Noise Figure is a measure of the
degradation of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
introduced by an electronic component or
device, such as an amplifier. It quantifies
how much the device adds noise to the
signal passing through it.
Quantization error in PCM is the
discrepancy between the actual analog
signal amplitude and the nearest
representable discrete level in the
quantized digital signal.
Multiplexing is a communication technique
that combines multiple signals into a single
composite signal for efficient transmission
over a shared medium.
CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection. It is a
network protocol used in Ethernet networks.
Two types of Ethernet are 10Base-T and
1000Base-T.
Comment: “Star topology is widely used in
LAN” Correct. Star topology is commonly
employed in Local Area Networks (LANs) due
to its simplicity and ease of management,
making it a popular choice for network
setups.
Simplex and half-duplex are transmission
modes in communication systems:
Simplex Transmission: Simplex
communication is a unidirectional mode
where data flows only in one direction. It is
similar to a one-way street, where
information travels from the sender to the
receiver without the possibility of a response.
Examples of simplex communication include
television broadcasting and some types of
sensor systems. In simplex mode, the
communication channel is dedicated to one
direction, allowing for a straightforward and
efficient data transfer in situations where
feedback or a response is not necessary.
Half-Duplex Transmission: Half-duplex
communication allows data to be transmitted
and received, but not simultaneously. It's like
a walkie-talkie system, where a user must
press a button to speak and release it to
listen. In half-duplex mode, devices take turns
transmitting and receiving, alternating
between the two functions. This mode is
common in situations where immediate
feedback is not crucial, and the
communication channel can be shared
between both directions. Examples include
two-way radio communication and traditional
push-to-talk systems.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a crucial
technique in digital communication systems,
enabling the efficient sharing of a
communication channel among multiple
signals. This process involves dividing the
channel into distinct time slots, each
dedicated to a specific signal. Here's a
comprehensive explanation:
Principle of Operation:
TDM operates on the principle of temporal
division, where the transmission channel is
divided into fixed time intervals or slots. Each
time slot corresponds to a specific user or
signal source. During its allocated time slot, a
signal is transmitted, and this process repeats
cyclically. TDM is employed in both
synchronous and asynchronous modes.
Types of TDM:
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(STDM): In STDM, time slots are evenly
allocated to different signals, and each source
transmits during its assigned time slot.
Precise synchronization is crucial to maintain
the integrity of the transmitted data.
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
(ATDM): ATDM provides flexibility by
dynamically allocating time slots based on the
availability of data. This adaptability
accommodates varying data rates among
different sources.
Advantages of TDM: Optimized Bandwidth
Utilization: TDM maximizes channel efficiency
by allowing multiple signals to share the same
channel without interference.
Simultaneous Transmission: It enables
seemingly simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals, contributing to increased
throughput.
Predictable Timing: In STDM, the fixed
allocation of time slots results in predictable
timing, simplifying synchronization.
Applications: Telecommunication Networks:
TDM is extensively used in telephone
networks, where it efficiently combines
multiple voice signals onto a single
communication link.
Digital Transmission Systems: TDM plays a
crucial role in various digital transmission
systems, facilitating the parallel transfer of
data from multiple sources.
Challenges and Considerations:
Synchronization Complexity: Achieving and
maintaining synchronization, especially in
STDM, can be challenging and requires
precision.
Fixed Allocation Limitations: TDM's fixed
allocation of time slots may lead to
inefficiencies when the data rates of
connected devices exhibit significant
variations.
Asynchronous Communication:
Definition: Asynchronous communication
does not rely on a shared clock signal
between the sender and receiver. Data is
transmitted independently of a synchronized
timing mechanism.
Timing Mechanism: Instead of a common
clock, asynchronous systems use start and
stop bits to frame each data unit. The sender
and receiver must agree on a predefined
baud rate for successful communication.
Flexibility: Asynchronous communication is
more flexible, allowing devices with slightly
different clock rates to communicate.
However, it may result in varying gaps
between data units.
Examples: Serial communication standards
like RS-232 commonly use asynchronous
communication.
Synchronous Communication:
Definition: Synchronous communication relies
on a shared clock signal between the
communicating devices. The sender and
receiver use the same clock to determine the
timing of data transmission.
Timing Mechanism: In synchronous systems,
the timing is synchronized using a clock
signal. Both sender and receiver operate
based on the same clock, ensuring precise
timing for data transmission.
Efficiency: Synchronous communication is
generally more efficient than asynchronous
communication as it eliminates the need for
start and stop bits. However, precise clock
synchronization is critical.
Examples: High-speed communication
protocols like synchronous optical networking
(SONET) and synchronous data link control
(SDLC) use synchronous communication.
Bus Topology: Description: In bus topology,
all devices share a common communication
channel (bus). Each device is connected to
the bus, and data transmitted by one device
is accessible to all others on the bus.
Advantages: Simple design, cost-effective for
small networks, and easy to implement.
Disadvantages: Limited scalability, potential
for collisions, and if the central bus fails, the
entire network is affected.
Switch Networking Device: Functionality:
Switches operate at the data link layer and
use MAC addresses to intelligently forward
data frames within a local network. They
provide full-duplex communication, segment
collision domains, and enhance network
efficiency.
Advantages: Efficient data forwarding,
reduced collisions, and improved network
performance.
Types: Managed switches offer advanced
features, while unmanaged switches are
simpler and commonly used in basic network
setups.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model:
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes the functions of a
telecommunication or computing system into
seven abstraction layers. Each layer serves a
specific purpose, and the model ensures
interoperability between different systems.
Here's a concise overview of the seven layers:
Physical Layer (Layer 1): Concerned with the
physical connection between devices.
Specifies hardware characteristics such as
cables, connectors, and transmission rates.
Deals with the raw transmission and
reception of data bits over a physical
medium.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2): Manages node-to-
node communication and error detection.
Divided into two sublayers: Media Access
Control (MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC).
Handles framing, addressing, and flow control
to ensure reliable data transfer over the
physical layer.
Network Layer (Layer 3): Manages end-to-end
communication and routing. Determines the
optimal path for data packets across
interconnected networks. Handles logical
addressing and packet forwarding.
Transport Layer (Layer 4): Ensures reliable
data transfer between end systems.
Manages end-to-end communication, error
recovery, and flow control. Segments and
reassembles data for transmission.
Session Layer (Layer 5): Manages sessions or
dialogues between applications on different
devices. Establishes, maintains, and
terminates connections, coordinating data
exchange between applications.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6): Focuses on data
representation and translation. Translates
data between the application layer and lower
layers, ensuring compatibility. Handles tasks
like data encryption and compression.
Application Layer (Layer 7): Provides a
network interface for end-user applications.
Enables communication between software
applications and the network. Supports
network services such as email, file transfer,
and remote login
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Features: Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA) is a channel access method used in
telecommunications and networking. Here
are five key features of FDMA:
Frequency Allocation: FDMA divides the
available frequency spectrum into multiple
non-overlapping frequency bands.
Each communication channel is assigned a
specific frequency band, ensuring that
different users or signals operate on distinct
frequencies.
Simultaneous Transmission: Multiple users
can transmit simultaneously since they
operate on different frequency channels.
This simultaneous transmission enables
efficient use of the available spectrum,
allowing for parallel communication.
Guard Bands: Guard bands, or frequency
gaps, separate adjacent frequency channels
to prevent interference. These guard bands
ensure that signals from one channel do not
spill over and disrupt communication in
neighbouring channels.
Fixed Bandwidth Allocation: FDMA allocates a
fixed bandwidth to each user or
communication channel. This fixed allocation
ensures that each user has a dedicated
portion of the frequency spectrum,
minimizing the risk of interference.
Suitability for Analog Signals: FDMA is well-
suited for analog signals, where the
continuous variation of signal amplitude and
frequency can be efficiently accommodated.
Analog communication systems, such as
traditional radio and television broadcasting,
often employ FDMA to divide the frequency
spectrum among different channels.
Token Passing Protocol: Definition: Token
passing is a network access control method
where a small data frame (token) circulates
among network nodes. Only the node
possessing the token can transmit data.
Operation: Nodes take turns seizing the
token, attach their data, and release the
modified token back into the network. This
method ensures fair access and avoids
collisions, commonly used in Token Ring
networks.
Reservation Protocol: Definition: Reservation
protocols allocate specific time slots or
bandwidth for communication between
network nodes, preventing contention and
ensuring dedicated resources for
transmission.
Operation: Nodes request and receive
reservations for particular time periods,
allowing exclusive use for communication.
Often used in real-time applications with
time-sensitive data.
Local Area Network (LAN):
Scope: LAN is a network that covers a limited
geographical area, typically within a single
building, office, or campus.
Connectivity: Devices in a LAN are
interconnected through high-speed
communication channels, such as Ethernet
cables or Wi-Fi, allowing for fast data transfer
within the confined area.
Topology: Common LAN topologies include
bus, ring, star, or a combination, depending
on the specific requirements of the network.
Use Cases: LANs are ideal for connecting
devices within a close proximity, facilitating
resource sharing, file sharing, and
collaborative work. Common applications
include office networks and home networks.
Wide Area Network (WAN): Scope: WAN
spans a large geographical area, connecting
LANs that are located at a distance from each
other. WANs can cover cities, countries, or
even global distances.
Connectivity: WANs use various
communication technologies, such as leased
lines, satellite links, or public networks (like
the internet), to connect remote LANs.
Topology: WAN topology is often point-to-
point or point-to-multipoint, depending on
the infrastructure and requirements. It may
involve multiple routers and switches to
facilitate data transfer over long distances.
Use Cases: WANs are suitable for connecting
geographically dispersed offices, branches of
a company, or even connecting different
countries. The internet itself is an example of
a global WAN.
Internal Noise: Thermal Noise: This noise is
generated by the random motion of electrons
in a conductor at a non-zero temperature,
contributing to signal interference. It
increases with temperature and affects the
overall signal quality in electronic
components.
Shot Noise: Shot noise results from the
discrete nature of electric charge. It is
noticeable in low-intensity electronic signals,
occurring when current flows across a barrier,
and the random arrival of electrons
introduces fluctuations in the current.
Channel Capacity and Data Rate:
Channel Capacity: The maximum rate at
which information can be reliably transmitted
through a communication channel.
Influenced by factors like bandwidth, signal-
to-noise ratio, and modulation, it is defined
by Shannon's theorem.
Data Rate: The speed at which data is
transmitted over a communication channel,
measured in bits per second (bps). The data
rate must be within the channel capacity to
ensure efficient and error-free
communication.