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Suitability assessment of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and industrial

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Article in Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · October 2008

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Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406
DOI 10.1007/s10661-007-0048-x
Suitability assessment of groundwater for drinking,
irrigation and industrial use in some North Indian villages
A. K. Haritash & C. P. Kaushik & A. Kaushik &
Ankur Kansal & Asheesh Kumar Yadav
Received: 13 May 2007 / Accepted: 30 October 2007 / Published online: 17 January 2008
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007
Abstract The study comprised suitability assessment
of groundwater for drinking, irrigation, and industrial
use. A total of 34 groundwater samples were collected
from Rewari town and its perimeter from the land
chiefly used for agriculture. Physico-chemical char-
acterization of the samples revealed that groundwater
from most of the sources was not fit for drinking
owing to a high concentration of calcium, magne-
sium, hardness and fluoride. Suitability for irrigation,
too, was low since most of the sources had high value
of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium
carbonate (RSC), soluble sodium percentage (SSP)
and magnesium hazard which can render salinity and
alkali hazard to soils on long term use in irrigation.
No source of water was found to be suitable for
A. K. Haritash (*) : C. P. Kaushik : A. Kaushik :
A. Kansal : A. K. Yadav
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering,
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology,
Hisar, Haryana 125001, India
e-mail: akharitash@gmail.com
Present address:
A. K. Yadav
Centre for Rural Development and Technology,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
New Delhi 110016, India
Present address:
A. Kansal
Uttaranchal Environment Protection
and Pollution Control Board,
Dehradun, Uttaranchal 248 011, India
industrial application since it had high concentration
of calcium carbonate which can precipitate very
easily. It was observed that sodium, sulphate, and
chloride were the chief ions present in water and
based on the abundance of ions and their correlation
type, most of the groundwater samples are of sodium
sulphate and/or sodium chloride type. The high
concentration of the chemical constituents is attribut-
ed to the lithologic composition of the area. It was
observed that the water of deep meteoric percolation
type was of sodium sulphate type and the shallow of
sodium chloride type.
Keywords Groundwater . Sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR) . Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) . Soluble
sodium percentage (SSP) . Meteoric percolation
Introduction
More than 90% of rural population in India depends
on groundwater for drinking, domestic and agricul-
tural use. Most rural areas lack treatment facilities for
drinking water. Though groundwater appears to be
clean and safe as compared to the surface water, it
need not necessarily be safe (Banks et al. 1998).
Whereas surface water can be treated or reclaimed
easily, the task is equally tough for groundwater
remediation. Disposal of untreated sewage, effluents,
and indiscriminate use of agrochemicals has rendered
the groundwater unfit for drinking/agriculture or both
398
(Bruce and McMahon 1996). As per WHO report,
pollution of water has been reported to cause 80% of
human diseases and 30% infant mortality in develop-
ing countries (Chakroborty 1999). Several studies
have reported the adverse health effects of different
pollutants like pesticides, arsenic, nitrate (Bruce and
McMahon 1996), fluoride (Chandrawanshi and Patel
1999), hardness and iron, etc. in groundwater (Soltan
1998). The quality of irrigation water can affect the
soil fertility and productivity. Soil that was originally
non saline and non alkaline may develop saline and
alkaline character if excessive soluble salts or ex-
changeable sodium are allowed to accumulate in the
soil as the result of improper irrigation or soil-
management practices, or inadequate drainage. In
excessively irrigated farms or areas of sufficient
rainfall, the soluble salts originally present in the soil
or added to the soil with water are carried downward
by the water and ultimately reach the water table and
may affect the groundwater quality. There have been
numerous studies and reports on assessment of water
quality for drinking in various states of the country
(Sarma and Rao 1997; Singh and Parwana 1999;
Singh et al. 2005), but the studies on assessment of
groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation in
Haryana state of India are scanty (Kaushik et al.
2000a, b). In a country whose economy runs on
agriculture and which supports 1/6th of world
population, it becomes imperative to screen the
quality of water for drinking, agricultural, and
industrial use and to suggest the preventive and
remedial measures. In view of the facts, the present
study was undertaken to characterize and evaluate the
suitability of groundwater in rural areas of Rewari
town and its perimeter.
Materials and methods
Description of the study area
Rewari is located at 28° 12′ North latitude and 76° 40′
East longitude in the south–west direction of the
national capital Delhi across the Delhi Jaipur National
Highway No. 8 at a height of 241.95 m above mean
sea level. The district is spread over 1,559 km2 area
with a total population of 7,65,351 (2001 census) with
sub tropical continental monsoon climate. The general
slope of the district is towards North and the
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406
geological structure is formed of Delhi Group (Middle
Proterozoic) formations. The rocks of Delhi Group
are divided into Alwar and Ajabgarh groups. The
Alwar group of rocks comprises predominantly of
arenaceous sediments and is represented by massive
quartzite, usually felspathic in nature, micaceous
quartizite with subordinate bands of mica schist and
carbonaceous phyllite. The Ajabgarh group of rocks
in the area is characterized predominantly by argilla-
ceous sediments and include shale, slate and silt stone
together with few quartzitic and cherty bands,
siltstone being more predominant than other two
varieties. Both these groups of rocks are intruded by
amphibolite, granite, aplite, pegmatite, calcite and
vein quartz. Alkaline earths occur as efflorescence on
the surface of earth and contain predominantly
carbonate and bicarbonate of sodium (Thussu 1993).
Temperature ranges from 2°C to 47°C, severe cold
in the months of December and January and summer
in the months of May and June. Dust storms occur in
summer season owing to the proximity to Thar Desert
of Rajasthan. Overall climate of this district remains
dry. July, August and September are the months of
rainy season. Light rains are experienced during
December, January, and February (Bhatt 1998).
Sample collection and analysis
Rewari and the neighboring villages, primarily en-
gaged in agriculture as a profession, were selected for
the study. The villages identified in the perimeter of
Rewari town were Gokalgarh (Sample nos. 1 and 2),
Gangaicha Ahir (3–5), Dayaki (6 and 7), Tahana (8–
10), Mastapur (11–14), Harinagar (15–19), Thotwal
(20–23), Hussainpur (24–28), and some of the areas
of Rewari town (29–34) (Fig. 1). All the samples
were obtained in the month of May, 2001 from
the hand pumps or tube-wells on agricultural land, the
water being used for drinking and/or irrigation. The
samples were stored in pre-cleaned, distilled water
rinsed plastic bottles. pH and EC were noted at the
sampling site using portable meters. Rest of the
characteristics of water samples were analyzed in
the laboratory immediately after transportation to the
laboratory. Chemical analysis was done in triplicates
as per the standard recommended methods (Eaton
et al. 1995) using double glass distilled water and
analytical grade (AR) chemicals. Total dissolved
solids were estimated by gravimetric method; alka-
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406 399

E
D B AC

F I H
G

Fig. 1 Location of different areas [Gokalgarh (A), Gangaicha Ahir (B), Dayaki (C), Tahana (D), Mastapur (E), Harinagar (F), Thotwal
(G), Hussainpur (H), Rewari (I)] in the study area
400
linity, hardness, chloride, carbonate, and bicarbonate
content was estimated by volumetric analyses; calci-
um, magnesium, sodium, potassium, sulfate, phos-
phate, and iron were determined by photometric
method; and fluoride was determined on spectropho-
tometer by SPADNS method. In order to calculate the
suitability of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and
industrial use, following chemical relations and
equations were used.

water samples was within the safe limits. It varied
Base exchangeðbase exch:Þ ¼ ðNaþ
Cl
Þ SO2

4 meq=l
(Matthess 1982)

The electrical conductivity (EC) (in μmho/cm) varied
Meteoric genesisðmet: gen:Þ ¼ ½ðKþ þ Naþ Þ
Cl
 SO2

4
(Abdel Moneim 1988)
According to the classification of meteoric genesis,
groundwater is of two types – deep meteoric water
percolation type (Met. gen.<1), and shallow meteoric
water percolation type (Met. gen.>1).
Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and soluble
sodium percentage (SSP) were calculated as per
Eaton 1950.
   2þ 
RSC ¼ HCO

3 þ CO3
2


Ca þ Mg2þ

 
SSP ¼ NAþ Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ Naþ  100
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), percent sodium
(% Na), and magnesium hazard (Mg haz.) were
calculated as per Richards (1954), Wilcox (1948),
and Paliwal (1972), respectively.
.
1=2
SAR ¼ Naþ Ca2þ þ Mg2þ 2


% Na ¼ ½ðNaþ þ Kþ Þ  100 Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ Naþ þ Lþ
 
 
Mg haz: ¼ Mg2þ  100 Ca2þ þ Mg2þ
The statistical analysis of physico-chemical char-
acteristics of water was done on SPSS software.
Results and discussion
The groundwater samples collected from the study
area were analyzed for their physical and chemical
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406
constituents to assess their suitability for drinking,
agricultural and industrial use.
Suitability for drinking
Physico-chemical characterization of the groundwater
samples is given in Table 1. The water in the study
area is being used for drinking without any treatment
and there were no significant visible effects on the
health of residents in the study area. pH of all the
from 7.4 to 8.8 with a mean value of 8.2. Though the
water was slightly alkaline, but suitable for drinking.
in the range from 550 to 13,080 with a mean value of
3,390. It has a wide applicability with respect to
agricultural use, but for the drinking use high value of
EC denotes proportionately high value of calcium,
magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Total dissolved
solids (TDS) varied from 352 to 8,371 mg/l with a
mean value of 1,959 mg/l. Water containing less than
500 mg/l of dissolved solids is suitable for domestic
use. In our study, water from 81% of the sources was
above the specified limit (500 mg/l) for TDS. Water
containing more than 1,000 mg/l of dissolved solids is
likely to contain enough of certain constituents to
cause noticeable taste or otherwise make the water
undesirable or unsuitable for drinking. A high
concentration of salts of sodium, calcium, and
magnesium is responsible for high amounts of total
dissolved solids. The sources of dissolved solids are
natural as minerals in soils and anthropogenic as
agrochemicals. Alkalinity (as CaCO3) ranged from
104 to 464 mg/l with a mean value of 183 mg/l. The
total hardness caused by carbonates, bicarbonates,
chlorides, and sulphates of calcium and magnesium
 varied from 104 to 1,732 mg/l with a mean value of
526 mg/l. Soft waters are those with a hardness of less
than 100 mg/l; moderately hard waters are those with
a hardness range from 101 to 200 mg/l; and hard
waters are those which have hardness in excess of
200 mg/l. In our study, 12% of the samples were
moderately soft and the rest hard. Hardness of 71%
of the samples was found to be above the specified
safe limit of 300 mg/l. Twenty-seven percent of the
samples exceeded the specified limit (75 mg/l) of
calcium with the concentration range of 19–588 mg/l
and mean concentration of 55 mg/l. Magnesium was
found in the concentration range of 16–396 mg/l with
Table 1 Physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater samples

No. pH EC TDS Alk. Hardness Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ CO2

3 HCO

3 Cl− F− PO3

4 SO2

4 Fe

1T 8.12 8.12 840 116 308 44 48.15 642 1.14 14.4 112.24 142 1.47 1.2 58.9 0
2T 8.53 1.24 793 108 552 588 95.28 190 4.56 14.4 92.72 163.3 1.93 2.21 97.08 0
3H 8.13 4.61 2,950 216 472 32 27.24 690 32.2 33.6 195.2 589.3 1.19 1 91.84 0
4T 8.4 1.22 781 200 192 32 103.1 273 1.14 8.8 185.44 142 2.26 1.25 24.14 0
5T 7.96 4.36 2,790 212 664 96 16.59 654 2.18 24 209.84 1,448.2 1.28 2.95 196.8 0
6T 8.63 2.88 1,843 376 204 55 42.9 606 0 62.4 331.84 191.7 4.09 1.29 4.87 0.01
7T 8.35 0.68 435 104 224 19 80.3 11 1.14 24 78.04 1,441.3 0.142 0.94 12.33 0
8T 8.29 3.93 2,515 132 720 156 59.81 559 0 28.8 102.48 1,909.9 0.284 0.69 64.68 0
9H 8.32 2.6 1,664 168 356 44 60.79 476 0 33.6 136.64 1,292.2 1.08 1.2 25.71 0.48
10H 8.18 3.31 2,118 128 400 60 99.67 559 0 9.6 136.64 1,625.9 0.142 1.06 27.94 0.64
11H 8.02 2.7 1,179 136 560 60 72.46 404 1.14 9.6 46.4 184.6 0.106 0.79 115.45 0.25
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

12T 8.25 1.79 1,145 116 468 68 191.6 452 2.28 9.6 22 901.7 0.569 1.47 76.35 0
13T 8.02 7.17 4,589 184 1,148 144 146.89 1,071 0 24 85.44 3,542.9 1.08 2.33 198.11 0
14T 8.16 3.57 2,285 108 1,004 160 107.93 452 0 24 82.96 1,767.9 1.53 1.43 19.81 0.48
15H 8.02 2.41 1,512 464 104 58 45.22 833 0 19.2 527.04 440.2 4.98 2 12.72 1.67
16T 8.22 2.59 1,658 204 564 48 46.2 428 0 19.2 209.84 930.1 1.54 1.06 42.5 0
17H 7.92 1.39 890 228 276 36 396.62 297 0 19.2 239.12 248.5 0.85 2.39 23.87 0.06
18H 8.52 1.02 653 152 300 44 70.01 178 0 24 136.64 25.9 2.2 5.39 21.38 0.04
19H 8.8 8.34 5,338 136 1,732 40 109.01 618 1.14 9.6 146.4 43.23 1.53 2.07 119.3 1.64
20T 8.25 3.03 1,939 208 368 32 59.73 535 0 28.8 195.2 1,086.3 1.9 0.9 131.2 0.02
21T 7.75 8.75 5,600 164 948 200 167.71 158 4.56 9.6 180.56 3,848.2 2.2 0 50.51 0
22H 7.4 2.25 1,440 192 444 172 18.51 559 13.68 4.8 224.48 769.7 4.32 1.12 45.39 0.08
23T 8.57 13.08 8,371 264 820 52 190.55 2,713 1.14 48 224.48 7,089.8 1.04 3.73 522.17 0.32
24T 8.04 0.6 352 112 220 57 69.53 47.6 19.38 19.2 97.6 127.8 0.8 0.59 6.95 0.54
25H 8.33 7.34 469 304 904 48 80.22 1,082 87.78 24 322.08 532.5 4.12 3.3 148.2 0
26H 8.3 0.8 512 160 376 36 129.31 107 22.8 14.4 165.92 127.8 1.35 1.35 10.23 0.67
27T 8.32 0.84 537 160 440 44 74.96 60 1.14 28.8 136.64 113.6 1.35 0.63 8 0
28T 8.36 2.08 1,331 228 632 40 59.86 238 36.4 28.8 219.6 504.1 3.14 1.76 11.54 0
29T 8.23 3.72 2,380 164 708 160 34.04 559 2.28 24 151.28 1,114.2 1.45 1.06 212.5 3.34
30T 7.6 4.13 4,643 188 516 108 128.8 618 1.14 9.6 209.84 1,089.2 2.06 1.1 292.5 0.046
31H 8.39 0.88 563 108 220 32 24.81 178 2.28 14.4 112.24 170.4 2.08 0.55 23.22 0
32H 8.3 2 1,280 240 660 52 29.18 285 1.14 38.4 214.72 347.9 3.63 4.6 46.83 0
33H 8.31 0.97 620 108 192 36 ND 178 2.28 9.6 112.24 184.6 1.35 0.55 29.9 0.32
34H 8.79 0.95 608 116 200 32 ND 178 2.28 24 92.72 184.6 1.35 4.61 21.25 0
Range 7.4– 0.55– 352– 104– 104– 19 – ND – 11– 0– 4.8– 22– 25.9– 0.106– 0– 4.87– 0–
8.79 13.18 8,371 464 1,732 588 396.62 2,713 87.78 62.4 527.04 7,089.8 4.98 5.39 522.17 3.34
Mean± 8.23± 3.39± 1,959.5± 182.47± 526.35± 84.85± 90.22± 496.72± 7.21± 21.72± 168.72± 1,009.46± 1.78± 1.72± 82.18± 4.65±
SD 0.30 2.91 1,814.44 79.46 337.68 101.42 73.24 475.26 16.94 12.15 94.68 1,410.61 1.24 1.29 105.9 0.68

All the values are expressed in mg/l except EC (μmho/cm) and pH

T tube well, H hand pump, Alk alkalinity
401
402
an average of 90 mg/l for the studied samples. 85% of
the samples exceeded the safe desirable limit of 30 mg/l.
A very high concentration of calcium and magnesium
can be attributed to the lithologic composition and the
minerals like calcite and dolomite, the integral compo-
nents of siltstone, a geologic characteristic of the study
area.
Chloride originates from sodium chloride which
gets dissolved in water from rocks and soil. Sodium
chloride has little effect on the suitability of water
unless it is present in such concentrations as to make
the water non-potable or corrosive. The removal of
sodium chloride from water is difficult and too costly
for most water uses. Maximum concentration of
chloride ion in drinking water is 250 mg/l. Water
containing more than 250 mg/l of chloride ion has
salty taste. It varied from 26 to 7,090 mg/l with a
mean concentration of 1,009 mg/l in our study. 59%
of the samples were found to be above the specified
limit. The concentration of sodium varied from 11 to
2,713 mg/l with a mean value of 497 mg/l. Sulfate
was found to be in the range of 4.87–522.17 mg/l with
a mean value of 82.18 mg/l. Further, 85% of the
samples were within the specified limit for sulfate (150
mg/l). Next to hardness, iron is the constituent in
natural waters that generally is the most objectionable.
Iron, if present in sufficient quantity, gives a disagree-
able taste to water. The iron content of water seems to
be related to depth of the aquifer, the type of rocks
comprising the aquifer, the length of time the water has
been in the aquifer, the pH of the water and many other
factors like the material of pipe being used for pumping
the water. Fluoride is another contaminant of ground-
water present in low quantities, but it is important since
the use of water containing fluoride in excess of 1.5
mg/l by children during formation of their permanent
teeth may cause mottling of the tooth enamel. If the
fluoride content is as high as 4 mg/l, about 90% of the
children using the water may have mottled tooth
enamel (Dean 1936). In our study, Fluoride concen-
tration ranged from 0 to 4.98 mg/l with a mean value
of 1.77 mg/l. 82% of the samples exceeded the limit
(1 mg/l) specified for fluoride. In rural parts of India,
where malnutrition is common, dietary intake of
calcium is low, and people undertake heavy manual
labour. Under such conditions, the consumption of
water is high and so is the fluoride exposure and
ingestion. Therefore the high concentration of fluoride
in most of the sources of water is a cause of concern
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406
for health. Many authors have reported a negative
relationship between fluoride and calcium in ground-
water in different parts of India (Sarma and Rao 1997;
Srikanth et al. 1994), whereas, high fluoride waters
have high concentration of bicarbonate ions. In our
study too, fluoride had negative correlation with
magnesium, insignificant or no correlation with
calcium, and a positive correlation with bicarbonate
ions. Calcium and magnesium were low in concen-
tration as they precipitate as carbonates. Low concen-
tration of calcium and magnesium in high fluoride
waters is due to very low solubility of CaF2
(Ksp ¼ 1  10
10:57 ).
It was observed that most of the samples exceeded
the prescribed limit for one or other parameter. Most
of the samples exhibited high concentration for some
of the sensitive parameters like hardness, iron, and
fluoride. The major sources of the pollutants are
chiefly natural since the areas are rural and they do
not support industrial activity. A study by Manchanda
et al. in 1972 also reported saline, sodic, and saline-
cum-sodic water pockets in different parts of Rewari
tehsil. The study confirms natural occurrence of the
chemical constituents since they were present even 35
years back when agriculture as well as industrial
growth was low. Based on the chemical composition,
the groundwater is of sodium–sulfate–chloride type.
Suitability for irrigation
The development and maintenance of successful
irrigation projects involve not only the supplying of
irrigation water to the land but also the control of salt
and alkali in the soil. The characteristics of water for
irrigation which are important in determining its
quality are: (1) total concentration of soluble salts;
(2) relative proportion of sodium to other principal
cations (magnesium, calcium, and potassium); (3)
concentration of other elements that may be toxic to
plants; and (4) the bicarbonate concentration, under
some conditions, related to the concentration of
calcium and magnesium.
The cropping pattern in the study area was as per
Rabi (growing wheat and mustard in winter) and
Kharif (growing sorghum and pearl millet in summer)
system of India. Parameters important with respect to
the use in irrigation are represented in Table 2. The
total concentration of soluble salts in irrigation water
can be adequately expressed in terms of electrical
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406 403

Table 2 Calculated values to assess the suitability of groundwater samples for irrigation and industrial use

No. Base exch. Depth (ft) Met. gen. RSC SSP SAR % Na Mg haz. Sat. index

1 19.49 70 19.51 −1.89 86.90 19.25 81.81 47.70 2.713

2 1.81 70 1.87 −31.37 19.84 2.02 18.33 11.90 2.731
3 7.00 30 7.44 1.59 91.65 25.65 88.85 41.50 2.744
4 15.65 80 15.71 −2.56 66.81 6.91 53.86 72.86 2.652
5 −3.01 80 −3.00 −1.25 83.81 17.16 82.17 12.59 2.704
6 206.47 75 206.47 2.98 85.31 17.49 80.64 39.39 2.753
7 −156.19 80 −156.08 −2.22 10.02 0.33 6.23 77.89 2.914
8 −21.89 80 −21.89 −7.65 70.25 10.71 65.53 24.21 2.809
9 −29.32 40 −29.32 −1.37 81.39 13.45 74.01 53.52 2.789
10 −36.93 35 −36.93 −4.59 77.26 12.85 68.25 58.06 2.671
11 5.14 40 5.15 −4.94 74.48 10.13 66.06 50.16 2.766
12 −3.61 70 −3.58 −10.70 63.32 8.24 50.44 70.13 2.888
13 −12.90 80 −12.90 −11.12 77.76 18.04 70.55 45.95 2.809
14 −73.05 110 −73.05 −10.34 61.13 7.86 53.63 35.99 2.814
15 89.88 30 89.88 4.50 88.33 23.42 84.45 39.38 2.643
16 −8.57 80 −8.57 −0.25 81.14 12.65 74.86 44.51 2.686
17 11.89 35 11.89 −13.77 41.34 4.27 27.03 90.18 2.678
18 15.74 40 15.74 −2.08 60.20 4.84 49.06 57.01 2.745
19 10.32 40 10.33 −3.82 80.42 14.86 70.82 69.43 2.668
20 −2.69 117 −2.69 0.07 85.05 16.27 77.96 60.87 2.726
21 −96.49 80 −96.37 −13.71 28.79 2.36 22.56 41.13 2.658
22 2.77 40 3.14 −5.53 72.17 11.23 70.85 8.23 2.631
23 −7.52 80 −7.51 −5.26 91.80 51.38 86.46 75.33 2.77
24 −10.57 65 −7.14 −3.51 26.48 1.22 22.89 50.41 2.759
25 10.38 40 11.11 0.34 89.12 27.76 84.44 58.21 2.674
26 4.94 40 7.68 −3.99 39.29 2.45 29.40 74.96 2.682
27 −3.55 70 −3.37 −2.12 32.89 1.60 23.80 58.67 2.768
28 −16.02 90 −12.14 0.07 69.72 6.90 61.75 55.50 2.716
29 −1.60 90 −1.59 −6.14 72.07 11.20 69.21 15.06 2.734
30 −0.63 90 −0.62 −7.01 71.39 11.58 62.51 49.85 2.651
31 6.08 40 6.20 −0.31 74.61 6.74 68.01 39.25 2.713
32 2.66 40 2.69 0.98 76.46 8.97 71.17 31.86 2.747
33 4.08 40 4.17 0.36 81.13 8.16 81.25 0.00 2.682
34 5.74 40 5.87 0.72 82.87 8.65 82.97 0.00 2.797

conductivity for purposes of diagnosis and classifica-
tion. In general, water having conductivity below
750 μmhos/cm is satisfactory for irrigation. Water
having a range of 750 to 2,250 μmhos/cm is widely
used, and satisfactory crop growth is obtained under
good management and favorable drainage conditions,
but saline conditions will develop if leaching and
drainage are inadequate. In our study, (EC) (in μmho/
cm) varied in the range from 550 to 13,080 with a
mean value of 3,390. About 53% of the water samples
have EC higher than 2,250 μmho/cm and continuous
application of such water may lead to formation of
saline soils. The relative proportion of sodium to
other cations in irrigation water usually has been
expressed as the percentage of sodium among the
principal cations (expressed in epm) called as the
percent sodium. Percent sodium varied from 6.23 to
88.85. Based on percent sodium (as per Wilcox
1955), it was observed that about 68% of the samples,
with percentage sodium value >60, were either
unsuitable or doubtful, and 32% of the samples in
the range of good to permissible for use in irrigation.
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), used to express the
relative activity of sodium ions in exchange reactions
with soil, is a measure of suitability of water for
irrigation with respect to the salinity (sodium) hazard
404 Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406

(Fig. 2). SAR ranged from 0.33 to 51.38. As per the
U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), about 94% of
the groundwater samples lie in the range of high to
very high salinity hazard. Low-sodium water can be
used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger
of developing harmful levels of exchangeable sodium.
Medium-sodium water will present an appreciable
sodium hazard in certain fine-textured soils, especial-
ly poorly leached soils. Such water may be used
safely on coarse-textured or organic soils having good
permeability. High-sodium water may produce harm-
ful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils and
will require special soil management such as good
drainage and leaching and addition of organic matter.
In our study, 47% of the sources of water were having
low; 35% medium; and 18% high to very high value
of SAR. Very high sodium water is generally
unsatisfactory for irrigation. In water having a high
concentration of bicarbonate, there is a tendency for
100
VERY HIGH
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91000
calcium and magnesium to precipitate since the water
in soil becomes more concentrated as a result of
evaporation. This reaction ordinarily does not go to
completion, but when it does, there is a reduction in
the concentration of calcium and magnesium and a
relative increase in sodium. The calcium and magne-
sium are precipitated as carbonates, and any residual
carbonate or bicarbonate is left in solution as residual
sodium carbonate (RSC) or bicarbonate hazard. RSC
remained negative for most of the water samples, thus
showing that the water was either good or within the
limit (<2.5) for use in irrigation. Only two samples in
the study area (sample nos. 6 and 15) were having
RSC above the safe limit. On the other hand, soluble
sodium percentage (SSP) was reported in all the
samples in considerable amounts. It ranged from
10.02 to 91.80 in the studied water samples. Ideally,
water intended for agricultural use should have a
lower concentration of sodium ions and higher
amount of calcium and magnesium ions. This is just
the opposite for water in domestic use. Sodium is the
2 3 4 5000
dominant cation in much of the groundwater sources
in the study area. Excessive amounts of this ion may

cause a significant decrease in the permeability of

30
agricultural soils receiving irrigation water. The
4

28 presence of excessive amounts of sodium ion in

26 groundwater is due to the phenomenon of cation
SODIUM ADSORPTION RATIO (SAR)

exchange as the water percolates through clay-rich

SODIUM (ALKALI) HAZARD
HIGH

24
sediments. Magnesium ion concentration also plays
3

22 an important role in productivity of soil. It has been

20 noted that if magnesium hazard is less than 50, the
23, 25
water is suitable for irrigation. In our study, about
18
47% of the sources had magnesium hazard more than
MEDIUM

16
50 and the water from these sources was found to be
2

14 unsuitable for irrigation. High concentration of mag-

12 1, 3,
nesium can be attributed to dolomite, a chief mineral
13, 15 of sandstone and siltstone. The categorization of
10
irrigation water on the basis of EC, % Na, RSC,
8 5, 6, 8,
9, 10, 11, SAR, and Mg hazard is given in Table 3. Chloride ion
LOW

6 16, 19, 20,

concentration also deserves due consideration, as
1

27, 29, 30
4 2, 6, 12, 17, according to Ayers and Branson (1975), when epm
7, 24 18, 26, 27, 28,
2
31, 32, 33, 34 14, 21 value of chloride in irrigation water is more than 10,
100 250 750 2250 water is likely to affect crop production adversely.
CL

C
CONDUCTIVITY IN MICROMHO/CM (EC x 106) AT 25OC In our study, epm values of about 56% of sources
AS

1 2 3 4 of water exceeded the limit and water from these

S

LOW MEDIUM HIGH VERY HIGH

sources is unsuitable for irrigation. It was also
SALINITY HAZARD
Fig. 2 Plots of calculated values of SAR and EC of
observed that 50% of the sources of water were of
groundwater samples (diagram after U.S. Salinity Laboratory sodium sulphate type with the base-exchange value
Staff 1954) less than one (1) and the rest of sodium chloride
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 145:397–406 405

Table 3 Categorization of Mg.

water quality for irrigation Quality EC range % Na RSC SAR
Hazard
Very
250a < 1000b 20a <0c 0 -10e
good
< 1.25d
250 1000
Good 20 - 40 0-2.5 10 -18 < 50%f
-750 -2000
750 2000
Marginal 40 - 60 2.5-5.0 1.25 -2.5
a-
Wilcox; 1995, b- Bhumbla - 2000 -4000
18 -26
and Abrol, 1972; c- Bishnoi 2000 4000
Poor 60 - 80 5.0-7.5
et al., 1984; d- Eaton, 1950; -3000 -6000
e-
> 2.5 > 50%
Richards, 1954; f- Paliwal, Harmful 3000 > 6000 80 > 7.5 > 26
1972

type (value >1). Based on the analysis for meteoric
genesis, it was found that the sources having sodium
sulphate type of water were of deep meteoric water
percolation type and the other of shallow meteoric
water percolation type.
Suitability for industrial application
Saturation index is an important factor to test the
quality of water for the degree to which water flowing
through pipes will precipitate or dissolve calcium
carbonate. It is calculated by the difference of actual
pH (pHw) and the calculated pH (pHcal.) of water,
which the water will have in equilibrium with calcium
carbonate.
Saturation Index ¼ ðpHw
pHcal: Þ
pHcal. is calculated by the following equation (Rhades
and Bernstein 1971)
pHcal: ¼ ðpK2
pKs Þ þ pCa2þ þ pAlK
from the negative logarithms of the second dissocia-
tion constant of H2CO3 (pK2), solubility product
constant of calcium carbonate (pKs), molar concen-
tration of calcium pCa2+, and the equivalent concen-
tration of carbonate and bicarbonate (pAlK). If the
saturation index is positive, CaCO3 will precipitate,
but if it is negative CaCO3 will dissolve. Analysis of
the saturation index (Table 2) revealed that water from
all of the sources was unsuitable (having positive
values) for industrial application since calcium car-
bonate will precipitate out in pipes, tanks, or reactors
causing scaling, corrosion, and extra input of energy.
The water from these sources needs to be pretreated
before use in industries.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of the characteristics of groundwa-
ter samples revealed good positive correlation of EC
with total dissolved solids (0.822), sodium (0.782),
chloride (0.713), and sulphate (0.701) significant at
0.01 level (2 tailed). Total dissolved solids, too, had a
positive correlation with the sodium (0.703), chloride
(0.807), and sulphate (0.755). Sodium ions had a
good positive correlation with sulphate (0.826) and
chloride (0.732) ions. It stated that sodium, sulphate,
and chloride were the major ions present in water and
based on the abundance of ions and their correlation
type, most of the groundwater samples are of sodium
sulphate and/or sodium chloride type. Bicarbonate
ions had a good correlation with hardness and
attributed towards the hardness of water chiefly.
Conclusion
Based on the results observed, it was found that most of
the sources of water had the concentration of one or
other constituent above the safe prescribed limit. The
water from most of the sources was unsuitable for
drinking since it had high concentration of some of the
sensitive parameters like hardness, calcium, magne-
sium, chloride, and fluoride. With respect to the
agricultural use, it was found that most of the sources
had high value of SAR, RSC, SSP, and Magnesium
hazard and water from these sources was found to be
unsuitable for irrigation on long-term use. Most of the
water was of sodium–sulphate–chloride type. Most of
the sources had high to very high salinity hazard. The
water should either be treated before its use for
drinking and agriculture or be used intermittently.
406
Such water can be used over coarse textured, high
organic content soils with good drainage or long-term
use might render the soil infertile. The water was
unsuitable for use in industry and needs pretreatment
for calcium carbonate. It was observed that the high
concentration was of natural origin as an input from the
minerals like calcite and dolomite and the water of
deep meteoric percolation type was of sodium sulphate
type and the shallow of sodium chloride type.
Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Depart-
ment of Environmental Science and Engineering, G. J. Univer-
sity of Science and Technology, Hisar, Haryana to accord the
laboratory facilities and permission to publish the work.
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