Ham: Cooked Ham
F Toldrá, Instituto de Agroquı́mica y Tecnologı́a de Alimentos (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
M Reig, Universitat Politècnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Cooked ham is typically a cured piece of pork derived from the
hind legs of swine, which is further preserved through pro-
cesses like cooking and, optionally, smoking. Cooked ham is
also known as gammon in the United States. The processing of
cooked ham involves the use of brine or curing solutions that
are either injected or soaked, followed by the application of
thermal treatment. The piece of ham may be intact with bones
in or deboned before either curing or cooking. Once the final
ham product is manufactured, it can be sold as a piece for
slicing by retailers or sliced and packaged under various
forms of vacuum or under modified atmosphere for its direct
sale to consumers at retail outlets.
There are many variables at play during the manufacture of a
cooked ham, and these all impact on the final quality of the
final product, but the quality of raw materials and an adequate
processing regime, based on minimum temperature–time treat-
ments, are the most important to achieve a product possessing
good organoleptic quality. Initially, special care must be taken
with respect to the selection and quality of the meat cut chosen,
the quality and level of ingredients used in cure formulation,
the injected volume of brine or cure used, the rate and extent of
tumbling employed, and the cooking time and temperature
selected. Cooked ham is sold in many formats: from chilled
and sliced formats lasting for several weeks to canned formats
lasting for months to years. The consumption of cooked ham is
quite relevant in many countries worldwide. The processing
technologies employed for the production of cooked ham
may change depending on the raw materials and the processing
conditions adopted by ham manufacturers in different regions
of the world, and these will be discussed in this article.
Types of Cooked Ham
The best cooked hams are achieved when low injection curing
volumes are used and no addition of any ingredient, with the
exception of salt and nitrite, is utilized in the cure formulation.
In general, if excessive levels of water are injected into the ham,
then the resulting product quality becomes poor. Water reten-
tion in ham products can be facilitated by the addition of
processing aids like polyphosphates, carrageenans, alginates,
and starches.
There are many types of products that depend on the raw
materials used and the type of processing technology employed.
Ham products are no exception. Some traditional hams have
received the name of the region where they were originally
produced, like British Wiltshire and York hams, French jambon
de Bourgogne and jambon de Reims, and the Italian prosciutto
cotto. For instance, Wiltshire ham is produced according to
traditional recipes originating back to the eighteenth century
Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00369-X
using a wet cure, within which the meat is soaked for 4–5 days
and which then could be smoked using oak whisky barrels.
If claims are made for any specific procedure like hickory-
smoked ham, then hickory wood must be used for smoking. If
the smoke flavor is injected, then the term added smoke flavor
must be included on the label. Honey-glazed hams or honey-
cured hams can be labeled if honey constituted at least 50% of
the sweetener used and comprised at least 3% of the formula and
has a discernible effect on flavor. Other sweet cure hams may be
produced by using less salt and including sugar in the brine.
Processing Technology
The processing of cooked ham includes some key manufactur-
ing stages, which are receipt and intake of hams, brine injec-
tion, tumbling and massaging, cooking, and cooling as shown
in Figure 1.
Receipt and Intake
Meat for ham manufacture may be preserved through refriger-
ation or kept under frozen storage. Once received, they are
controlled before processing. The microbiological condition
of the hams must meet the microbiological standards and not
exceed 5
C upon arrival and be stored at 2
C to þ4
C until
processing commences. Previously frozen meat for ham man-
ufacture must be completely thawed, taking care that the outer
surface of the meat does not exceed þ7
C during the defrosting
period. The high pH 6.0–6.5 of dark, firm, and dry leg meat is
not a problem for cooked ham manufacture because any micro-
bial risk is eliminated by the heat treatment, and its typically
high pH assists in increasing water retention. The fat and its
composition in fatty acids in meat are very important for flavor
development in the resulting ham. Of course, this strongly
depends on the pig crossbreeds used for meat supply, the pro-
duction systems operated, and the type of feeds received by the
pigs. In most cases, hams are boned to facilitate cure injection,
cure diffusion, meat molding, and, later, slicing.
Brine Injection
The main ingredients in the brine or cure are salt and sodium or
potassium nitrite. The amount of salt varies depending on the
type of product to be produced. The salt in the brine or cure
assists in the binding of muscles through myofibrillar protein
solubilization, and this also results in the enhancement of prod-
uct yield and final weight. Some carbohydrates, like sucrose,
dextrose, and corn syrup, may be added to the brine or cure to
impart a pleasant mild taste. Nitrite is added to assure the gen-
eration of nitric oxide for preservation purposes, and it also
contributes to the typical cooked pink color brought about by
303
304 Ham: Cooked Ham
Raw materials
Reception and preparation of hams
Brine injection
Massaging/thumbling
Resting and canning
Cooking
Cooling
Packaging
Distribution
Figure 1 Flow diagram for a typical processing of cooked ham.
the formation of nitrosyl hemochrome. Sodium ascorbate or
sodium erythorbate may be added as cure accelerators in order
to speed up the conversion of nitrite to nitrous oxide, thus
resulting in the disappearance of nitrite and lowering the gener-
ation of nitrosamines. Other additives may be added to the brine
or curing solution, but this is mostly used for the production of
low-quality hams where more water uptake is required to make
such products more palatable. Consequently, additives such as
alkaline phosphates, polyphosphates, and pyrophosphates ele-
vate pH values to around 6.0–6.5, thereby shifting the pH far
from the isoelectric point of muscle proteins (which lies around
a pH value of 4.5), and consequently, the water holding capacity
is increased and more water is retained within the ham product.
Phosphates also enhance the ionic strength within hams and this
also results in protein solubilization. The amount of phosphates
that is permitted in the curing solution for cooked hams varies
from country to country and from product to product, but in
general, added phosphate content in cooked ham does not
exceed 0.3–05% (as P205). Levels certainly do not exceed 0.6%
as higher usage levels will result in the generation of bitter
aftertastes, which consumers can easily perceive.
The brine or cure is injected into the ham through a multi-
needle system. Pumping speed and volume of injection may be
controlled. The injection machines may pump brine into bone-
less hams or also into bone-in hams. Care must be taken when
injecting bone-in meat in order to avoid needle breakage as this
would pose a major health risk. When an immersion brine is
used to cure hams, it is continually reused, and its composition,
temperature, and pH are monitored between uses. A current
practice, after brine injection, consists of holding the hams for a
brief period of time for resting. This practice assures a full
diffusion of salt and additives through the entire piece.
Massaging and/or Tumbling
This is a common operation also performed under refrigera-
tion. Tumbling or massaging hams typically takes a few hours
and is carried out in rotational tumblers or mixers under mild
agitation to avoid severe physical disruptions or damages.
Often, the tumbling process occurs in cycles of starts and
stops (i.e., tumbling for 20 min and resting for 10 min, before
the cycle starts again). It is very important to maintain a low
speed so that the paddles or baffles contained within the tum-
bler do not destructively damage the muscles as they collide
with these structures. The tumbling process is often accompa-
nied by applying a vacuum within the tumbler to remove air
and air bubbles within the meat, and this reduces undesirable
oxidation reactions. Pulsed vacuum application can be applied
to tumbling ham, and the serial application and removal of the
vacuum pressure cause the ham to sequentially close and open
the meat structure, thereby allowing processing salts to become
more interactive with meat myofibrillar proteins.
Cooking
Following the tumbling process, the meat pieces and extracted
exudate are often stuffed into metal molds, polymer-based
bags, or elasticated polymeric netting and made ready for
cooking. The purpose of cooking, apart from achieving an
acceptable flavor and texture, is to assist in setting the three-
dimensional gel matrix that helps bind meat pieces together
and reduces the microbial load on the ham to a level that
renders it safe. Endogenous enzymes are also inactivated. The
cooking process used for ham manufacture is such that the
time/temperature achieved in all parts of the ham is equivalent
to 2 min at 72
C. The actual temperature achieved in the center
of the ham may vary between 68
C and 75
C, but an internal
temperature of 72
C is targeted typically. Heat treatment is
calculated and applied to inactivate pathogens and spoilage
microorganisms and requires a rigorous control of time and
temperature to achieve the final desired effect and ensure prod-
uct wholesomeness during the anticipated shelf life. Canned
hams are contained in special metallic molds that produce the
final product shape or optionally packaged in ham-shaped
plastic (zero water loss). Cooking can be considered as a pas-
teurization process since the internal temperature in the ham
can reach around 72
C after 30–60 min of heating. The way
heat is distributed within hams follows two heat transfer mech-
anisms. The first one is convection by transferring the heat from
the heating medium to the ham surface, and the second is by
conduction of the heat from the ham surface to the inner part of
the ham. The rate of temperature increase during cooking is
important. Cooking can be operated in three ways: (1) heating
at a fixed temperature, which is a less used approach, (2) heat-
ing until a determined temperature inside the ham (usually
68
C) is reached, and (3) heating through stages so that con-
sistent increases in temperature within the ham are stepwise,
not exceeding 25–30
C during each sequential step, thereby
avoiding excessive heating of the ham. The sensory

Figure 2 Example of a cooked ham slice.
characteristics of hams are developed during cooking as a con-
sequence of multiple enzymatic and chemical reactions.
Cooling
This stage must be performed carefully to ensure the whole-
someness and safety of the hams. Ham molds are immersed in
cold water or cooled by using cold water showers in order to
reduce the temperature to below 5
C inside the ham. The most
hazardous period in the cooling process is the temperature
transit between 50
C and 12
C where bacteria might grow
during the time involved to achieve this, and consequently,
this is why it is recommended not to extend the temperature
reduction period for more than 10 h.
Final Product
Hams are removed from the molds and may be smoked at the
end of the process. The smoking of ham is usually performed by
hanging over burning wood chips in a smokehouse, through
the use of friction smokers providing smoke to the smokehouse
or by spraying atomized liquid smoke on its surface. In all cases,
the final product appearance is equivalent. Once finished, the
hams are packaged, sometimes with a previous surface heat
treatment to avoid any recontamination. Cooked hams can be
commercialized as a full piece to retailers or as ham slices
packaged under vacuum or modified atmosphere ready to be
consumed. For ease and consistency of slicing (thereby prevent-
ing ham slices from breaking apart), hams can be placed in a
freezer for up to 12 h (usually overnight) to harden the ham
surfaces. A typical slice of cooked ham is shown in Figure 2.
Quality Attributes of Ham
Color
During the heating process, the color of ham changes from
the initial red pork meat color to the final pink color, typical of
cooked ham. This is due to nitrosyl hemochrome, which
results from the transformation of nitrosyl myoglobin by heat-
ing. The final color of the cooked ham depends primarily on
Ham: Cooked Ham 305
the initial content of myoglobin present in the starting muscles
used and, consequently, is dependent upon the biochemical
muscle type (whether muscles are more oxidative or glycolytic
in nature), age of the animal at slaughter (higher in older
animals), and degree of exercise afforded to the pigs during
production.
Texture
The extent of heating and the enzymatic proteolysis on myofi-
brillar and connective tissue proteins will affect the structural
breakdown and, thus, its texture. The moisture content and the
amount of intramuscular fat also exert a positive influence on
some textural and appearance traits. When hams are manufac-
tured using hydrocolloids as part of the curing solution, the
final ham products may have distinctive textures as a result of
containing more bound water and possessing unique mouth-
feel properties.
Flavor
Several biochemical changes, mainly relating to enzymatic reac-
tions (proteolysis and lipolysis) by endogenous muscle pepti-
dases and lipases, contribute to the generation of free amino
acids and fatty acids, all substances that influence the taste and
aroma of the final product. The high water activity and rela-
tively low salt favor these enzymatic reactions, even though
muscle peptidases become rapidly inactivated by heating, espe-
cially at temperatures above 50
C. The release of free amino
acids and free fatty acids may increase in hams during a 1–2-day
chilled resting period before processing. Such released amino
acids and fatty acids will be subject to further chemical reactions
(i.e., Strecker reactions) that can generate volatile aromatic
compounds. Further chemical reactions, like Maillard reac-
tions, can also proceed during cooking and contribute to the
generation of aromatic volatile compounds. So, the final flavor
will depend on the time and intensity of heating.
Nutritional Composition
As for other meat products, the nutritional content of cooked
ham is variable and is dependent on the initial composition of
the raw ham (which is affected by pig physiology, animal pro-
duction practices, and type and composition of feed) and the
type of processing conditions used (brine injected, amount of
injected water, other ingredients added, and heating conditions).
Therefore, all of these factors will directly impact upon both the
macro- and microcomposition of the final ham products.
Lipids, Fatty Acids, and Cholesterol
The fat content in cooked ham varies (5–20%) largely depend-
ing on animal genetics (pig crossbreeds used) and the type of
feed offered to pigs during production. Triacylglycerols, which
are particularly rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (45–50%)
and contain a moderate level of saturated fatty acids (SFA)
(35–40%), are mainly located in fat cells, while phospholipids,
which contain high amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs) and some cholesterol, are located in cell and organelle
306 Ham: Cooked Ham
membrane lipids. Free fatty acids (9–20% of total lipids) can
also be found in ham products. The PUFA/SFA ratios may range
from 0.17 to 0.35. Cholesterol levels in cooked hams are in the
range of 50–65 mg/100 g, so that consumption of 100 g of
cooked ham would contribute nearly 20% of the maximum
recommended daily intake of cholesterol (300 mg).
Proteins, Peptides, and Amino Acids
Cooked ham contains about 25–30 g of protein per 100 g
ham. These proteins are considered of high biological value
due to their high content of all essential amino acids. Animal
proteins in the diet are also known to favor the absorption of
minerals like heme iron and trace elements. There are also
histidine-based dipeptides, carnosine, and anserine, com-
pounds that all possess antioxidant activity and that are quite
resistant to heat treatment, thereby functioning to prevent
oxidation-based reactions in cooked ham products. However,
their antioxidant properties may only be secondary to those
provided by the presence of nitrite in these products.
Minerals
Cooked ham constitutes a good source of highly bioavailable
heme iron, zinc, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and
selenium.
Vitamins
Cooked ham constitutes an excellent source of B-group vita-
mins like thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin, vitamin B6,
and vitamin B12, but, as for other meat products, its content in
major vitamins A, C, D, and K is rather poor. Vitamin E may be
largely increased in hams if pigs have been supplemented with
the vitamin in the feed prior to slaughter.
See also: Ham: Dry-cured Ham; Meat: Eating Quality and Preservation;
Pork Meat Quality, Production and Processing on.
Further Reading
Casiraghi E, Alamprese C, and Pompei C (2007) Cooked ham classification on the basis
of brine injection level and pork breeding country. LWT - Food Science and
Technology 40: 164–169.
Desmond EM, Kenny TA, Ward P, and Sun DW (2000) Effect of rapid and conventional
cooling methods on the quality of cooked ham joints. Meat Science 56: 271–277.
Guerrero-Legarreta I (2005) Meat canning technology. In: Hui YH, Nip WK, Rogers RW,
and Young OA (eds.) Meat science and applications, pp. 521–535. New York:
Marcel-Dekker Inc.
Guerrero-Legarreta I (2006) Thermal processing of meats. In: Hui YH, Culbertson JD,
Duncan S, Guerrero-Legarreta I, Li-Chan ECY, Ma CY, Manley CH, McMeekin TA,
Nip WK, Nollet LML, Rahman MS, Toldrá F, and Xiong YL (eds.) Handbook of food
science, technology and engineering, vol. 4, pp. 162-1–162-9. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press.
Guillard AS, LeQuere JL, and Vendeuvre JL (1997) Emerging research approaches
benefit to the study of cooked cured ham flavour. Food Chemistry 59: 567–572.
Leroy F, Vasilopoulos C, Van Helmelryck S, Falony G, and De Vuyst L (2009) Volatile
analysis of spoiled, artisan-type, modified-atmosphere-packaged cooked ham
stored under different temperatures. Food Microbiology 26: 94–102.
Marcos B, Aymerich T, Monfort JM, and Garriga M (2007) Use of antimicrobial
biodegradable packaging to control Listeria monocytogenes during storage of
cooked ham. International Journal of Food Microbiology 120: 152–158.
Martin M (2001) Meat curing technology. In: Hui YH, Nip WK, Rogers RW, and
Young OA (eds.) Meat science and applications, pp. 491–508. New York: Marcel-
Dekker Inc.
Mora L, Sentandreu MA, and Toldrá F (2008) Effect of cooking conditions on creatinine
formation in cooked ham. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
56: 11279–11284.
Ponce-Alquicira E (2005) Canned poultry products: turkey ham. In: Hui YH,
Culbertson JD, Duncan S, Guerrero-Legarreta I, Li-Chan ECY, Ma CY, Manley CH,
McMeekin TA, Nip WK, Nollet LML, Rahman MS, Toldrá F, and Xiong YL (eds.)
Handbook of food science, technology and engineering, vol. 4, pp. 166-1–166-12.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Toldrá F (2006) Meat: chemistry and biochemistry. In: Hui YH, Culbertson JD,
Duncan S, Guerrero-Legarreta I, Li-Chan ECY, Ma CY, Manley CH, McMeekin TA,
Nip WK, Nollet LML, Rahman MS, Toldrá F, and Xiong YL (eds.) Handbook of food
science, technology and engineering, vol. 1, pp. 28-1–28-18. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press.
Toldrá F and Reig M (2007) Ham. In: Hui YH, Chandan R, Clark S, Cross N, Dobbs J,
Hurst WJ, Nollet LML, Shimoni E, Sinha N, Smith EB, Surapat S, Titchenal A, and
Toldrá F (eds.) Handbook of food product manufacturing, vol. 2, pp. 231–247.
New York: Wiley.
Toldrá F, Mora L, and Flores M (2010) Cooked ham. In: Toldrá F (ed.) Handbook of
meat processing, pp. 301–311. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Válková V, Saláková A, Buchtová H, and Tremlová B (2007) Chemical, instrumental and
sensory characteristics of cooked pork ham. Meat Science 77: 608–615.
Relevant Websites
http://www.bmpa.uk.com/_attachments/Resources/2669_S4.pdf – British Meat
Processors Association.
http://www.foodsafety.gov/keep/charts/mintemp.html – Food safety at U.S. Department
of Health & Human Services.
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/
food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/ham-and-food-safety/CT_Index – Ham
and food safety at the United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and
Inspection Service.