Calculus - Module 2 - Limits and Cotinuity

Math 11/L
ENGINEERING CALCULUS 1
MODULE 2: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Source: https://medium.com/left-right/when-will-we-ever-use-this-calculuss-surprising-uses-in-personal-and-professional-
development-256ca15d15b5
Prepared by:
ENGR. CLARK JASON C. AMORES, RCE
Faculty, CE Department
College of Engineering, Architecture & Technology
ENGINEERING CALCULUS 1 [DATE]
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MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 1

CONTENTS:
OVERVIEW
1. Limits of Functions
2. One sided Limits

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
3. Limits at Infinity
An introductory course covering the core concepts of limit,
continuity and differentiability of functions involving one or more 4. Infinite Limits
variables. This also includes the application of differential
calculations in solving problems optimization, rate of change,
5. Vertical and Horizontal
related rates, tangents and normal, and approximations; partial
differentiation and transcendental curve tracing.
Asymptotes
6. Squeeze Theorem
COURSE OUTCOME:
At the end of this course, you must be able to solve 7. Continuity
derivatives of algebraic and transcendental functions
using the appropriate formula.
TIME FRAME:
This module can be covered in two weeks.
INTRODUCTION
Good day future engineers!
In module 1, you have already learned about functions, how to execute operations on them, what are the
various types of functions, their domains and ranges.
In this module, you will learn how to compute limits, one-sided and infinite, and test the continuity of a
function.
The two underlying mathematical operations in calculus are differentiation and integration. These
operations involve computation of the derivative and the definite integral, each based on the notion of limit,
probably the single most important topic in calculus.
If you are ready, let’s start.

Lesson
Limits of Functions
1
In this lesson, you will learn on how to define limits, illustrate limits and its theorem, and evaluate limits
applying given theorems.
LESSON PROPER
1.1. Definition of Limits:
The most basic use of limits is to describe how a function behaves as the independent variable
approaches a given value.
1.1. Example:
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
Figure 1.1.a.
x 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.995 1.999 2 2.001 2.005 2.01 2.05 2.1
f (x) 2.71 2.852 2.97 2.985 2.997 3.003 3.015 3.031 3.152 3.31
Left Side Right Side
By examining the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 for x-values closer and closer to 2. It is evident
from the graph and the table that the values of f(x) get closer and closer to 3 as the values of x
are selected closer and closer to 2 on either the left or right side of 2.
We describe this by saying the “limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 is 3 as x approaches 2 from either
side,” we write:
𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) = 3
𝑥→2

1.2. This leads us to the following general ideas:
1.2.1. Limits (as informal view)

If the value of f(x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but
not equal to a), then we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
which read as “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L” or “f(x) approaches L as x approaches a.” The
expression can also be written as
𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎
1.2. Example:
𝑥−1
a. Use numerical evidence to make a conjecture about the value of lim .
𝑥→1 √𝑥−1
Figure 1.2.a.
x 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999 1 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01

f (x) 1.9949 1.9995 1.99995 1.999995 2.000005 2.00005 2.0005 2.004915
𝑥−1
Although the function lim is undefined at x = 1, this has no bearing to the limit.
𝑥→1 √𝑥−1
The table shows sample x-values approaching 1 from the left side and from the right side. In
both cases the corresponding values of f(x) appear to get closer and closer to 2, and hence we
𝑥−1
conjecture that lim 𝑥−1 = 2 and is consistent with the graph of f.
𝑥→1 √

1.3. Theorems on Limits:

Our strategy for finding limits algebraically has two parts:
• First, we will obtain the limits of some simpler function.

• Then we will develop a list of theorems that will enable us to use the limits of simple functions as
building blocks for finding limits of more complicated functions.
1.3.1. Theorem
Let a and k be real numbers.
(a) lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 (b) lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Figure 1.3.1.a Figure 1.3.1.b
1.3.1.a. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 is a constant function, then the values of f(x) remain fixed at k as x varies, which
explains why, in the figure 1.3.1.a, 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑘 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎 for all values of a.
1.3.1.b. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, then 𝑥 → 𝑎 it must also be true that 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑎.
1.3.1 Practice Problem

Find the limits of the following functions:
1. lim 3
𝑥→−25
2. lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
3. lim 𝑥
𝑥→−2
4. lim 𝑥
𝑥→𝜋
5. lim 3
𝑥→0
6. lim 3
𝑥→𝜋

1.3.1. Explanation:
1. lim 3 = 3 from theorem 1.3.1.a
𝑥→−25
2. lim 𝑥 = 0 from theorem 1.3.1.b

𝑥→0
3. lim 𝑥 = −2 from theorem 1.3.1.b

𝑥→−2
4. lim 𝑥 = 𝜋 from theorem 1.3.1.b

𝑥→𝜋

𝑥→0

𝑥→𝜋
1.3.2. Theorem
Let a be a real number, and suppose that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿1 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿2
That is, the limits exist and have values L1 and L2, respectively. Then:
a) lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
b) lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿1 − 𝐿2

c) lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = (lim 𝑓(𝑥)) ( lim 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐿1 𝐿2

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿

d) lim [𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝐿1 , provided 𝐿2 ≠ 0
2
𝑛
e) lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√𝐿1 , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐿1 > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
1.3.2.a. Example:
Evaluate the following limits:
1. lim (2 x + 5 ) = lim 2 x + lim 5 2. lim (6 x − 12) = lim 6 x − lim (12)
x →4 x →4 x →4 x →3 x →3 x →3
= 2 lim x + lim 5 = 6( 3 ) − 12
x →4 x →4
= 2( 4 ) + 5 = 18 - 12
=8+5 =6
= 13
2x
3. lim (4 − x )( 5 x − 2 ) = lim (4 − x ) • lim (5 x − 2 ) 4. lim
x →5 5 x − 4
( )( )
x →3 x →3 x →3
= lim 4 − lim x  lim 5 x − lim 2 lim 2 x 2 lim x

= (lim 4 − lim x ) (5 lim x − lim 2 )
x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3
= x →5
= x →5
lim (5 x ) − lim (4 ) 5 lim (x ) − lim (4 )
x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3 x →5 x →5 x →5 x →5
= (4 − 3)(5( 3 ) − 2 ) 2(5) 10
= =
= (1)(13) 25 − 4 21
= 13

8x + 1 8x + 1 5. lim(3 x + 6 )
3
6. lim = lim
( )
x →1 x+3 x →1 x + 3 x→3
= lim (3 x + 6 )
3
9 3
( )
x →3
= =
= lim 3 x + lim 6
4 2 3
( )
x →3 x →3
= 3 lim x + lim 6
3
x →3 x →3
= ((3  3 ) + 6 ) = (15)
3 3
= 3375
Note: When evaluating the limit of a function at a given value, simply replace the variable by the
indicated limit then solve for the value of the function:
lim(3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1) = 3(3)2 + 4(3) − 1
𝑥→3
= 27 + 12 − 1
= 𝟑𝟖
1.3.2.a Practice Problem

Evaluate the following limits: Use a different sheet of paper.
1. lim [𝑥(2𝑥 + 1)]
𝑥→4 Check your answer in answer key page. Please answer
it all first before checking, this is important for self-assessment.
2. lim (5𝑥 + 7)4
𝑥→−2
If you got 4 - 5 items correct, very good, you already
𝑥 understand the concept.
3. lim −7𝑥+1
𝑥→4
If you got 3 items correct, good, you understand most of
𝑥
3 the concepts, you only need to practice for a few times.
4. lim √
𝑥→4 −7𝑥+1
If you got 0 – 2, it is okay, do not worry. Just try to review
5. lim (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 5) the lesson then answer again.
𝑥→3
1.3.2.b. Example:
𝑥 3 +8
1. lim Note: In evaluating a limit of a
𝑥→−2 𝑥+2
0
quotient which reduces to ,
0
Solution:
𝑥 3 +8 (−2)3 +8 −8+8 0
simplify the fraction. Just remove
lim = = = 0 (indeterminate) the common factor in the
𝑥→−2 𝑥+2 −2+2 0
numerator and denominator which
Equivalent function: 0
makes the quotient 0 . To do this
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+4)
= lim use factoring or rationalizing the
𝑥→−2 𝑥+2
numerator or denominator,
= lim (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4) wherever the radical is.
𝑥→−2
= (−2)2 − 2(−2) + 4
= 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
𝑥 3 +8
∴ lim = 12
𝑥→−2 𝑥+2

√𝑥+2−√2
2. lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
Solution:
√𝑥+2−√2 √0+2−√2 0
lim = = (indeterminate)
𝑥→0 𝑥 0 0
Equivalent function:
√𝑥+2−√2 √𝑥+2+√2 𝑥+2−2 𝑥
= lim 𝑥
∙ = lim 𝑥( = lim 𝑥(
𝑥→0 √𝑥+2+√2 𝑥→0 √𝑥+2+√2) 𝑥→0 √𝑥+2+√2)
1 1 1 √2
= lim = = =
𝑥→0 (√𝑥+2+√2) √0+2+√2 √2+√2 4
√𝑥+2−√2 √2
∴ lim 𝑥
= 4
𝑥→0
1.3.2.b Practice Problem

Evaluate the following limits: Use a different sheet of paper.
8𝑥 3 −27 Check your answer in answer key page. Please answer

1. lim3 √ 4𝑥 2 −9
𝑥→
2 it all first before checking, this is important for self-assessment.
If you got 2 items correct, very good, you already
𝑥 3 +2𝑥+3
2. lim √ 𝑥 2 +5
understand the concept.
𝑥→2
If you got 1 item correct, good, you understand most of
the concepts, you only need to practice for a few times.
If you got 0, it is okay, do not worry. Just try to review
the lesson then answer again.
Congratulations! You have finished the lesson 1. Take a breather before you
proceed to the lesson 2.

Lesson
One-sided Limits
2
In lesson 1, you already learned about how to define limits, illustrate limits and its theorem, and evaluate
limits applying given theorems.
In this lesson, you will learn on how to define one-sided limits, illustrate one-sided limits and investigate
the limit if it exists or not using the concept of one-sided limits.
LESSON PROPER
2.1. Definition of One-sided Limits.
The limit of a function is called two-sided limit if it requires the values of f(x) to get closer and closer to
a number as the values of x are taken from either side of 𝑥 = 𝑎. However, some functions exhibit different
behaviors on the two sides of an x-value in which case it is necessary to distinguish whether the values of x near
a are on the left side or on the right side of a for purposes of investigating limiting behavior.
2.1. Example:
|𝑥| 1, 𝑥 > 0
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ={
𝑥 −1, 𝑥 < 0
Figure 2.1.
As x approaches 0 from the right, the values of f(x) approach a limit of 1, and similarly, as x
approaches 0 from the left, the values of f(x) approach a limit of -1.
In symbols,
|𝑥| |𝑥|
lim+ 𝑥 = 1 and lim− 𝑥 = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

2.2. One-sided limits (an informal view)
If the values of f(x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but
greater than a), then we write
𝑥→𝑎 +
and if the values of f(x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a
(but less than a), then we write
𝑥→𝑎 −
The first expression is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right is L” or “f(x) approaches L
as x approaches a from the right.” Similarly, the second expression is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a
from the left is L” or “f(x) approaches L as x approaches a from the left.”
2.3. The relationship between One-sided and Two-sided Limits.
The two-sided limit of a function f(x) exists at a if and only if both of the one-sided limits exist at a and
have the same value; that is,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

2.3. Example:
|𝑥|
a. Find if the two-sided limits given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
Solution:
Figure 2.1.a.
|𝑥| |𝑥|
lim =1 and lim = −1
𝑥→0+ 𝑥 𝑥→0− 𝑥
|𝑥| |𝑥| |𝑥|

Since lim+ 𝑥
≠ lim− 𝑥
, then the two-sided limit does not exist or lim does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
b. For the function in Figure 2.1.b, find the one-sided limit and two-sided limits at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if they
exist.
Figure 2.1.b.

Solution:
The functions in all three figures have the same one-sided limits as 𝑥 → 𝑎, since the functions are
identical, except at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
These limits are
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
In all three cases the two-sided limit does not exist as 𝑥 = 𝑎 because the one-sided limits are not
equal.
3 + 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < −2
c. Find if the two-sided limit exists in 𝑓(𝑥) = { 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = −2 }
11 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > −2
Solution:
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦−(𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 ) • 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )

𝒙→𝟐− 𝒙→−𝟐 𝒙→𝟐− 𝒙→−𝟐
= 𝟑 + (−𝟐)𝟐 = 𝟕 = 𝟏𝟏 − (−𝟐)𝟐 = 𝟕
Since the lim + 𝑓(𝑥) = lim − 𝑓(𝑥), then the two-sided limit exists and is equal to 7 or
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 7
𝑥→−2
2.2 Practice Problem

Find if the two-sided limit exists in the following functions: Use a different sheet of paper.
6 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < −2
1. 𝑔(𝑥) = { } Check your answer in answer key page. Please
𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 ≥ −2 answer it all first before checking, this is important for self-
assessment.
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + |2𝑥 − 4|, determine if
If you got 3 items correct, very good, you already
lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist. understand the concept.
𝑥→2
2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10 If you got 2 items correct, good, you understand most

3. 𝑓(𝑥) = { } of the concepts, you only need to practice for a few times.
1.8𝑥 𝑖𝑓 10 < 𝑥
If you got 0 - 1, it is okay, do not worry. Just try to
review the lesson then answer again.

Lesson
Limits at Infinity
3
In lesson 2, you already learned about how to define one-sided limits, illustrate one-sided limits and
investigate the limit if it exists or not using the concept of one-sided limits.
In this lesson, you will learn on how to define limits at infinity, illustrate limits at infinity and determine the
horizontal asymptote.
LESSON PROPER
3.1. Definition of Limits at Infinity.
If the values of the variable x increase without bound, then we write 𝑥 → +∞, and if the values of x
decrease without bound, then we write 𝑥 → −∞.
The behavior of a function 𝑓(𝑥) as x increases or decreases without bound is something called end
behavior of the function.
3.1. Example:
1 1
a. lim =0 and lim =0
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
3.2. Limits at Infinity (an informal view)
If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) eventually get as we like to a number L as x increases without bound, then we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → +∞

𝑥→+∞
Similarly, if the values of 𝑓(𝑥) eventually get as we like to a number L as x increases without bound, then
we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −∞

𝑥→−∞

Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 illustrate the end behavior of the function f when
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
3.2. Example:
1 𝑥
a. In the figure below, find the end behavior of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = (1 + 𝑥) .
Figure 3.2.a.
Solution:
As suggested by the figure 3.2.a.,

1 𝑥 1 𝑥
lim (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒 and lim (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞

Lesson
Infinite Limits
4
In lesson 3, you already learned about how to define limits at infinity, illustrate limits at infinity and
determine the horizontal asymptote.
In this lesson, you will learn on how to define infinite limits, illustrate infinite limits and use the theorems
to evaluate the limits of functions.
LESSON PROPER
4.1. Definition of Infinite Limits.
Sometimes one-sided or two-sided limits fail to exist because the value of the function increase or
decrease without bound.
4.1. Example:
1
a. Consider the behavior of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 for values x near 0.
Solution:
Figure 4.1.
x -1 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

1/x -1 -10 -100 -1000 -10,000 10,000 1000 100 10 1
It is evident from the table and figure 4.1 that as x values are taken closer and closer to 0 from the
1
right, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 are positive and increase without bound; and as x-values are taken closer and
1
closer to 0 from the left, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 are negative and decreases without bound.
In symbols, we write
1 1
lim = +∞ and lim− = −∞
𝑥→0+ 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
Note: The symbols +∞ and −∞ here are not real numbers; they simply describe particular ways
in which the limits fail to exist. Thus, it is incorrect to write (+∞) − (−∞) = 0.

4.2. Infinite Limits (an informal view)
The expressions
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ and lim∗ 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞

𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑥→𝑎
denotes that f(x) increases without bound as x approaches a from the left and from the right, respectively.
If both are true, then we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
Similarly, the expressions
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ and lim∗ 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞

𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑥→𝑎
denotes that f(x) decreases without bound as x approaches a from the left and from the right, respectively.
If both are true, then we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
Figure 4.2.
1 1 1
Figure 4.2 illustrate graphically the limits for rational functions of the form ,
(𝑥−𝑎) (𝑥−𝑎)2
, − (𝑥−𝑎)2
4.2. Example:

4.3. Summary:
𝑅(𝑥)
𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑄(𝑥)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑥→𝑎
+∞ +∞ +∞
−∞ −∞ −∞
+∞ −∞ ∞
−∞ +∞ ∞
4.3. Example:

4 Practice Problem
Use a different sheet of paper.
𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = , find (a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and (b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
√𝑥 2 −4
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = , find lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥−2 𝑥→2
√4−𝑥 2
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = , find lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥−2 𝑥→2
Check your answer in answer key page. Please answer it all first before checking, this is
important for self-assessment.
If you got 4 items correct, very good, you already understand the concept.
If you got 2 - 3 items correct, good, you understand most of the concepts, you only need to
practice for a few times.
If you got 0 - 1, it is okay, do not worry. Just try to review the lesson then answer again.

Lesson
Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes
5
In lesson 4, you already learned about how to define infinite limits, illustrate infinite limits and use
the theorems to evaluate the limits of functions.
In this lesson, you will learn on how to determine vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
LESSON PROPER
5.1. Definition:
The line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), if at least one of the following
statements is true:
a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 +
b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 +
c. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 −
d. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 −
Figure 5.1.a

Figure 5.1.b
Figures 5.1.a and 5.1.b illustrates the vertical asymptotes 𝑥 = 𝑎.
5.2. Definition:
The line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), if either
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏

𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
Figure 5.2.a

Figure 5.2.b
Figures 5.1.a and 5.1.b illustrates the horizontal asymptotes 𝑦 = 𝑏.
5. Example:
3
Determine the horizontal and vertical asymptote of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = and sketch the graph.
𝑥−2
Solution:
a. Vertical Asymptote: b. Horizontal Asymptote:
Equate the denominator to zero to solve for Divide both numerator and denominator by the
the vertical asymptote. highest power of x to solve for the horizontal
asymptote.
𝒙−𝟐 = 𝟎⇒ 𝒙= 𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
Evaluate the limit as x approaches 2 𝒙 +∞ 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = =𝟎
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏−𝟎
−
𝒙 𝒙 𝟏 − +∞
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = =∞
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟐−𝟐 𝟎 𝟑 𝟑
𝒙 −∞ 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = =𝟎
𝒙→−∞ 𝒙 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏−𝟎
−
𝒙 𝒙 𝟏 − −∞
Intercepts:
3 3
If 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓(𝑥) = 0−2 = − 2
3
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 0 = 𝑥−2 ; 0 ≠ 3
therefore, there is no x-intercept
Thus, 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

5 Practice Problem
Use a different sheet of paper.
2𝑥+1
1. Determine the horizontal and vertical asymptote of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
and sketch the graph.
If you got 2 items correct, good, you understand most of the concepts, you only need to practice
for a few times.
Congratulations! You have finished the lesson 5. Take a breather before
you proceed to the lesson 6.

Lesson
Squeeze Theorem
6
In lesson 5, you already learned about how to determine vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
In this lesson, you will learn on how to define squeeze theorem.
LESSON PROPER
6.1. Limits of functions using Squeeze Theorem:
The Squeeze Principle is used on limit problems where the usual algebraic methods (factoring,
conjugation, algebraic manipulation, etc.) are not effective. However, it requires that you be able to ``squeeze''
your problem in between two others ``simpler'' functions whose limits are easily computable and equal.
The use of the Squeeze Principle requires accurate analysis, algebra skills, and careful use of
inequalities. The method of squeezing is used to prove that 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑐 by “trapping or squeezing”
between two functions, g and h, whose limits, as 𝑥 → 𝑐, are known with certainty to be L.
6.2. Squeeze Principle:
Assume that functions f, g, and h satisfy 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 = lim ℎ(𝑥) then
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎
6.2. Example:
a. Given |𝑓(𝑥) − 2| ≤ 3(𝑥 − 1)2 for all x. Use squeeze theorem to find lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→1
Solution:
Because |𝑓(𝑥) − 2| ≤ 3(𝑥 − 1)2 for all x, it follows that
−𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 ≤ 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝟐 ≤ 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 for all x

⇔ −𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟐 ≤ 𝒇(𝒙) for all x
≤ 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟐
Let 𝑔(𝑥) = −3(𝑥 − 1)2 + 2 and ℎ(𝑥) = 3(𝑥 − 1)2 + 2. Then

lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 and lim ℎ(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
Furthermore, for all x,

𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥)
Thus, from squeeze theorem
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→1

6.3. Theorem:
sin 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥
(a) lim 𝑥
=1 (b) lim 𝑥
=0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
Figure 6.3.
6.3. Example:
Evaluate the following limits.

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
Solution: Solution:
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∙ ) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∙ )
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙
(𝐥𝐢𝐦 ) (𝐥𝐢𝐦 ) = 𝟏(𝟏) = 𝟏 𝟐 (𝐥𝐢𝐦 ) = 𝟐(𝟏) = 𝟐
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟐𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒙 𝟐−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙

2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝒙 4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
Solution: Solution:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒙 𝟐 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒙 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒙 ) 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝒙
𝒙 (𝟏 + 𝟏) − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝟑 ( 𝟑𝒙 ) 𝟑(𝟏) 𝟑
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )= = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙
𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟓𝒙 𝟓(𝟏) 𝟓 = (𝐥𝐢𝐦 ) + (𝐥𝐢𝐦 )
𝟓( 𝒙 ) 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝒙
= (𝟑 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ) + (𝟒 𝐥𝐢𝐦 )
𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟒𝒙
= 𝟑(𝟎) + 𝟒(𝟎) = 𝟎
Congratulations! You have finished the lesson 6. Take a breather before
you proceed to the lesson 7.

Lesson
Continuity
7
In lesson 6, you already learned about how to define squeeze theorem.
In this lesson, you will learn on how to test the continuity of a function at a number and an interval.
LESSON PROPER
7.1. Definition of Continuity of a Function
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = c provided the following conditions are satisfied:
1. 𝑓(𝑐) is defined
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→𝑐
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)

𝑥→𝑐
Note: If one or more of the above conditions fails to hold at c the function is said to be
discontinuous.
7.2. Theorem:
If the functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at c, then
a. 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at c
b. 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at c.
c. 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at c.
d. 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at c if 𝑔(𝑐) ≠ 0 and has a discontinuity at c if 𝑔(𝑐) = 0
7.2. Example:
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
a. Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3 , draw a sketch of the graph of f(x), then by observing where
there are breaks in the graph, determine the values of the independent variable at which the function is
discontinuous and why each is discontinuous.
Solution:
Simplify first,
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑓(𝑥) = = =𝑥+2
𝑥−3 𝑥−3
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ≠ 3

Figure 7.2.a
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 3
b. Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−3 }, draw a sketch of the graph of f(x), then by
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 3
observing where there are breaks in the graph, determine the values of the independent variable at which
the function is discontinuous and why each is discontinuous.
Solution:
Figure 7.2.b
Test for continuity:
1. 𝑓(3) is defined and is equal to 2
𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim (𝑥 + 2) = 5
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 and lim 𝑓(3) = 2

𝑥→3 𝑥→3
The limit exists but lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(3) therefore f(x) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 3.
𝑥→3

7.3. Additional:
Figure 7.3.a
Figure 7.3.a illustrates the function not defined at 𝑥 = 𝑐, which violates the first condition.
Figure 7.3.b
Figure 7.3.b illustrates that the limit coming from the right and left both exist but are not equal, thus the
two-sided limit does not exist which violates the second condition. This kind of discontinuity is called jump
discontinuity.
Figure 7.3.c
Figure 7.3.c illustrates that the limit coming from the right and left of c are both +∞, thus the two-sided
limit does not exist which violates the second condition. This kind of discontinuity is called infinite discontinuity.

Figure 7.3.d
Figure 7.3.d illustrates the function defined at c and that the limit coming from the right and left of c both
exist thus the two-sided limit exist. But 𝑓(𝑐) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥) which violates the third condition. This kind of discontinuity
𝑥→𝑐
is called removable discontinuity.
7 Practice Problem
Determine whether the following functions is continuous at 𝑥 = 2. Use a different sheet of paper.
𝑥 2 −4
1. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −4
2. 𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2 , 𝑥≠ 2}
3 .𝑥 = 2
𝑥 2 −4
3. ℎ(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2 , 𝑥 ≠ 2}
2 .𝑥 = 2
If you got 2 items correct, good, you understand most of the concepts, you only need to practice
for a few times.
Congratulation! You have finished the Module 2. Take a breather.

Assessment
This part is a graded assessment, I will assess if you have learned the whole module. Use pencil or
ballpoint to write your answer. Write your answer in a separate piece of paper and show your solution. Copy
the questions then answer. After you answer, send it to me via Google Classroom in a PDF file. As much as
possible, try to avoid erasure. Good Luck!
A. Find the limits of the following functions: (2 points each)
1. lim (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 5)
𝑥→3
𝑥 3 +2𝑥+3
2. lim √
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +5
𝑥 2 −25
3. lim
𝑥→5 𝑥−5
√𝑥−2
4. lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4
2𝑥 2 −𝑥−3
5. lim 𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 +6𝑥+5
𝑥→−1
B. Find the limits of the following functions: (2 points each)
|𝑥| 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
1. 𝑔(𝑥) = { }, find lim 𝑔(𝑥), if it exists.
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 𝑥→0
4 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
2. ℎ(𝑥) = { }, find lim− ℎ(𝑥), and lim+ ℎ(𝑥), if they exist.
2 + 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 1 < 𝑥 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
|𝑥−3|
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
, find lim− 𝑓(𝑥), and lim 𝑓(𝑥), if they exist
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
C. Find the limits of the following functions: (2 points each)
√3+𝑥 2
1. lim− 𝑥
𝑥→0
√𝑥 2 −9
2. lim+
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
1 1
3. lim+ (𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑥→0
𝑥 3 +9𝑥 2 +20𝑥
4. lim−
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 +𝑥−12
6𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
5. lim+ 2𝑥 2 +3𝑥−2
𝑥→2

D. Continuity: (2 points each)
1. Find the points of discontinuity (if any) of the function f(x) whose graph is shown below.
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
2. Determine the points of discontinuity (if any) of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { }. See figure below.
−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑥 2 −1
3. Find the points of discontinuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
𝑥 2 −9
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 3
4. Find the points of discontinuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−3 }
6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
5. Find the points of discontinuity (if any) of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = {2𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 1 < 𝑥 < 2}. See figure below
𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1

Answer Key
Answers for 1.3.2.a Practice problem:
1. lim [𝑥(2𝑥 + 1)] = 4(2(4) + 1) = 4(9) = 𝟑𝟔

𝑥→4
2. lim (5𝑥 + 7)4 = (5(−2) + 7)4 = (−3)4 = 𝟖𝟏

𝑥→−2
𝑥 4 𝟒
3. lim −7𝑥+1 = −7(4)+1 = −𝟐𝟕
𝑥→4
𝟑
3 𝑥 3 4 3 4 √𝟒
4. lim √−7𝑥+1 = √−7(4)+1 = √−27 = − 𝟑
𝑥→4
5. lim (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 5) = ((3)2 + 7(3) − 5) = 9 + 21 − 5 = 𝟐𝟓

𝑥→3
Answers for 1.3.2.b Practice Problem:
8𝑥 3 −27
1. lim3 √ 4𝑥 2 −9
𝑥→
2
𝑥 3 +2𝑥+3
2. lim √ 𝑥 2 +5
𝑥→2

Answers for 2.2. Practice Problem:
6 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < −2
1. (𝑥) = { }
𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 ≥ −2
Solution:
a. lim− g( x ) = lim− (6 + x ) b. lim+ g( x ) = lim+ x 2

x →−2 x →−2 x → −2 x → −2
=6 −2 = (- 2 )
2
=4 =4
Since the lim + 𝑓(𝑥) = lim − 𝑓(𝑥), then the two-sided limit exists and is equal to 4 or
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→−2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + |2𝑥 − 4|, determine if lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist.

𝑥→2
Solution:
a. lim− f ( x ) = lim− 3 + 2 x − 4 b. lim+ f ( x ) = lim+ 3 + 2 x − 4

x→2 x→2
x →2 x→2
= 3 + 2(2 ) − 4 = 3 + 2(2 ) − 4
= 3 = 3
Since the lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥), then the two-sided limit exists and is equal to 3 or
𝑥→𝟐 𝑥→2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→2
2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = { }
1.8𝑥 𝑖𝑓 10 < 𝑥
Solution:
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦−(𝟐𝒙) • 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝟏. 𝟖𝒙)

𝒙→𝟐− 𝒙→𝟏𝟎 𝒙→𝟐− 𝒙→𝟏𝟎
= 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖
Since the lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥), then the two-sided limit does not exist.
𝑥→10 𝑥→10
Answers for 4. Practice Problem:
𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3, find (a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and (b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
Solution:
𝑥 2 +𝑥+2 (3)2 +(3)+2 14
a. lim− 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 = (3)2 −2(3)−3 = 0
= +∞
𝑥→3
𝑥 2 +𝑥+2 (3)2 +(3)+2 14

b. lim+ 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 = (3)2 −2(3)−3 = 0
= −∞
𝑥→3

√𝑥 2 −4
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
, find lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2
Solution:
Because 𝑥 → 2+ , 𝑥 − 2 > 0, so 𝑥 − 2 = √(𝑥 − 2)2
√𝑥 2 − 4 √(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) √(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

lim+ = lim+ = lim+
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 √(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥→2 √(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2)
√(𝑥 + 2) 2 +
lim+ = = = +∞
𝑥→2 √(𝑥 − 2) 0 +
√4−𝑥 2
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
, find lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2
Solution:
Because 𝑥 → 2− , 𝑥 − 2 < 0, so 𝑥 − 2 = −√(𝑥 − 2)2
√𝑥 2 − 4 √(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) √(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

lim+ = lim+ = lim+
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 −√(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥→2 −√(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2)
√(𝑥 + 2) 2 +
lim+ = −
= = −∞
𝑥→2 −√(𝑥 − 2) 0 −

2𝑥+1
1. Determine the horizontal and vertical asymptote of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
and sketch the graph
Solution:

𝑥 2 −4
1. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
Solution:
𝑥 2 −4
2. 𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2 , 𝑥≠ 2}
3 .𝑥 = 2
Solution:
𝑥 2 −4
3. ℎ(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2 , 𝑥 ≠ 2}
2 .𝑥 = 2
Solution:

References
1. Louis Leithold , The calculus 7 7th edition

2. Clyde E. Love and Earl D. Rainville, Differential and integral calculus 6th edition
3. Dit Gallesania, Engineering mathematics volume 2, Third Edition

Calculus - Module 2 - Limits and Cotinuity

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Math 11/L

This module has the following sections and corresponding icons:

It shows the specific topic of

The topics in this module are

A brief discussion on the

Assessment It is a job aimed at evaluating

Answer Key This contains answers to all

This is a list of all sources that

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 1

2. One sided Limits

This module can be covered in two weeks.

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 2

Left Side Right Side

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 3

1.2. This leads us to the following general ideas:

1.2.1. Limits (as informal view)

x 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999 1 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 4

1.3. Theorems on Limits:

• First, we will obtain the limits of some simpler function.

Figure 1.3.1.a Figure 1.3.1.b

1.3.1 Practice Problem

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 5

2. lim 𝑥 = 0 from theorem 1.3.1.b

3. lim 𝑥 = −2 from theorem 1.3.1.b

4. lim 𝑥 = 𝜋 from theorem 1.3.1.b

5. lim 3 = 3 from theorem 1.3.1.a

6. lim 3 = 3 from theorem 1.3.1.a

b) lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿1 − 𝐿2

c) lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = (lim 𝑓(𝑥)) ( lim 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐿1 𝐿2

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿

= lim 4 − lim x  lim 5 x − lim 2 lim 2 x 2 lim x

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 6

1.3.2.a Practice Problem

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 7

1.3.2.b Practice Problem

8𝑥 3 −27 Check your answer in answer key page. Please answer

proceed to the lesson 2.

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 8

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 9

2.2. One-sided limits (an informal view)

2.3. The relationship between One-sided and Two-sided Limits.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

|𝑥| |𝑥| |𝑥|

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 10

• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦−(𝟑 + 𝒙𝟐 ) • 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )

2.2 Practice Problem

2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10 If you got 2 items correct, good, you understand most

proceed to the lesson 3.

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 11

3.2. Limits at Infinity (an informal view)

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → +∞

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −∞

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 12

Figure 3.2 illustrate the end behavior of the function f when

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

As suggested by the figure 3.2.a.,

proceed to the lesson 4.

MODULE 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 13