm
=(90+ 9 a + anan) (botb , ...
+ *
,
at . . .
+

bmam)
+(a) g(a)
=

⑯(f(x)) . (g(u))
-(f(x) g(x)) x(f(x)) +
= +

x(g(n)) =

+(a) + g(a)
6) (f(x) g(n)) 0(f(x)) .
=
-

0 (g(n)) =

+(a) g(a) .
Show R[n] ving under polynomial addition & multiplication defined
:

is a as :

f(x) +

g(x) =

H(x) ·

g(x) =

(R[n] ,
+) -> abelian group

(R ,[n] ,
# ) ->
Semi-group
distributive laws

Proof :

f(x) = R[x]
f(x) =

90 + 9 ,+ . . .
+ ank" AER

if an 0
deg If(n))
=

n :

an-leading coefficient

if an
=

multiplicative identity of Ri

flu) : monic
polynomial
if f(x) :
0 has no degree
of flul= 0 defined
E
degree is not

if f(x) =
2 ,
c 10 + constant polynomial
deg =
0

theorem If is
Integral then also
:

D an Domain ,
DS) is an ID .

ID =
Commutative Ring with U (CRU) wo ZeroDivisors (2D) ·

Sirnas Y
2D
:

26 = 40 ,
1 , 2 ,3 ,4 , 57
2 3 - = 6 =

270 ,
370 but 2 3 =0
.

zero divisors ,
.. not an ID .
 Proof :
l
-> W =2

given D is IB
:
-

an
↳ wo 2D
a . b 10 when a b +0
,
.

To Prove :

D(n) is an ID

⑨ ( +
f(x) .

g(x) g(x) f(x)

=
.

·
D is commutative

⑬U =
e is also unity of D[]
:f(x) .
e =
e . f(x) f(x) + R[n]

⑥ WIO 2D
:

f(x) g(n).
=O

if f(x) +O & g(u) FO

Let f(x) +O , g(u)FO-D(nS
f(x) =

90 +9, x+ ... +ank" . An FO

glu) :
bo+bit ...
+bram , bm to

f(x) .

g(u)= laobo) + (aob , + boan+ . . .

+
andmantm

: bmtD
an ,

an O =

bm=0
=>

and m = O

902022 11a) ii .
Prove that if R is a commutative ring then characteristic of Rus is same as the

Kan ask 2024) Char of R .

Proof :

char of a
ring R .

the smallest
non-negative integer p such that
 p .
a
=

0 VazR .

let char R =

p . a =
0 FaER

To Prove P f(x) 0 f(x) R (n)

:

. = =

ful :
a +

a ,+ ...
+ ann"

p f(x) p 90+ p arx+ pann"

= +

. .
.
...

since aiER

p ai 0
=

p f(x) 0 0 0 x2+ +O Un
=

.
+

.
x +
. ...

= 0

to :

p is the smallest such element

prove .

Suppose I a number
q<P 3t . .

qf(x) =

0 + f(x) = R[u)

9 f(x)
.
=

9190 + a ,x + ...
+

anx") =
0

0
9 90 9a q
=>
an
=
= = =

. . , ... .

=>

9 .
9: =
0 aieR

which is -> Contradiction

wrong
.

: There doesn't exist a smaller number than p ,

i e
.
.,

q doesn't exist where 9 Hul

<
P .
=
0 .
2022 ① .
f(x) =

5x4 +

3x3 + 1

g(x) 3xc 2x 1 in 2> (n]

=
+ +

Compute f(x) g(x) .

+(x) g(x)
. =
1 +

2x +

3x2 +

343 +
(6 5)n"
+ +

us 19 10) +
+
46 (15)
=

H2x +

3x2 +

343 + 1144+ 1945 +

1546

=It 2x +

342 + 343 + 4x4+ Sus + no

f(x)+g(u) = 2 +

2x+ 342+ 343+sxY

 31 01 24
. .

91 ful polynomial integer co-efficients

.

I gluie cubic with

fla)= g(a) for 4 the values of a

Prove that f(x) g(u)

:

Proof :
cubic polynomial
4 Ave values = a , 02 , %y , an

fla ) -g(a, , 1 = 0

"

flaul-g(an) =
0

.
zevo polynomial
.. f(x) =

g(x)

Principle of Mathematical Induction

1 .
Show true for a 0
=

Suppose true for n>a

if it is also true for n+1

then this is true for all integers = a .

2 .
Show that true for some integer d .

Assumption it is true for all integers =

& & less than n .

show that it is true form .

Tre for all integers , a.

a19 .

Degree Rule

Suppose D-ID
:

=>
D(n)-Ring of polynomial over C

so D(u) is also an ID .

deg f(x) = n
deg g(u)
& = m .

show that deg (f(n) g(ul)= .

degIf(ni) deg(g(n))
+

It commutative ring ,
deg (t(n) .

g(n))= deg(f(x)) deg (g(n)) +

Proof
deg f(x)
:
=
n

so , f(u) :

actain+ ...
+

anah
;

ant0

deg g(u) m =

+brum bat
g(x) botbint
:

10 ,
=
...

f(x) .

g(u) : Gobo+ la both , abut

, ...
+ anbmantm
-anto , bmto= anbm to ('cause D is an ID1

deg (f(x) g(n)) n

=

.
+
m

-degf(x) deg g(u) +

in commutative
ring ,

anbm might be 0 ,

..
deg(t (x) .
g(x)) deg Hul+ degglu)
->
 Division Algorithm
For integers a & b are two integers ,

b105 two
unique integers a &r
such that <(b)
a by th such that 0 = v

Division Algorithm for F(n)

let F be a field
let fix) , g(ult F(n) with g(ult0 .

F(n]
then = unique polynomial q(n)I r(u) in such mat

f(x) g(u) q(u)+v(u) &

=

.
either v(n) = 0 or

deg vis) deg g(u) < .

it F-field ,
F(u) need not be a field

F(n) =
g(u) x
:

eg
=

g(n=2= ↓ F(n) :
negative power .

f(x) v(u)
T-P T :
g(u) q(x)
+
· =
.

r(u) 0 =

v(n)
a
deg <
deg g(u)

Proof Case 1:
degf(n) deg g(ul
:

->
then q(u) = 0

I r(u) =

f(x)
f(x) +(x)
0 g(n)
=
+

deg viv) =
degf(n) >
deg g(u)

case 2
deg f(x) >
deg g(v)
:

f(x) =

90 + a , x+ ...
+

an-n"-+anx"
g(u) =
b, + bin+ ...
+
bm-um+bank
we want last term of g(ul
:

last form of flul

by
-m
glus bran
so , we
multiply an

&s for my ref .

f , (x) f(x)
=
-

banxn-m g(n) .

degf (n) ,
< n

:+ antunt ... don'

boxbm"annu-m)
-

lanx"+bm-anbin'xn+
-
-
...
+

Second Principle of Mathematical Induction

deg f(u) 0
glul =O
=

it degf(u)=0 ,
deg g(u) = 0

f(u) const
polynomial g(u) cont
poly
:
:

=do =bo

fin) =

dobog(n)+v(u)"
q(u)
=

90bo
flu) =
Gobobo

Suppose f(u) =

g(u) q(k)+v(n)
.
with r(u) =
0 or degvlu) >
deg g(u)
is true for all integers between degf(n)-0 and
degglal =
n .

fi(x) =

f(x)-anbin umig(x)
·
deg fill)
<n

- assumption it is true for f , (n)

I 9 , (n) & ri(n) such that

7 , (x)
9 , (n) g(x)+r , Ins
=

either vilk) =
0 or

deg ri(n)< deg g(u) .

fi(x) f(x)-anbir
=

xming(n) either v
,
(v) = 0 or deg v , (n) <
deg g(ul
true for f ,
(2)=f (2) ,
=

q (nq(n)
, + v, (n)

(by long dividing f(x) by g(u))

->

deg f , (n) <n

 vi (n) f(u)-anbore" Mg(u)
-

9, Ing(u) + =

-F(u] =f(n]
f(x)
g(n) (q (n)-anbinxn-m) vic
=
+

q(n) q, (x) + anbir xn-m

=

f(x) =

g(x) q(x) .
+
r
, (x)
either v ,
(2) =
0 or
deg v(n) <deg g(n)

01 02 24
.
.

Division Algorithm for F(n)

let F be a field
let fix) , g(ult F(n) with g(ult0 .

F(n]
then = unique polynomial q(n)I r(u) in such mat

f(x) =

g(u) q(u)+v(u) &

.
either v(x) = 0 or
degv(n) <
deg g(u) .

(didn't come last

&
year , can come
Uniqueness
this year)
Suppose 5 9 (2)
, , 92(2) ,
5 , (2) & vi(x) tF[x3 such that

F(x) =

q (n)
, g(x)
.
+

v
,
(n) - I

F(x) =

q((x) g(x)
.
+

v= (n)
-
2

where either vi(n) = 0 or deg v , (2) <

deg g(x)
v
-
(n) =
0 or deg r2 (x) <
deg g(x)

1- 2

g(u)) q (x) q2(x)) ,

-
+

v
,
(n) -

r(x) =

g(x)(9 (2) 92(x)) ,

-
=

v2(x) -
W ,
(x)

So , degluc(al-v ,
(1) =

degglus+ 92(2))
deg
min value = 0

deg(uz(a) -v (n)) , deg g(n)

 which is not possible
... (2) -q2(x) 0
q
=

9 (2)
,
=

qc(x)
and v2(2) =

v ,
(x)

QCO22 .
f(x) =

5x4 +

323 + 1

g(u) 342 2x + 1 in 2 [u)

=
+

>

find q(u) I riul .

Solution : 4x2 +
3x + b + a(n)
3x2 +
2x + 1) 54" 3x3+ 1 +

Sx"+x3 +4x2
-

2x3 + 3x2 + 1
-

2x3 +
6x 2 +
3x

4x2 +
4x +
1
-

4x2 +

5x +
6

6x +

2- r(n)

(5x4 + 3x3 1) +
=

(x2 +
2x +
1) (4x2 +
3x +
6) +

(6x 2)
+

442 + 3
Eg : x +

2n +

3x + 2 )3x"+4n' +
242 + 1 25
-

34"+ 2x3+3x2
2x3 +
Yx2 +
1

2x3 +

3x2 +

2x

x2 +

3x +
1
2
x +

4x +
1

UK

(x2 + 4x3 + 222+1) =

(2x2 +
3x 1)+
(4n2 +
x +
3) + 4x
 Let domain
D be an
integral
We
say that g(2) divides flu) :

gla flul if I a
polynomial h(n)-D(n]

such that f(x) :

h(x1 .
g(x) , we also call giul is a factor of f(x) ,

we call
point 'atD' a roof of flu) if fla) =

0 .

When t is a field ,
at F and f(x)-F(n] ,
we say that a is a zero of multiplicity
x(k>1) if (n-alk is a factor of flas but In-alkt is not a

factor of f(x) .

Eg f(x) (x-3)" (n-2"

:
=

(3)
(x 3)7 -
I are
factors of f(u)

but (x-3)8 is not a

factor .

So ,
multiplicity of 3=7

Y
multiplicity of 2 =

f(x)
=

(x -
3)"(x = 4x 3) +

=(n 3)"(x 3)(x 1)

- - -

=(x 3)(x 1) -
-

multiplicity of 3 =
5 .

Covollary 1

Remainder Theorem

Let F be a field ,
a tF and Hult Fin] .

flal division flul (a)

Then is the remainder in the of by .

Proof
:

f(x) =
(n-a)q(n) +
f(a)
 flal =

q(u) 0 + via) .

=> v(a) = f(a)

either v(k) 0
deg v(u) < deg g(x)
=

or

r(n)
deg < 1

... (u) -> constant polynomial

SO , r(k) flat =
.

corollary 2

Factor Theorem

let F be a field & fix)- F(x) .

Then 'd' is a zero of flu) iff (a) is a factor of F[x] .

Proof Supposed is of f(x)-f(al 0

:

a zero =

↑P T :.
(a) is a factor of fix) .

f(x) 12 a) q(x) v(n)

= +
-
.

f(x) =

(x a) q(x)+f(a)
-
.

luing remainder theorems

:fal= 0
=>

f(x) =
(x a)-
.

q(n)
=>
( a) is a
factor of fix) .

Inverse :
suppose (x-al is a factor of f(x)

T P T:
. .
a is a zero of flu) .
 Since .
In-as is a factor of fixe)
f(x) =

( a) q(x)
-
.

& x a =

=>
f(a) =

(a a) -
.
q(a)
= f(a) =

02 82 24
. -

Corollary
A polynomial of degree n field
over a has at most n-zeroes
counting multiplicity

Proof :

Induction :

n 0 F(x) :

(a const polynomial
=
=

no

90 =O

=>
zero root

Suppose F(x) is a
polynomial of degreen .

case 1:

when flu) has no- root in field F Eg

:

x +
2n + 2 + [s(n]
root
: it is obvious that flu) has atmost roots flu) to at 2 - no
.

-n ·

Case 2 :

when fle has a root a' of multiplicity / .

fix) (n- al" deg (t)n1 g(x))

.
=

degf(x) deg g(u)

+

q(u)
=

deg f(x) =

deglc-al+ deg q(n)

↑
n k
deg q(x)
=
+

k = n

also maybe a another root b cl multiplicity & .

f(x) =

1x a)" q(u)
: b is a root , f(b) = 0
 =
O =

(b-alkq(b)
=>

q(b) =
0

=
b is a root of q(u)
the multiplicity of b in q(x) will be the same as multiplicity of bin flu) -

=>

q(k) (x b)"n(x) = -

from
deg'q(v) = n-k .
< n

using 2nd PMI ,

Assuming a
poly of degree n field F has atmost n zevoc this statement
=>

over a
-

is true for all polynomial having degree less than n .

q(ul has atmost (n-K) roots

f(x) =

(x -

a)"q(x)
Hlx) has atmost k+ (n-K) roots

=n roots

Eg : x2 +
3x 2 +
in 26(x]
f(0) =
2 f(z) =
0 f(u) =

f(1) =
0 f(3) =
2 ↓ (5) =
0

..
Is
(a) is not a field above
,
Ihm doesn't hold true .

Eg 30+ i sin
30
:

W =
10s .

wh= cos 60'+ i sin .

0

COS 360'+ i Sin 360' .

=>
so w is a root of un-1 t([n]
 n =
0 ,
1 ,
2 ...

wo ,
w ,
we . . .
woh-1

=1 ,
02 =1 . . .

n-th roots of unity

Ideal

A non-empty subset of ring is an ideal if

↓ a , bt I = a - bt l

addition
I is a
sub-group of R w r t
. .

2
if at 1 then are II
ratI F VER

Principal Ideal

An ideal I is a
principal ideal if
I =
<a > i . e .

I =

Yar , VERY can

generate all cle of I with 1 element .

Principal Ideal Domain (PIDY

An IDX is a PID if all the ideals of D are principal ideal domain .

Ring R =
2 trivial ideal

904 & Ring R itself

clast year (
Theorem 16 4. . conta page 21

Let F be a field .

Then F(x) is a principal ideal domain .

Proof : Let F be a field and I be an Ideal of E[n] .

 case 1 I 90y
:

<0 >
=

case 2 : let I is a non-zero ideal .

.. I contains non-zero polynomials .

07 02 24
.
.

if 1 =

multiplicative identity element ,

It I

I R =

I IR

1 E I

. rt1= re I
1 R = I

I = < 1>

=> R = I 16 I

A 1 It I
.

A
i =

1 I .

Proper and Improper Ideal

Trivial Improper Ideal =

R , 907
all other ideals
are
proper .

Any field has no

proper
ideal .

Proof :
Suppose I is a non-zero ideal of FieldF
.

=>

a FOG I

=>
AEF 1: I is subset of FS
Ifield prop - all non-zero de have multiplicative inverses

at I ,
a EF

a El = 1tI

Book Proof :
Suppose I is a non-zero ideal of RCx] .
 I contain non-zero
polynomial
let g(u)t1 I g(u) to
<g(x) = I

-g(u) > =

(g(n) h(x)/h(u) tR[n]Y

.

g(x) =I
h(r) h(u)+R[n]
g(u) .
=1 -

clast year (
Theorem 16 4. .

Let F be a field .

Then F(x) is a principal ideal domain .

Proof : Let F be a field and I be an Ideal of E[n] .

case 1 :

I 407 <0 >

=
=

Case 2 :

let I is a non-zero ideal .

.. I contains non-zero polynomials .

let
glul be the
polynomial of minimum degree of I .

let f(x) = I

f(x) + F(x)

g(u)eI , 10 g(u)tF(n]

f(x)
g(x) q(x) +v(x) where v(u) 0 or
degrin) deg g(n)
=
= >
.

my set
for to show that r(u)=0 ,
we need to show that win) It

as we want to show flu) :

g(u) .
h(r) form , basically f(x) <glnk Y
-

g(n)-1 =
<g(n)>= I
g(x) q(x) = I .

v(x) = f(x) -

g(x) q(x) .

el I
 Property of I if a btl- a be I
:

so ,
v()tI

hence
deg vix) 4 deg g(x)
so ,
v(x) 0 =

->
f(x) =

g(x) q(x) .

=>
+(x) -
<g(x) >

I
=
<g(u)>
<glu I

I =

<g(x) >

ideal is F(n]
every a PI in

Hence ,
F[n] is a
Principle Ideal Domain

Theorem
Let F be field I ideal of F(x] and element of F(x) Then
a ,
a non-zero ,
glus an .
,

of
I =

<g(x)> iff g(u) is a non-zero polynomial minimum degree in I .

Proof I let g(ul-I and of minimum degree

:

glui polynomial
:

to show that I <g(n)

:
=
>

Proof : let f(x) = I

f(x) + F(x)

g(u)eI , 10 g(u)tF(n]

f(x)
g(x) q(x) +v(x) where v(u) 0 or
degrin) deg g(n)
=
= >
.

my set
for to show that r(u)=0 ,
we need to show that win) It

as we want to show flu) :

g(u) .
h(r) form , basically f(x) <glnk Y-

g(n)-1 =
<g(n)>= I
g(x) q(x) = I .

v(x) = f(x) -

g(x) q(x) .

EI EI
Property of I if a btl- a be I
:

so ,
v()tI

hence
deg vix) 4 deg g(x)
so ,
v(x) 0 =

->
f(x) =

g(x) q(x) .

=>
+(x) -
<g(x) >

I
=
<g(u)>
<glu I

I =

<g(x) >

11 let I =

<g(u)>
to show that :
glul is a
polynomial of minimum degree .

Proof :

let him) be a
polynomial of minimum degree of I .

h(u)t I
n(n) <g(x) =
=> h(n)
g(n) q(x) > =

degh(n) deg g(n) deg q(u)

= +

deg h(n) deg g(u)

deg g(x) -
deg h(n) Ibut his poly o min
deg)
: deg g(x= deg hix)

: glas is
polynomial of minimum degree

Homomorphism (operation preserve)

O is a
homomorphism form o to
g isomorphism .

nex g

& (x+ F f(x)

Kernel e
etg is additive identity of gy
= :

,
=

, e

4
=

(4 + a
, atGY
 f(c) f(d)
S
fal f(b) = =

·
Ha)-f(b) =
0

f(a b) - =
0

a -
bt Kernel & K

a be k
- ab-2 K

a b - +
k =

0 ka =
12 b

k a + =
k b +

t = I :
9k 9 g + FY .
,

ker o 17

f E
9
Ker

08 02 24. .

R[x] C (set of complex numbers)

=

2
<x + 17

f & auto homomorphism

g
= is an

kery
from o to
g .

Proof Part 1 to find auto homomorphism from RCGT to C

:
:

an .

atibe (a , b t R

a +
bx = RIx]a , b ER

define % R[n] C
:

->
:

0 (f(x)) =

+(i)

-(f(x) g(x)) + =
Y(f(x)) +

0(g(x)) Prop I

4 ((x) g(x)) .
=
x(f(x)) .
(g(x)) Prop 2

it is clear that
prop 182 satisfy that of is a homomorphism
Idon't have to prove nomomorphisms
For every atibe (5 a+ bxt RCx> such that

①(a+ bx) = a +

ib

Part 2 :

to Prove that
:

RCXT =
C
<x + 1 >

using first theorem of homomorphism ,

R(X) = C
ker

To Prove
:

Rer & =
<42+1> ·

Proof
:

I show that kero has minimum degree 2 :

remove constant I polynomial of

degree 14 Ker / is an ideal of RCx]
f(x) =

90 90 FO

-(f(x)) =

90 +0

hence , no constant polynomial lies in Ker 1 .

let
flu) :

a+bx is a
polynomial of degree 1 .

b =0 .

①(f(x)) =
-(a+ bx)
=

atib O

hence ,
at bx & Ker D .

consider f(x) =
x27

& If(x)) =

⑪(x2 + 1)
<
=i +
1 =
0

hence ut = ke % .

=>
Ker & =
<x2+1> ·

2Qs from this chapter .

 Joreducible & Reducible Polynomials

(irreducible poly .
prime number = 1 p.
is like prime no

Irreducible Polynomial
Let D be an ID .
A polynomial flu) from D(x] that is neither the zero

polynomial nor a unit in DCX) is said to be irreducible over D if ,

whenever

f(x) is expressed as a
product +(x)=g(X) h(X) .
with
g(x) I nix from D(XS ,
then

g(x) or hix) is a unit .

A non-zero non-unit element of D(x) that is not irreducible over D is called

reducible over D over [[x] .

S a is said to be a unit itf E a .

b=1Y
Sunit of R = unit of RIx34

over field
f(x) =

g(x) h(x) .

f(x) is reducible over F if I can be factorised into two non-constant polynomial

having degree less than f(x) .

Cunit of field - all non-zero elements' inverse exist : all these are units)

every non-zero constant polynomial in F(x] is a unit .

Eg x2-1 e Q(u]
:

(x+ 1)(x- 1) -> Reducible

Eg 2x2 + U
:
over 2

over Q
over R

Over C

over 2 unit=1 and -I

2x2 +
4 = 2(x2 1) +

2 is not a unit in 2 .

over & (Rationals)

2x2 + 4 =
2(x2 +
2)

4( 1)
=

irreducible over a

Over R

2n + Y =

4/2+ 1)
irreducible over R .

over C

2x2 +
4 =
(2x 252i)(X-i)
+

reducible over C .

Eg
: -
x -
2

over 2 -unit
(x 2)
2-1) irreducible
-
=

Over R

(x2 2)-
=
(x (2) (x 12)
+
-
reducible
 Eg x2+
:

over 25
f(0) = 1 +(3) =

0 factor =
(x 2)(x 3)
+ + =

(n2 + 1)

f(1) =

2 flu) = 2 reducible over Is .

f(2) =

over 23

fl0) =
1 f(2) =
2 -

f(1) =
2 irreducible over 23 .

09 02 24
. .

theorem 11 1.

Came last year Reducibility test for degrees 2 and 3

Let F be a field If . HultF(x) and degf(x) is 2 or 3 ,

then flul is reducible

over F if and only if F(u) has a zero inf .

Proof Suppose fix) reducible F

:

is Hul=
over
g(x) hIn) .

f(x) g(x) h(x) degf(u) g(n)

deg deg
nu
= : +
.

Since

0 <
I is a

deg g(n)< degf(x)

field hence

and
: ⑤ 8
1
1
2

linear polynomial ax+ b b

0
< degn(n) deg f(x) u a
= -

<
=

degf(x)
=

deg g(n) +

deg h(x)

given ,
deg flu) =
2 or 3 .

=>
atleast degh(x) or deg g(u) is 1 .

Suppose hix) =
axtb , putting = -ab t F

which is a root
of g(us o of flu) .
 Given ,
Flu) has a zero in F

to Prove that
:

Fleel is reducible in F

Suppose 'is a root of Flu) .

=then (n-al is a factor of F(x) .

=>
F(x) =
( a) -
.
q(x)

deg F(x) : 2 or 3

1
deg q(u)= or 2

hence not
q(u) is a unit .

f(x) can be
product of two polynomials of smaller degree than fix) .

fix) is reducible

above thmn->> Higher degree valid o not ?

1 .
Reducible but root doesn't lie
x4 + 2x2 + 1 Q[x]
Eg 0 in
:
=

(2 +
1)
=
=
(x2 1)(x2 + 1)
+

Reducible but root doesn't lie in Q .

.
2 Irreducible but root lies
-> False as if root lies it is , always reducible
 content of a
polynomial
The content of a non-zero polynomial
anxh+an-ic"+ . . .
+
90

where the ai's are integers ,

is the greatest common divisor of the integers
do .
A, .
.
... On

A element of [n] 1
primitive polynomial is an 2 with content .

16x"+ 2x+8u2+4x+ 6
Eg content
:

GCD =
2 =

2x +
3x2 + 5x3+ In GCD = 1 =

content ... Primitive Polynomial

I
x" +
2x2 +
1 GCD
=

xeY-1 GKD =
1 Primitive
Polynomial
x4 + 1 GCD =
1

Q be fixed integer let a denote mod

Let m a the
integer .
For any a ,
a m

① 2[X]- 2m[x]
:

①(ann"+ an-ixn+ ...

+ ad :

annn+an-1xn+ ...
+

do
is a
ring homomorphism .

Sol" let fixed

:

i be a +ve
integer .

a =

a mode

①(a) =
a mod m = a

f(x) =
anxen+an-x"+ . . .
+ 00
g(x) =

bixm +
bi-cm-1+ . . .
+ bo

% (f(x) g(u)) D) .
=

Gobo+ la both ,gor+

,
. . .
+

anbmantm)
=
Gobo+ (a ,bo+ 5 ,to)x+ . . .
+
an5maentm
=last aint ... ann-+ann")(botb x+ , ...
+ 5m-xm-+-mmm)
=D(t(x) .

G(g(n)

Ido same for X(f(x) +g(u)) 0 (f(u) =

+
(g(n)))
 Gauss' Lemma
The product of two primitive polynomials is also primitive .

Proof Let fix) polynomials

glul
:

and be two primitive .

Suppose f(x) g(u) ,

is not primitive .

Let CF1 be the content of f(x)g(n)

Let p be a prime divisor of content of f(n) g(u) . .

①
:

2(x] -
zp(x) (In paper
adde nearner nim)
-(f(x)) = f(x) =
fu) modp
contradiction
flug(x) =

0 1 .. p is divisor of c)
Itul .
gTul e
2p [x]
: g(=
but
(2) O
false
primitive ,
so .

Ip -
prime to show that p(X) is an ID)
Since 2p[x) is an integral domain ,

either f(x) 0 =

or
g(x)
=
0

which is not true as fli I glas are

primitive
so our assumption is
wrong .

:flu)
& glas are primitive .

12 .
02 24
.

flu) =

x= -
2 Over &
=

(x (2) (x (2)
+
-

-> I reducible over & .

but over P(r) :

(a+b2 :

a, btQY
reducible over Q(82) .
 *

Might come 17 2
. .

Reducibility implies reducibility over 2

over & .

Let fluit [[x] If flu) is reducible over 22 then it . . is reducible over 2 .

converse is not true in this case

:

2(x2+h) red over 2 but not irreduc

Proof f(x) - z [x]

:

Given Reducible Q
:

over

=>
f(x) =

g(u) .
n(n) ; g(n) ,
h(n)tq(u]

4, 54 Y6
I
S
43x' + 5/gns +

- Q[u]
Eg
+

multiply by
I
LIM :

SOn" +
75n5+ 7223 + 20t 2(n)

I
f(x) =

g(x) h(x) .
can be written as Plus is a field .

O <
deg g(u)<degf(x) flus is a prod of two polynomials with

> deg h (n) <

degf(x) less degree .

we can show that flu) is a primitive polynomial

f(x) f , (n) g(u)h(n) divisor

I
=
2 .
=

ce common

filk) g(x)n(x) films has

1 nothing common
=

it is
so , primitive .

Suppose a' is LCM of denominators of co-efficients of glul

'b' h(x)

multiplying a
&b ,

ag b nents
a b . . f(x) =

.
.

are
intergr a

n(u)-2[n]
ag(n) = 2 [n] b .

ag(n) = <,
g , (i) b h(u) . = ch ,(n)

deg g(n) deg g (n) =

,
deghin) =

deg h , (n)
 g , (4) I hill) are primitive .

abf(x) =
c, c,
g , (n) h , (v)

=> ab =

2 , 12

& f(x) =

g , (x) h , (n)
9 (2)
, ,
h (a)
,
= 2 [x] .

g (n)9
,
h , (l) are not unit as deg> 0 .