REVIEWER IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE
favors the very light isotopes.
Formation of Elements in the Big Bang and
Stellar Evolution
Formation of light elements: Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
 Big bang theory states that the universe
developed 13.7 billion years ago from a
very small, extremely dense, and hot
state called a “singularity” that
expanded rapidly.
 This rapid expansion caused the
universe to cool down and become less
dense, forming new particles- the
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 As the universe cooled down and the
subatomic particles formed, it entered
the phase called big bang
nucleosynthesis.
Nucleosynthesis
 Is the process that creates a new atomic
nucleus from pre-existing nucleons,
primarily protons and neutrons.
Deuterium
 also called heavy
hydrogen, isotope of hydrogen with a
nucleus consisting of one proton and
one neutron, which is double the mass
of the nucleus of ordinary hydrogen
(one proton).
Isotope
 It is a form of an element that has the
same atomic number as that of the
original element but with a different
atomic mass or mass number.
Nuclear Fusion
 The process by which light nuclei fuse
together to form a heavier nucleus.
When this happen, a tremendous amount
of energy is released.
Formation of Heavier Elements:
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Elements formed by fusion with five to
eight nucleons are very unstable. This
is the main reason why lithium and
beryllium only occur in trace amounts
during the big bang.
 Big bang nucleosynthesis strongly
Heavy elements
 were formed only billions of years later,
after the formation of stars.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 It is the formation of heavy elements by
the fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior
of stars.
Nuclear Synthetic Pathways That Can
Produce Heavier Elements
1. Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle
(CNO)
a process of stellar nucleosynthesis in
which stars on the Main Sequence
fuse hydrogen into helium via a six-
stage sequence of reactions.
2. Proton-Proton Fusion
The proton-proton chain is the simplest
form of nuclear fusion that occurs in
main-sequence stars. Proton-proton
chain involves the fusion between 4
hydrogen nuclei (H-1) to form a helium
nucleus (He-4).
3. Triple Alpha Process
In the triple-alpha process, stars fuse
three helium nuclei, also called alpha
particles together (left) to create a
single carbon atom with a surplus of
energy, known as a Hoyle state.
Hoyle State can split back into three alpha
particles or relax to the ground state of stable
carbon by releasing a couple gamma rays
(center). Inside supernovae, however, the
creation of stable carbon can be enhanced with
the help of extra protons (right).
Formation of Heavy Elements: Neutron
capture reaction
 Elements heavier that iron cannot be
formed through fusion as tremendous
amounts of energy are needed for the
reaction to occur.
 Heavy elements are formed in a
supernova.
SUPERNOVA- is a massive explosion of a star.
 In a supernova, neutron capture
reactions take place, leading to the
formation of heavy elements.
Neutron Capture Reaction
 heavy elements are created through the
addition of more neutrons to existing
nuclei instead of fusion of light nuclei.
 A tremendous amount of energy is
needed to form heavier atoms.
DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF A
MOLECULE
Molecular Geometry
 Pertains to the three-dimensional
arrangement of atoms in a molecule
Valence- means outermost; therefore, when we
say valence electrons, we refer to the electrons
found in the outermost shell of an atom.
OCTET RULE
 States that atoms tend to lose, gain, or
share electrons with other atoms in order
to have a stable configuration of 8
valence electrons.
 Most of the elements satisfy this rule
except for hydrogen and helium that
follow the duet rule.
DUET RULE
 The duet rule states that hydrogen and
helium may have no more than two
electrons in their valence shells.
 The rule comes from quantum
mechanics, which says that the lowest
energy level (n = 1) of an atom can
contain only two electrons.
 The duet rule applies to H and He,
because they are the first two atoms
in the Periodic Table.
Determining Bond Polarity
Polar
If bonded atoms are identical, then you can
easily say that the bond between them is polar.
This means that electrons are not shared equally
between the atoms.
 Polarity of a bond is dependent on the
electronegativity of an atom.
NON POLAR
 are asymmetric, either containing lone
pairs of electrons on a central atom or
having atoms with different
electronegativities bonded.
 there are no positive or negative poles
formed in the molecule
Electronegativity
 It refers to the ability of an element to
attract electrons.
 If the electronegativity difference is
from 0 to 0.4, then the bond is likely
NONPOLAR.
 If the difference is between 0.5 to1.8,
then the bond formed is said to be
POLAR.
 Beyond the said values, the bond is
more likely IONIC.
EXAMPLE:
1. HF – electronegativity difference
= 4.0 – 2.1 = 1.9 (polar)
2. CBr – electronegativity difference
= 2.8-2.5 = 0.3 (non polar)
3. LiF- electronegativity difference
=4.0 – 1.0 = 3.0 (ionic)
Properties of Polar Molecules
 Molecules which are said to be polar,
like water, have higher boiling and
melting points compared to non-polar
molecules having the same molecular
weight.
 In terms of solubility, the “Like
dissolves like” rule applies. This means
that polar molecules can be dissolved in
polar substances and non-polar
molecules can be dissolved in non-polar
substances.
 Polar substances dissolve in polar
solvent
 Dipoles are formed due to the difference
electronegativities between the bonding
elements.
 Intermolecular Forces And Properties Of Differentiate The Types of Intermolecular
Substances Forces

The Kinetic Molecular Theory 1. DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES

 It is essential in explaining the behavior  Attractive forces between polar
of gases but it can also be used to covalent molecules
understand the properties of matter in  These interactions occur when
liquid and solid states. partially positively charged
 The different characteristics of these molecules interact with the partially
various states depend on the negatively charged part of the
arrangement and motion of their nearby molecule.
molecules.  It is the strongest intermolecular
forces of attraction
 They occur due to the unequal
ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLES sharing of electrons by the covalent
bonded atoms.
Properties Solid Liquid Gas
Shape/ has definite takes the takes the
Volume shape and shape of shape and ELECTRONEGATIVITY- It is the tendency of
volume the volume of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.
container the
and has container
definite 2. ION-DIPOLE FORCES
volume  The greater the electronegativity of an
Compressibili noncompressib slightly highly atom, the greater is its partial negative
ty le compressib compressib
le le charge when it bonds to another atom
Density high high low with lower electronegativity, making the
Arrangement very close close but far apart other atom partially positively charged.
of particles random and
random  It happens when a polar molecule is
Movement of very slow moderately very fast attracted to ions.
particles fast
Examples salt, sugar water, oil helium, air
 Usually involved in solutions where an
ionic compound is dissolved in a polar
solvent.
The Kinetic Molecular Model (KMT)  Cations interact with dipoles more
 are attractive forces between particles strongly than anions because the charges
such as atoms, molecules, and ions. of cations are smaller than those of
 Important to how molecules interact and anions.
form biological organisms.
3. DISPERSION FORCES
Intermolecular forces  Also known as London Forces, after the
 intermolecular forces play important German physicist, Fritz London. He
roles in determining the properties of initially postulated the existence of
substances. dispersion forces (1930) based on
 Another type of force that holds the quantum theory.
particles of a substance together  dispersion forces are weak attractive
 They are forces that exerted within a forces that are present between all types
single molecule of molecules.

4. HYDROGEN BONDING
 It is a special bond of a very strong
dipole-dipole interaction.
 It occurs among polar covalent
molecules containing hydrogen and one
 of three small highly electronegative
elements like fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen.
 The hydrogen bonding is the same in a
dipole-dipole interaction, where the
attraction occurs with the partially
positively charged hydrogen and the
partially negatively charged atoms of
another molecule.
Properties of Liquids, and Explain the Effect
of Intermolecular Forces on these Properties
SURFACE TENSION
 It is the property of a liquid that causes
the molecules on the surface of a liquid
to resist an external force.
 A liquid is pulled by gravity in all
directions and attracting all the
molecules around it.
 The molecules at the surface are
subjected to attractional pull by the
liquid molecules on all sides, but no
attraction upward, making the liquid
surface contract like a sheet of rubber
stretched sideways.
 The surface tension of a liquid increases
as the temperature decreases;
conversely, surface tension decreases
when temperature increases.
VISCOSITY
 It is the resistance of a liquid to flow
 It is also referred to as the thickness of a
liquid.
 It is the tendency of a liquid to resist
flowing when the molecules slide to
each other.
 A stronger attraction within a liquid
makes the liquid more viscous.
 Viscosity of the liquid decreases if the
temperature increases.
 The process of changing liquid to vapor
is called evaporation.
 The process of converting vapor to
liquid is called condensation.
Vapor pressure
 Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted
by the vapor molecules above the
surface of a liquid equilibrium at a
given temperature.
 When a container is closed, preventing
the vapor to escape, the molecules in
vapor phase collides with the walls and
cause the pressure which is called vapor
pressure.
BOILING POINT AND HEAT OF
VAPORIZATION
 When a liquid is heated, its molecules
escape into vapor opposing the
atmospheric pressure.
 When the temperature increases the
vapor pressure of the liquid also
increases until bubbles are formed in the
liquid and rise to the surface, releasing
the vapor into the air, a process called
boiling.
 The temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid is equal to the
pressure of gas above it is called the
boiling point of a liquid.
MACROMOLECULES
 Carbon compounds and cells
Life as we know it is carbon based.
 A carbon atom can form chemical bonds
with other carbon atoms in long chains
or rings.
 Carbon compounds in living things
include: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids.
THE ELEMENT CARBON
 95% of all compounds are organic
 Example: Glucose C6H12O6
Polymers – large organic molecules made of
smaller parts known as monomers (Building
blocks of polymers)
Dehydration synthesis- the chemical process of
joining monomers to form polymers. At the end
of each monomer is a (H) hydrogen atom and a
(-OH) group. Every time a monomer is added a
molecule of water is given off.

HYDROLYSIS -the chemical breakdown of

polymers into monomers through the addition of
water; essentially the opposite of dehydration
synthesis.

FOUR MACROMOLECULES OF LIFE

Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are energy-rich
compounds made from carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
 Cells use carbohydrates to get and store
energy.
 Carbohydrates are also called sugars or
starches.
 Plant cells store energy as starch.
Rice, potatoes, and wheat are plant starches.

Lipids
 Lipids are made by cells to store energy
for long periods of time.
 Lipids include fats, oils, and waxes.
 LIPIDS “Lipos-FAT”
 LIPIDS-1 Glycerol and fatty acid tails

Proteins
 Proteins are very large molecules made
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and sometimes sulfur.
 Protein molecules are made of smaller
molecules called amino acids.
 R-Group (Makes each Amino Acid
Different; 20 different amino ACIDS) -
Contain Nitrogen

Nucleic acids
 Nucleic acids are compounds made of
long, repeating chains called
nucleotides.
 DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the
information cells need to make all of
their proteins.
 Nucleotide – monomer of nucleic acids
 Some scientists refer to DNA as the
“blueprints” for life.