+a set of components that interact with each other to form a whole + work together toward achieving a common Attribute fe + contains qualities and capabilities not found in the individual elements Components [ Aoinput gee MH cemnamane CHE system Mh. Output anything that leaves the system goal or purpose for which the system exists Bo Process w= transforms input into output fy Feedback PE reintracuces a portion ofthe outout ofa system as an input into the same system 1:2 control mechanism to indicate the difference between the goals and the w= the reason it exists the reference point for measuring its success + Subsystems ™ parts or elements which perform specified tasks that are compatible with, the goals of the larger system of which these are parts+ Environment = the people, facilities, rules, policies, and regulations that surround a system + Boundary 1 the perimeter, or ine of demarcation, between asystem and the environment + Connections 1 transmit the flow of material and information that coordinate the system’s components, + Control Mechanisms = rules and logic that govern the individual subsystems and the interactions among them +a collection of policies, procedures, methods, people, machines, and other ‘elements that interact and enable the organization to achieve its goals Information System ‘+a collection of procedures, programs, equipment, and methods that process data and make it available to management for decision-making + acombination of work practices, information, people, and information technologies organized to accomplish goals in an ‘organization‘omponents + Work Practices = methods and procedures used by people and technology to perform work + Information "can include formatted data, text, images and sounds + People = persons who enter, process and use data + Information Technology w includes hardware and software that Perform one or more data processing tasks Reasons for the Need of an I.S. + + ‘growing size of the organization and the no. of competitors growing ability of computers to process large amount of data with great speed dramatic increase in volumes of data generated advances in communication technologies to permit faster data transmission Increase in pace of business transactions. much more sophisticated technology todayTypes of Information Systems 4; TPS - Transaction Processing System 2 MIS - Management Information System + Expert Systems 4. OAS - Office Automation Systems 4. DSS - Decision Support Systems “6, QIS - Organizational Information System ESSJEIS - ExecutiveSupport/ Information system [MKIS - Marketing Information System (MFIS- Manufacturing Information System HRIS - Human Resource Info. System 4% GIS - Geographic Information Systems -®, AM/FM - Area Management/Facilities Management 9: KWS - Knowledge Work Systems Health Systems - Patient Information System Clinic Information System Transaction Processing Systems mp developed to process large amounts of data for routine business transactions such as payroll and inventory im eliminate the tedium of necessary operational transactions im reduce the time once required to perform these transactions manually although people still must input the data mm generate data used by managers as up-to- the-minute information about what is happening in their companies computer-based versions of manual ‘organization systems dedicated to handle the organization’s transactions Transactions ‘ap individual simple events in the life | of an organization that contain data about organizational activityManagement Information Systems = computer- based systems designed to provide standard reports for managers ‘about transaction data = work on the purposeful interaction between people and computers “= support a broader range of organizational tasks to include not only TPS but also decision analysts and decision making its output information is used in decision- ‘making processes scan also help unite some of the computerized information functions of a business, although it does not exist as a structure anywhere in the business Management Information Systems Types of Reports te Summary Reports - present all activity over 8 given time period, geographic region, oF other categorization in aggregate form. 2, Exception Reports - present information that is out of normal ranges. 3s On-demand Reports - present anticipated summaries only when a manager wants or needs to check the status of activities. Ad hoc Reports -provide specitic information as needed. These are unanticipated and may be one-time in nature.__Expert Systems _ lu computer-based systems designed to mimic the performance of human experts lu designed to recommend solutions 1 areas covered include: + Neural Networks * highly simplified models of the human nervous system that exhibit abilities such aslearning, generalization, and abstraction allowing the models to learn human-like behavior + Perceptive Systems use visual images and auditory signals to ‘instruct companies or other devices, such 25 robots + Learning ‘= acquiring knowledge aside from those fentered into memory by its manufacturers (or programmers mconsists of computer-controlled devices that mimic the motor activities of humans + Al Hardware w= includes physical devices that aid in Al applications + Natural Language Processing = enables users to communicate with computers in their local languagesExpert. Systems. Knowledge Engineers + computer professionals trained to elicit knowledge from domain experts in order to develop expert systems ‘Components + Knowledge Base sm houses the accumulated knowledge of the particular problem to be solved + Development Engine ‘used by the expert and the analyst to create the expert system + Inference Engine ' provides the reasoning ability that interprets the contents ofthe knowledge base + User Interface ‘enables the user to interact with the ‘expert system Office Automation System + support data workers who do not usually create new knowledge but rather use information for analysis to transform data ‘or manipulate it in some way and then share its resource, formally disseminate it throughout the organization and sometimes beyond + includ = Word processing = Spreadsheets "= Desktop publishing ™ Electronic scheduling = Communication thru Yoice mail E-mail Video conferencingDecision Support Systems ‘computer-based systems designed to help organization members make decisions ‘higher level of computerized information systems that depend on databases as source of data ‘up it emphasize the support of decision making in all its phases although actual decision is still the exclusive province of the decision maker Decision Support System ‘contains data relevant to the decision ‘to be made Model base ‘contains one or more models that can be used to analyze the decision situation Dialogue module ‘provides a way for the decision maker, usually a non-technical manager, to ‘communicate with the DSS DSS Generators ‘ageneral purpose computer-based tools used to develop specific decision support systems Group Decision Support System (GDSS) sa DSS that Supports groups of decision makersOrganizational Information Systems A classification of information systems based on how their users are grouped in the ‘organization. + EIS is used by the firm's executives + Functional Information Systems 1 used for each of the major functional areas in the organization ™ tailored to the activities in such + May make use of any of the other information systems described(TPS, MIS, DSS, OAS, or Expert Systems) Executive Information Systems we computer-based systems developed to support the information-intensive but limited-time decision making of executives uw» provide information on the overall performance of the firm ‘ue information can be easily retrieved and can provide varying levels of detail ‘up options in menus produce preformatted screen displays or perform minimum amount of processingExecutive Information Systems ‘May incorporate key management functions + Gritical success factor helps monitor those key factors instrumental in the success or failure of an organization + Management by exception @ comparative display of actual to budgeted figures will allow the executive to focus on highlighted displays that show the greatest variance + Mental model the synthesis or distillation of huge volumes of data to increase its use(called information compression) results in a view(mental model) of the firm’s operations Marketing bre Information System the ‘A computer-based system that works in conjunction with other furctonel information Systems to support the ims management in Raving probleme related to marketing the fms products Subsystems include: + Data processing normally provides the sales order data + Marketing research “gathering data of customers and prospects ' primary data gathered by its personnel ' secondary data from other sources + Marketing intelligence ‘gathering data about one’s competitorsMarketing Information System firm's products + Place “deals with the firm’s distribution network + Promotion handles the firm’s advertising and personal selling activities + Price ‘aims to support the manager's pricing decisions + Integrated-Mix “used to develop strategies that consider the ‘combined effects of the different ingredients Geographic Information m im computer-based system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified according to their location lus relating information from different sources: + Data capture © Data integration ‘+ Projection and registration + Data structures + Data modeling |m key components include: + Hardware: Software DataGeographic Information m Performs the following processes/tasks de Input * conversion of geosraphic dat nto suitable tl formatiigiticine) 2 Menipuation involves the transformation of data to make them Compatible withthe rest ofthe system temporary transformation or dpa purposes) perhanat rafomaton (eure rata) 3s Monasement “the use of an appropriate tool for better data hanaingcapabites Ae Query ond analysis * spke pontand-clck query capabilites + sophisticated analysis tools to provide timely information to users + includes: 1 rorimity ani. Wha ite otal uber of names win Okino str! s overay ana je a spatial fin whece system ‘teratan re ayere witht ot Ss Visualization + the presentation of information in terms of graphs or maps ‘+ map displays can be integrated with reports, three-dimensional views, photographic images and other output such as multimediaKnowledge Work Systems 1m Support professional workers such as: = Scientists ~ Engineers ~ Doctors ds Scientific Computing f= systems that allow scientists in many \ds to simulate everything from ‘molecular movements to global weather patterns, providing an understanding that would otherwise either be impossible or cost-prohibitive Knowledge Work Systems 1= systems that support engineers in the {design of new products or improvement of older ones = Computer-aided Design (CAD) + systems that allow engineers to create ‘graphic simulations of the products they design = Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM) + systems that help automate and control ‘the manufacturing process in factoriesSystems Analysis 1m investigation of business or information systems ui scientific study of the systems processes, including investigation of inputs and outputs in order to find better, more economical and more efficient means of processing Advantages: + greater efficiency + maximizing profits + resources used to the best advantage + reduction in human effort + faster tumaround time ++ reduction or elimination of errors in data ‘and information + consistent operations and procedures Systems Analysis Limitations + some business problems are beyond the ‘scope of systems analysis techniques serious financial problems marketing products, peopleno longer want pressures from outside the enterprise systems analysis efforts cost time and money ‘the human element can cause complications = changes in routines w= changes in organizational structures = changes in working patterns and conditions + effort is required to sell a system,Life Cycle (SDLC) uw» he traditional methodology used to develop, maintain, and replace information systems. [HOFF96] 1 he evolution of process that is followed in Implementing a computer-based information system subsystem. [MCLE93] wm Iso known as Systems Life Cycle, Systems Deve-lopment Methodology, Project Life Cycle, Methodology. heir participation depends on the strategic value of the project ystems Analyst atabase Administrator ‘etwork Specialist rogrammer perations Personnel xecutives IS/IS Steering Committee stablishes policies, provides fiscal control, resolves conflict roject Team. eaded by a Team Leader‘a to define the activities to be carried out in a systems development project to introduce consistency among many systems development projects in the same organization to provide checkpoints for management control for go/no-go decisionsConduct a feasibility study + fs the system feasible? Feasibility Areas: ® Economic = Technical = Operational © Schedule * Legal and Contractual * Political Elements of Project Planning Jue escribing project scope, alternatives and feasibility ve ividing project into manageable tasks ime stimating resources and creating resource plan tm eveloping a preliminary schedule im eveloping a communication plan ™ etermining project standards and procedures ime dentifying and Asssessing Risk ™ reating Preliminary Budget wm eveloping a Statement of Work meeting a Baseline Project PlanRequirements Determination = Formal process of using research, interview, questionnaires, sampling and other techniques to collect information about system, requirements and preferences ‘SA team collects information on what the ‘system should do from as many sources as possible: from users of the current system, from observing users and from existing reports, forms and procedures information gathering, data collection, data ‘gathering Analysis Phase im» the study of the existing system for the purpose of designing a new or improved system im steps: + Announce the systems study "= what is the reason of the study? = what benefits will the employees ‘and the organization get from the study? + Organize the project team "= who does what? "= define the information needs ~ what kind of information will be needed? = what tools should be used to ‘get the information effectively? '= define the system performance criteria = prepare the design proposalActivities dentify and describe complete problem specification tudies and documents the current system - in terms of its problems, requirements and processes repares a list of requirements for the new system iagrams the functions of the existing system necessary for the development of the new system _Design, Phase. lm the determination of the processes and data that are required by a new system steps: ds Prepare the detailed systems design 2 Identity alternative system configurations ds Evaluate alternative system configurations 4 Select the best configuration & Prepare the implementation proposal & Approve or reject the proposalImplementation Phase Implementation. Phase lw the acquisition and integration of the physical and conceptual resources that Conversion Methods: produce a working system + Immediate/Direct steps: eps ' outright conversion from old system 4 Plan the implementation to new system "2 Announce the implementation * applicable to small firms/systems 3s Obtain the hardware resources orien 4 Obtain the software resources ' the new system put into use one part Ss Prepare the database ata time & Prepare the physical facilities * popular to large-scale systems Js Educate the participants and users + Parallel = old system is implemented simultaneously with the new one f = greatest assurance against failure but most expensive Cut over to the new system xMaintenance Phase + Use the system + Audit the system "= conduct a post implementation + Maintain the system = correct the errors '= keep the system current = improve the system Classical Project Life Cycle . + uses bottom-up implementation + also known as the “waterfall life cycle” + has a number of difficulties: "= nothing's done until it’s all done ‘= most trivial bugs are found at the beginning ofthe testing period, and most serious bugs are found last bugging tends to be extremely difficult uring the final stages of system testing requirement for computer test time Usually rises exponentially at the final stages of testing + phases progress sequentially + relies on outdated techniquesSemi-Structured Project Life Cycle == + uses top-down implementation + uses structured design Structured Project Life Cycle Terminators: + Users + Managers + Operations Personnel ities: om Survey + identification of users & development of initial system scope + identification of current deficiencies in the user's environment + establishment of goals/objectives for a new system + determination of feasibility to automate + preparation of project charterStructured Project Life Cycle Bk Structured [|| Project Life Cycle ‘me Analysis + transformation of user policy & project charter into a structured specification + development of system models environmental, behavioral, essential) + preparation of budgets & cost-benefit calculations om Design + allocation of essential model to appropriate processors f tasks + transformation of ER data models into a database design + development of user implementation model ‘Implementation + coding & integration of modules ime Acceptance Test Generation + generation of acceptance test cases from the structured specification ‘Quality Assurance + final or acceptance testing 1» Procedure Description ++ generation of a user's manual 1 Database Conversion \ InstattationPISET) Prototyping Pe eee Life Cycle 1» an iterative process of systems devetopment in which requirements are converted to a working system that is continually revised through close work between an analyst and users. Tools + Fourth-Generation Languages (4GLs) + Database Management System + Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) Tools Advantages of Prototyping + involves the user in analysis and design to a large extent + captures requirements in concrete, rather than verbal or abstract form Prototyping Project Life Cycle Cont, of advanta + changing the system early in its development + scrapping undesirable systems + designing a system for users’ needs and expectations Disadvantages of Prototyping + managing the project + adopting an incomplete system as complete Guidelines for Developing a Prototype + work in manageable modules build the prototype rapidly + modify the prototype in successive iterations stress the user interfacePrototyping Project Life Cycle Candidates for Prototyping + user is unable/unwilling to examine abstract paper models + User does not know what he wants but can recognize it when he sees it ++ system is intended to be on-line with full screen terminals + system does not require massive initial user reactions User suggestions {innovations revision plans Prototyping Project Life Cycle 1s of Prototype + Patched-up = an inefficient and inelegant working system that is patched together + Non-operational = a non-working scale model for the purpose of testing certain aspects of the design + First of a Series = creating a pilot with the aim of implementing it in a series of other lacations + Selected Feature = building an operational model that includes some but not all of the features that the final system will have+ Planning = provides general direction & strategic plans to explain why the enterprise exists + Analysis 1 determines what must be accomplished to satisfy strategic plans + Design = transforms the results into implementable information system & determines how the systems operate in the enterprise + Construction ™ builds & maintains the information system Joint Application Design JAD) ‘mp started in the late 1970s at IBM. we a structured process in which users, managers, and analysts work together for several days in a series of intensive meetings to specify or review system requirements ‘wm similar to a group interview but follows a particular structure of roles and agenda during which analysts control the sequence of questions answered by users m sessions are usually conducted in a location other than the place where people involved normally work ‘sessions are held in special-purpose rooms ‘where participants sit around horseshoe- shaped tablesJoint Application Design VAD) Sponsor ' takes care of the expenses incurred during the JAD 1 attends usually only at the very beginning or the end Systems Analysts 1 has a limited participation and are there to learn from users and managers serive takes notes during the JAD sessions 1S Stoff mo “trabecrsoanmes, ons Sugg. doin center personel eons rom he susions and contbute their ideas on the technical aspects of the project Rapid Applications Development (RAD) 1m a systems development methodology created to radically decrease the time needed to design and implement information systems relies on heavy user involvement, JAD sessions, prototyping, integrated CASE tools, and code generators Components + Tools + People + Methodology + ManagementRapid Applications Development (RAD) Advantages + has shorter development cycle + involves smaller development teams + increases system quality Disadvantages + only works well for systems that have to be developed quickly + overlooks important software engineering concepts, such as interface consistency, programming standards, + module reuse, scalability, and systems administration