 Definition of Aerodynamics and its applications.

 Fundamental aerodynamic variables/quantities

 Bernoulli’s Principle
 Understanding flight forces
 Lift
 Airfoil and definitions of basic concepts.
 Weight, Thrust and Drag

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 The DC-3, one of the most famous aircraft of all times. It is a
low speed subsonic transport aircraft, designed and
manufactured in the 1930’s. Without knowledge of
aerodynamics this would not have been possible.

 Boeing 707 Entered into service in the late 1950s.

 This marked the beginning of high speed subsonic flight

without which we would still be relegated to ground
transport

 and

 Then came Bell X-1. The first piloted aircraft to break the
sound barrier with Capt Chuck Yeager at the controls on Oct
1947. This feat would not have been accomplished without
knowledge of transonic aerodynamics.

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 The subject Aerodynamics refers to the study of air past an
aircraft or any object of interest like train, automobile,
building e.t.c Aerodynamic is an important branch of
aerospace engineering.

 The term air is used in a generic sense, it basically means the

flowing gaseous medium which could be air, helium or other
gas depending on the situation.

 An aircraft is a body which is able to fly because of

aerodynamic forces and moment generated by the action of
air flowing past it. this flow of air can occur during the flight
of an aircraft through the atmosphere. The force and moment
are produced through the pressure distribution and skin
friction acting on the surface of the body.

 While designing an aircraft, motion of air flow past a scaled

down model of aircraft is studied in the test section of a wind
tunnel. This helps us to assess the forces which would occur
on the actual aircraft.

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 Aircraft are most often heavier than air but can still remain
afloat while flying in air by generating adequate aerodynamic
forces and moments. Development of such vehicles helped
achieve human flight in the atmosphere

Definition of Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is defined as the study of the motion of air and
forces acting on objects passing through the air.

The study of how air travels around something moving through it.
The interaction between a moving aircraft and the atmosphere

Distinct Components of Aerodynamics

The definition gave rise to 3 components: Air, object and
aerodynamic forces:

• Air is derived from the atmosphere.

• Object- Mostly airplanes but could be automobile, gas turbine
engines etc.
• Forces: Lift, drag, moment

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1. The prediction of forces and moments on, and heat
transfer to, bodies moving through the air – (External
Aerodynamics).

2. Determination of flows moving internally through

ducts- (Internal Aerodynamics).

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There are myriad of applications but we would look at some of the most
important ones.

 Fixed and rotary aircraft aerodynamics

 Spacecraft aerodynamics – atmospheric flight during ascent
and reentry into earth atmosphere
 Fixed, rotary and flapping wing micro air vehicles and
unmanned air vehicles
 Aerodynamics of ground based vehicles ( racing cars, bus,
trucks, high speed trains)
 Aerodynamics of ground based structures.( high rise building,
tower, chimney, bridges, wind turbines)
 Gas flow through Internal combustion engines.
 Production of thrust by gas turbine engine.
 Movement of air through building heaters and air conditioners

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 The study of the dynamics of fluid is known as fluid dynamics.
• Fluids refers to either liquids or gases

Main technical distinctions between fluids and solids are:

• Solid: Applied tangential force produces a finite deformation
proportional to the applied shear stress.

• Fluid: Applied tangential force produces a proportional

continuously increasing deformation. Applied stress
proportional to rate of deformation.

Classification of fluid dynamics

Hydrodynamics – Flow of liquids -

Gas dynamics - Flow of gases
Aerodynamics – Flow of air

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 To study the flow physic, this is done by studying flow velocity,
distribution around the body and in it wake.
 To quantify the aerodynamic forces and moments which act on the body.

 To optimize the shape and sizing to generate desirable flow features and also
generate appropriate aerodynamic forces and moments.

 Maximize the lift to drag ratio. To maximize aerodynamic efficiency Lift is a

benefit, while drag is a penalty

 use aerodynamic surfaces to generate adequate forces and moments to

 Maneuver the aircraft.

 Study the aerodynamic effect of the atmospheric disturbances like turbulence

and gut.

 Study the deformation of flexible aerospace structures under aerodynamic

and inertial loads.

 In high speed flow assess the aerodynamic heating and design appropriate
heat shields for protecting the body. (e.g. rocket and reentry capsule) the
heating is produced due to shockwaves and viscous dissipation in the
boundary layer

 Study the chemically reacting flow that occurs in extremely high temperature
conditions produced on rockets and re-entry vehicles.

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1. Theoretical ( analytical or semi analytical)
2. Experimental
3. Numerical computation e.g. computational fluid
dynamic

 The different approaches are often meant to

complement and validate each other while studying an
aerodynamic problem.

 Each approach has its own advantages, as well as

disadvantages Usually, the most effective approach is
to amalgamate both, experimental as well as either
theoretical or CFD investigation in a viable manner to
solve a practical aerodynamic problem

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According to Bernoulli’s Principle, there is increase in the velocity of air as
the air flows around an airfoil shape. Because the camber of the upper wing
surface is greater than that of the lower surface, air flowing above the wing
will be increased more than air flowing beneath the wing.

The Bernoulli’s Principle also states that an increase in the velocity of a fluid,
such as air, results in a decrease of pressure within that fluid. As a result, the
reduction in air pressure above the wing will be greater than the pressure
reduction along the lower wing surface.

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The forces acting on an airplane in flight are lift, weight, thrust
and drag. These forces are in equilibrium during straight-and-
level, Unaccelerated flight.

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Aerodynamic force:
Definition:
An aerodynamic force is a force exerted on a body by the air (or other gas) in which the
body is immersed, due to relative motion between the body and the gas.

There are two different shear stress namely; shear stress and pressure stress.

Pressure stress act perpendicular to the object surface and are cause by how pressure
are distributed around the object of interest.
Shear stress: it act tangential to surface and are caused by frictional force because of
fluid Viscosity.
net/total aerodynamic force on the body is due to the pressure and shear stress
distributions integrated over the total exposed surface area

shear stress will flow in the same direction as the airflow and make a large contribution
to the drag but does not contribute significant amount to lift force. On the other hand,
Lift is cause by the way pressure is distributed in the direction perpendicular to the
airflow

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 Note: As air flows over the top surface of an aerofoil it is accelerated,
therefore the static pressure is reduced. The pressure difference between the
low static pressure on the top of the wing and relatively higher static
pressure at the bottom of the wing creates an aerodynamic force that we call
Lift
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 Interaction of the four forces

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The lift generated by an aircraft depends on a number of factors that are listed below:
•Air density,
•Velocity between the air and the object (free stream velocity V2)
•Compressibility and viscosity of air
•The surface area of the wing of the aircraft
•Shape of the body under consideration
And finally, the angle of attack (i.e. the body’s inclination relative to the flow )

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This is the component of force acting upwards. Perpendicular to
the direction of flight or of the undisturbed stream

Lift is the force that causes an airplane to rise. The wing of a

plane gives lift. Lift is caused by air movement and air pressure.

Lift is proportional to the square of velocity of an airplane and as

a plane goes faster. It lift increases as plane moves forward it lift
forces increases until it equals it weight.

Streamline body are produce to create lift and minimize drag.

Airfoil come in a lot sizes and shapes and a design for wing may
not be optimized for propeller blade. Wing for supersonics has
different profile from one of subsonic speed.

Wings must have continually airflow to produce lift. Helicopter

achieves this by the rotating blade. Fixed wing aircraft also
accomplishes lift generation by having continuous airflow over
the wing.

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 The amount of lift generated by an object depends on a number of
factors, including the density of the air, the velocity between the
object and the air, the viscosity and compressibility of the air, the
surface area over which the air flows, the shape of the body, and
the body's inclination to the flow, also called the angle of attack.

 In general, the dependence on body shape, inclination, air

viscosity, and compressibility is very complex. One way to deal
with complex dependencies is to characterize the dependence by a
single variable. For lift, this variable is called the lift coefficient,
designated "CL". For given air conditions, shape, and inclination of
the object, we have to determine a value for CL to determine the
lift. For some simple flow conditions and geometries, and low
inclinations, aerodynamicists can now determine the value of CL
mathematically. But, in general, this parameter is determined
experimentally using models in a wind tunnel

 Using the modern lift equation, and the lift coefficient given above,
one can calculate the amount of lift produced at a given velocity for
a given wing area. Or, for a given velocity, you can determine how
big to make the wings to lift a certain weight

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The lift-to drag ratio or L/D is the amount of light generated
By the wing , divided by the drag it creates by moving through the air

A higher or more favorable L/D ratio is typically one of the major goals in
aircraft Design; since a particular aircraft’s required lift is set by its weight,
delivering That lift with lower drag leads directly to better fuel economy,
climb performance
And glide ratio

ENGR. REXCHARLES E.
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Definitions:
Chord : Is a measure of the width of an airfoil. It is measured along the chordline and
is the distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge. Chord will typically vary from
wingtip to the wing root.
Chord line - is an imaginary straight line drawn through the airfoil and the direction of
the relative wind ( i.e. from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil). It is
important in determining the angle of attack

Camber - is the characteristic curve of the airfoil upper and lower surface.
Symmetrical airfoil has zero camber, asymmetrical airfoil are design to have unequal
cambers
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Definitions:

Airfoil is any surface such as a wing or rotor blade that provide aerodynamic
force when it interacts with a moving stream of air

Relative wind is the airflow that is parallel to and opposite to the flight path
of the aeroplane

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The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the direction of
the relative wind.

Greater angle of attack creates more lift (up to a point).

Is not constant during a flight. It changes as the pilot changes the attitude
of the aircraft

Note: Lift can be increased in two ways: by increasing the forward speed of the airplane
or by increasing the angle of attack.

The point at which the amount of lift generated is no longer sufficient to support the
aircraft in air is called the stalling point.

Sudden reduction is lift is called stalling,it is dangerous for aircraft,different airfoil

shape can have drastically different lift characteristics

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Airflow becomes turbulent at the critical angle of attack. Airflow separates
from airfoil, and lift decreases dramatically
Note: If angle of attack increases lift also increases, however if the AOA
increases up to a certain angle lift also increases to a limit. Beyond this
maximum allowed , lift decreases. This is called stall.
Stall is the rapid decrease of lift cause by separation of airflow.

Critical angle of attack is caused by disruption of the airflow from the upper
surface of the wing or airfoil, airflow separate at the trailing edge. After the
burble point the airfoil goes full stall.
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Note: When an aircraft is at rest relative wind does not exist, only wind created by
nature. Relative wind is created by the motion of the aircraft traveling through the
air using it own power to reached its desired speed.

Camber and AOA are important parameters and has large influence on how much
lift an air foil can generate.
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A symmetrical wing airfoil is curved on the bottom to the same degree as it is on
the top. If a line was drawn from the center of the leading edge to the center of the
trailing edge the upper and lower halves of the airfoil would be symmetrical.

This is ideal for aerobatic aircraft and most lift is created by the angle of incidence
of the wing to the flight path.

ENGR. REXCHARLES E.
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Note: Airflow becomes turbulent at the critical angle of attack. Airflow
separates from air foil, and lift decreases dramatically.

Beyond the angle airflow can no longer follow the contour of the airfoil upper
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Definition of terminologies
Planform: The shape of the wing when viewed directly from above
Wing span (b): The wing span is the length of the wing as measured from wing
tip to wing tip. It always refers to the entire wing, not just the wing on one side
of the fuselage
Wing Area (S) : The wing area is the total surface area of the wing, usually
calculated by the wing span times the wing chord.

Aspect Ratio (AR) : Span/chord or span squared/Area.

A measure of the slenderness of the wing. Is the ratio of wingspan to the
Average chord

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Definition of terminologies

Wing Loading: is the ratio of an airplane’s weight to the surface

Area of it wings. There tends to be an inverse relationship between aspect
ratio And wing loading. Gliders have high aspect ratios and low wing
loading. Fighters jet with low as ratios maneuver at high g-load and are
designed with high wing loading

The Mean camber Line: is a line drawn halfway between the upper and
lower surfaces. The chord line connects the end of the mean camber line.

Maximum camber: Displacement of the mean camber line from the chord
line) and where it is located (expressed as fractions or percentages of
basic chord) help to define the shape of the mean camber line.

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Note: Modern aircraft wing are equipped with flap and slats which allows
shape of the airfoil to be adjusted and optimized for different phases of flight.
During take-off extending the flap extends the camber which increases lift. It
is retracted during cruising, since lift is no longer needed

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The earth gravity pulls down on objects and gives them weight.

Weight counteract lift.

Gravitational attraction of the earth is 9.806 M/S2.

CG is where all weight of the aircraft is concentrated, if supported at

that point it will balance in any altitude.

33
 For straight-and-level-Flight
Lift = weight

Note: The weight of the aircraft and it occupants, fuel and cargo must be lifted against
the force of gravity.

In designing the aircraft the lightest and strongest materials possible are used.

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Thrust: This force is created by an aircraft’s engine and is required for forward motion.
It is the force that propels the aircraft forward.
An airplane cannot gain altitude or maintain straight and level flight unless its engine is
producing enough thrust. Without the needed thrust, weight has more influence than lift
and pull the airplane toward the ground.

Forward-acting force opposes drag

Direction of thrust depends on design
Propulsion systems produce thrust
Equal to drag in drag in straight, constant speed flight

Note: conventional aircraft are pulled forward by one or more reciprocating

or turbine engine-driven propeller or jet engines.

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 This force acts in reverse direction to that of thrust and hinders forward motion.
Drag is considered as negative force and all engineer try their best to reduce drag.
 An aerodynamic force
Resist forward motion
Increases with the square of speed
 Two broad drag classifications:
Parasite drag: drag created by airplane shape. A result of air viscosity
Induced drag: by-product of lift generation. Caused by wingtip vortices.

Note: Parasite drag is created by the entire aircraft, excluding induced drag. It is
caused by protrusions such as landing gear, rough surfaces and air striking on the
aircraft frontal surface.

Induced drag is created as a result of airfoil developing lift. Wing tip vortex. The
Induced
vortex creates a suction affect at the end of the wing and causes induced drag that
varies directly with the angle of attack.

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Drag cont’d

 The air resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance force is called

drag. Drag is directed along and opposes to flight direction.

There are many factor that affect the magnitude of drag force including
the shape of the aircraft, the stickiness of the air and the velocity of the
aircraft, Collect all of the individual components’ drags and combine them
into a single aircraft drag magnitude.

Note: Drag is the force that opposes all motion through the atmosphere
and is parallel to the direction of the relative wind. The friction of air
particles rubbing against all parts of the airplane causes part of the total
drag. In fact, airspeed can be increased several miles per hour if the
surfaces of the airplane are kept highly polished. The shape of something
may create low-pressure areas and turbulence that retard the forward
movement of the aircraft. Streamlining the aircraft will reduce form drag.

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Inviscid vs viscous flow

A flow that involves no friction is known as inviscid

flow. The converse is referred to as viscous flow.

Types of viscous flow: Laminar vs Turbulent flow

Low velocity gradient =Laminar flow
High velocity gradient = Turbulent flow

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Compressible vs Incompressible Flow
Compressible flow : Variable density. Flow at high Mach number close to
1.
Incompressible flow: Constant density. Flow at very low mach number
M<0.3.

Mach Number Regime

Subsonic flows: M< 1 everywhere.

Transonic flows : Mixed regions of M<1 and M>1.

Supersonic flows: M > 1 everywhere.

Hypersonic flows: M>5

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ENGR. REXCHARLES E.
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ENGR. REXCHARLES E.
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