Bit rate, or bitrate, is the rate at
which bits are transmitted or
processed per unit of time, typically
measured in bits per second (bps).
Modulation is the process of varying
a carrier signal's properties, such as
amplitude, frequency, or phase, to
encode information for transmission
over a communication channel.
TDMA, or Time Division Multiple
Access, is a communication
technique where different users
share the same frequency channel
by dividing the signal into time slots,
allowing each user to transmit
during their allocated time interval.
In the basic group of Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM),
typically 12 voice channels are
multiplexed together.
MAN, or Metropolitan Area
Network, is a network that covers a
larger geographic area than a local
area network (LAN) but is smaller
than a wide area network (WAN),
connecting multiple LANs within a
city or metropolitan region.
topology networking devices
connected together at centre point:
In a star topology, networking devices
are connected together at a central point,
typically a hub or switch.
An electronic communication
system consists of several key
components that work together to
transmit and receive information.
The block diagram below illustrates
the fundamental elements of an
electronic communication system:
Information Source: Represents the
origin of the message or data that
needs to be communicated.
Transducer: Converts the
information from the source into an
electrical signal suitable for
transmission. This could be a
microphone for voice signals, a
camera for video signals, or other
sensors.
Transmitter: Modulates the
electrical signal generated by the
transducer for efficient transmission.
Modulation involves varying certain
parameters like amplitude,
frequency, or phase.
Chanel: Represents the medium
through which the modulated signal
is transmitted. This can be wired
(like a coaxial cable or fiber optic
cable) or wireless (like radio waves).
Receiver: Receives the transmitted
signal from the channel.
Transducer (Receiver): Converts the
received electrical signal back into a
form that can be understood by the
destination device. For instance, a
speaker for audio signals or a display
for video signals.
Destination: Represents the ultimate
endpoint where the information is
intended to be received and
understood.
Noise Source: External interference
or noise introduced during
transmission that can affect the
quality of the signal.
Feedback: Some systems
incorporate feedback mechanisms
to improve the accuracy and
reliability of communication by
adjusting parameters based on
received information.
Control Unit: Manages and
coordinates the operation of
different components in the system,
ensuring proper synchronization and
functionality.
Asynchronous Transmission:
Timing: In asynchronous
transmission, data is sent without a
synchronized clock between the
sender and the receiver.
Start and Stop Bits: Each character is
framed by start and stop bits to
indicate the beginning and end of
the data byte.
Variable Gaps: There is variable time
between characters, allowing for
flexibility in the transmission speed.
Overhead: Asynchronous
transmission incurs higher overhead
due to the inclusion of start and stop
bits for each character.
Suitability: Suited for short-distance
communication where precise
timing is not critical, such as
computer terminals.
Synchronous Transmission:
Timing: Synchronous transmission
relies on a synchronized clock signal
shared between the sender and
receiver to coordinate the
transmission of data.
No Start/Stop Bits: Unlike
asynchronous transmission,
synchronous transmission does not
use start and stop bits; data is sent
continuously.
Fixed Time Intervals: Data is sent in
fixed, predefined time intervals,
making it more efficient for high-
speed, long-distance
communication.
Overhead: Synchronous
transmission has lower overhead
compared to asynchronous, as it
doesn't require start and stop bits
for each character.
Suitability: Suited for high-speed,
long-distance communication where
precise timing and efficient data
transfer are essential, such as in
networking protocols.
A Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK) modulator is a type of digital
modulation scheme used in digital
communication systems. The QPSK
modulation involves manipulating
the phase of the carrier signal to
represent digital data. Here is an
explanation of a QPSK modulator:
Input Data: QPSK modulator takes in
digital data, typically in the form of
bits, which are to be transmitted.
Binary-to-Grey Mapping: The binary
data is often mapped to Grey code
to ensure that adjacent symbols
differ by only one bit. This reduces
the probability of errors in
transmission.
Symbol Generation: The data is
grouped into symbols, and each
symbol represents a specific phase
shift of the carrier signal.
Carrier Signal Generation: A carrier
signal is generated, typically a sine
wave with a specific frequency.
Phase Modulation: The phase of the
carrier signal is modulated according
to the symbols generated. In QPSK,
each symbol represents one of four
possible phase shifts: 0, 90, 180, or
270 degrees.
Quadrature Components: The
modulator creates two quadrature
components of the carrier signal.
These components are typically
denoted as I (In-phase) and Q
(Quadrature) and are phase-shifted
by 90 degrees.
Combination of Components: The In-
phase and Quadrature components
are combined to create the QPSK
modulated signal. This signal
effectively carries two bits of
information per symbol, improving
the data rate compared to simpler
modulation schemes like Binary
Phase Shift Keying (BPSK).
Transmission: The QPSK modulated
signal is then transmitted over the
communication channel.
QPSK modulation is widely used in
various communication systems,
especially in scenarios where
bandwidth efficiency is crucial. It
allows for the transmission of
multiple bits per symbol, enhancing
data rate and spectral efficiency.
Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA) is a communication
technique that allows multiple users
to share the available bandwidth by
assigning unique frequency bands to
each user. Here are five features of
FDMA:
Frequency Division: FDMA divides
the available frequency spectrum
into distinct frequency bands, and
each user is allocated a specific
frequency band for communication.
Non-Overlap of Frequency Bands:
The allocated frequency bands for
different users do not overlap,
ensuring that each user operates on
a unique set of frequencies to
prevent interference.
Simultaneous Transmission:
Multiple users can simultaneously
transmit and receive data since they
operate on different frequency
bands. This enables parallel
communication, increasing the
overall system capacity.
Fixed Allocation: FDMA typically
involves fixed frequency allocations,
meaning that each user is assigned a
specific frequency band for the
duration of their communication
session. This fixed allocation
simplifies the management of the
communication system.
Suitable for Analog and Digital
Signals: FDMA is suitable for both
analog and digital signals. It was
historically used in analog systems
like traditional voice communication,
and it has been adapted for digital
communication systems as well.
Guard Bands: To avoid interference
between adjacent frequency bands,
FDMA often includes guard bands,
which are unused frequency ranges
separating the allocated bands.
These guard bands help reduce
cross-talk and improve overall
system performance.
FDMA is commonly used in various
communication systems, such as
traditional radio and television
broadcasting, satellite
communication, and some cellular
networks.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) is a technique used in
communication systems to transmit
multiple signals simultaneously over
a shared communication channel.
Here's an explanation of the FDM
technique:
Signal Sources: FDM begins with
multiple signal sources, each
producing a baseband signal
containing information to be
transmitted.
Bandpass Filtering: Each baseband
signal is individually modulated onto
a carrier signal. The carrier
frequencies are chosen to be
different for each signal. The signals
are then passed through bandpass
filters to isolate the frequency band
containing the modulated signal.
Frequency Bands: The modulated
signals are combined using a process
known as multiplexing. Each
modulated signal is allocated a
specific frequency band within the
overall frequency spectrum.
Frequency Division: The combined
signal, containing multiple frequency
bands, is then transmitted over a
common communication channel.
The frequency bands do not overlap
to avoid interference between
signals.
Transmission: At the receiving end,
the composite signal is
demultiplexed to extract the
individual frequency bands. Each
frequency band is then passed
through a bandpass filter to isolate
the original modulated signal.
Demodulation: The demodulation
process reverses the modulation
applied at the transmitting end,
retrieving the original baseband
signals from the modulated carriers.
Decoding: The decoded baseband
signals represent the information
from the original sources. These
signals are then sent to their
respective destination devices for
further processing.
FDM is commonly used in various
communication systems, including
traditional analog voice
communication, radio and television
broadcasting, and some wired and
wireless broadband networks.
Networking Devices: Networking
devices are hardware components
that facilitate communication and
data exchange between different
devices within a computer network.
They play a crucial role in the
efficient and reliable functioning of
networks. Two fundamental
networking devices are routers and
hubs.
Router: A router is a sophisticated
networking device that operates at
the network layer (Layer 3) of the
OSI model. Its primary function is to
connect different networks, such as
a local area network (LAN) to the
internet. Key features of a router
include: Routing: Routers use
routing tables to determine the best
path for data packets to reach their
destination. They make decisions
based on the destination IP address.
Network Address Translation (NAT):
Routers often perform NAT,
translating private IP addresses used
within a LAN into a single public IP
address when communicating with
external networks. Firewall: Many
routers include firewall capabilities
to enhance network security by
monitoring and controlling incoming
and outgoing network traffic.
Hub: A hub operates at the physical
layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and
is a simpler device compared to a
router. It functions as a central
connection point for multiple
devices within a network. However,
it lacks the intelligence and decision-
making capabilities of a router. Key
features of a hub include:
Signal Amplification: Hubs amplify
and broadcast incoming signals to all
connected devices, regardless of the
intended recipient. This
amplification can lead to network
congestion and reduced efficiency.
No Packet Filtering: Hubs do not
filter or interpret data packets; they
simply broadcast them to all
connected devices.
Shared Bandwidth: All devices
connected to a hub share the
available bandwidth, leading to
potential performance issues as the
number of connected devices
increases.
Modulation Index: The modulation Types of Noise: Communication
index is a measure of the extent of systems experience various types of
modulation in a communication noise: Thermal Noise: Arises from
system. For amplitude modulation the random motion of electrons,
(AM), it is the ratio of the peak especially in resistors.
amplitude of the modulating signal Intermodulation Noise: Results from
to the peak amplitude of the carrier nonlinear interactions between
signal. In frequency modulation signals at different frequencies.
(FM), it represents the ratio of the Crosstalk: Occurs when signals from
frequency deviation caused by the one channel interfere with signals in
modulating signal to the frequency another channel.
of the carrier signal. A higher Impulse Noise: Short-duration, high-
modulation index signifies a more amplitude noise caused by external
significant impact of the modulating interference.
signal on the carrier. Quantization Noise: Present in digital
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread systems due to the limited precision
Spectrum): DSSS is a spread of analog-to-digital conversion.
spectrum modulation technique Networking Device - Switch: A
where the data signal is spread over switch is a layer 2 (Data Link layer)
a wide frequency band using a networking device that connects
unique code. Each bit of the original devices within a local area network
data is represented by multiple bits (LAN). Unlike hubs, switches forward
in the transmitted signal. DSSS data selectively based on MAC
provides resilience against addresses, reducing unnecessary
interference and enhances security, network traffic. They enhance
making it suitable for wireless network efficiency by creating
communication systems. dedicated communication paths
Ring Topology: In a ring topology, between devices and are vital for
network devices are connected in a modern Ethernet networks.
circular or ring-like fashion. Each
device is connected to exactly two
other devices, forming a continuous
loop for data transmission. Data
travels in one direction around the
ring. While it is a simple and
organized layout, a failure in one
device or connection can disrupt the
entire network.
CSMA Protocol: CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access) is a network
protocol used in shared
communication channels. Devices
sense the carrier signal before
attempting to transmit. If the
channel is busy, they wait. CSMA
helps avoid collisions but doesn't
eliminate them. CSMA/CD (Collision
Detection) is a variant used in
Ethernet, where devices detect
collisions and adjust transmission
accordingly.