The port of the 8051 microcontroller
that requires external pull-up resistors
is Port 0 (P0).
In the 8051-microcontroller architecture,
the registers used as data pointers in
indirect addressing mode are DPTR
(Data Pointer). DPTR is a 16-bit register.
What extension is used to save ‘C’
Language program. In the context of
Microcontroller Architecture and
Programming, 'C' language programs are
typically saved with a ".c" file extension.
This extension is used to indicate that the
file contains source code written in the C
programming language. For example, a C
program file might be named something
like "program.c."
In the 8051 microcontrollers, the timer
register that is bit-addressable is the
TCON (Timer Control) register.
The step angle of a stepper motor is
the angular displacement produced by
one step of the motor, expressed in
degrees or radians.
In a half-duplex, data is transmitted in
only one direction at a time-comment.
In half-duplex communication, data is sent
in one direction at a time, allowing for
efficient use of resources, but it can cause
delays as devices take turns transmitting.
To interface external 16KB RAM with an
8051 microcontroller, connect the address
lines A0-A13 and data lines D0-D7 of the
microcontroller to the RAM. Use the
PSEN (Program Store Enable) signal for
enabling the RAM's chip select, and
connect RD (Read) and WR (Write)
signals to control data transfer.
Communication Direction:
Simplex: In simplex communication, data
flows in only one direction, either from the
transmitter to the receiver or vice versa.
Full Duplex: Full duplex communication
allows data to flow in both directions
simultaneously. It supports two-way
communication, similar to a telephone
conversation.
Example:
Simplex: A typical example of simplex
communication is a one-way radio
broadcast, where the transmitter sends
information, but there is no capability for
the receiver to send data back.
Full Duplex: An example of full duplex
communication is a telephone call, where
both parties can speak and listen at the
same time, enabling a two-way
conversation.
i) CLR A: Clears the accumulator (A
register) in the 8051 microcontrollers,
setting all bits to 0.
ii) NOP: No operation instruction, which
does nothing and allows the
microcontroller to proceed to the next
instruction.
iii) RR A: Right rotates the bits in the
accumulator through the carry flag,
shifting in the carry bit from the right.
iv) SUBB A, #05H: Subtracts the
immediate value 05H from the
accumulator A with borrow.
v) SWAP A: Swaps the nibbles (4-bit
groups) within the accumulator A,
effectively reversing their order.
The internal RAM of the 8051
microcontroller is organized into four
distinct banks, each of 128 bytes. The
RAM addresses are from 00H to 7FH,
and each bank is associated with a
specific range of addresses:
Bank 0 (00H - 7FH): This is the general-
purpose RAM accessible by all
instructions. The first 32 bytes (00H -
1FH) are also bit-addressable.
Bank 1 (80H - FFH): Special function
registers (SFRs) are located in this bank.
These registers control various functions
of the microcontroller, such as timers,
serial communication, and interrupt
control.
Bank 2 (00H - 7FH): Similar to Bank 0,
this is another block of general-purpose
RAM. Accessing Bank 2 is done using the
PSW (Program Status Word) register.
Bank 3 (80H - FFH): This bank is bit-
addressable, allowing manipulation of
individual bits in registers. It is accessed
through the PSW register. Understanding
and utilizing the organization of internal
RAM is crucial for effective programming
and resource management on the 8051
microcontrollers.
Interrupts in the 8051 microcontrollers
play a crucial role in handling external
events and enhancing program efficiency.
Here are key points for interrupts:
Types of Interrupts:
The 8051 microcontroller supports two
types of interrupts: External Hardware
Interrupts (INT0, INT1) and Internal Timer
Interrupts (Timer 0 and Timer 1).
Interrupt Vector Addresses:
Each type of interrupt has a specific
interrupt vector address where the
microcontroller jumps to when the
interrupt occurs. These addresses are
fixed and known in advance.
Understanding interrupts is essential for
handling time-sensitive tasks or
responding to external events without
continuously polling for them, thereby
improving the overall efficiency of the
microcontroller.
Write 8051 C program to generate
square wave with 2500 Hz frequency
on pin 2.7. Use Timer 1 in mode 2.
Assume XTAL frequency = 12 MHz
#include <reg51.h>
// Define XTAL frequency
#define XTAL_FREQ 12000000UL
void main () {
// Configure Timer 1 in mode 2
TMOD = 0x20;
// Calculate Timer 1 reload value for 2500
Hz square wave
// Reload Value = (2^16 - (XTAL_FREQ
/ (2 * desired frequency)))
// In this case, desired frequency =
2500 Hz
TH1 = 0xFD;
TL1 = 0xFD;
// Set P2.7 as output
P2 = P2 & 0x7F;
// Start Timer 1
TR1 = 1;
while (1) {
// Toggle P2.7 to generate square wave
P2_7 = ~P2_7;
}
}
This 8051 C program configures Timer 1
in mode 2 to generate a square wave with
a frequency of 2500 Hz on pin 2.7. The
XTAL frequency is assumed to be 12
MHz the calculation for the Timer 1 reload
value is based on the formula for mode 2
and the desired frequency. The program
then continuously toggles the state of pin
2.7 to produce the square wave.
brief explanation of the classification
of 8051 instructions:
Data Transfer Instructions:
MOV: Moves data from one
register/memory location to another.
Arithmetic Instructions:
ADD, SUB, INC, DEC: Perform arithmetic
operations on data in the accumulator or
registers.
Logical Instructions:
ANL, ORL, XRL: Perform bitwise logical
operations between accumulator and
register/memory.
Bit-Level Instructions:
SETB, CLR, CPL: Set, clear, or
complement individual bits in registers or
the internal RAM.
Branching Instructions:
JMP, JZ, JNZ, JC, JNC: Control the
program flow by changing the sequence
of instructions based on certain
conditions.
These categories cover the fundamental
operations that the 8051 microcontrollers
can perform, including data manipulation,
arithmetic calculations, logical operations,
bit-level manipulations, and control flow.
Understanding these instruction types is
essential for effective programming on the
8051 architecture.
Write a C program for LCD interface // Display 'ELECTRONICS' Timer Mode 2 in the 8051
to 8051 for displaying ‘ELECTRONICS’ lcd_data('E'); microcontroller is an 8-bit
#include <reg51.h> lcd_data('L'); timer/counter with auto-reload
// Function to provide a delay lcd_data('E'); capability. Here are key points for
void delay (unsigned int count) { lcd_data('C'); Timer Mode 2:
unsigned int i, j; lcd_data('T'); Auto-Reload:
for (i = 0; i < count; i++) lcd_data('R'); Timer Mode 2 operates in auto-
for (j = 0; j < 1275; j++); lcd_data('O'); reload mode, where it automatically
} lcd_data('N'); reloads the initial value from TH2 and
// Function to send a command to lcd_data('I'); TL2 into the timer registers (RCAP2H
the LCD lcd_data('C'); and RCAP2L) after overflow.
void lcd_command(unsigned char lcd_data('S'); Clock Source:
command) { while (1) { The timer in Mode 2 uses the percale
// RS=0 for command // Infinite loop and the external input (TCLK) to
RS = 0; } generate clock pulses. The percale
// RW=0 for write } divides the system clock to
RW = 0; Addressing Range: determine the input frequency for
// Send the command to the LCD LCALL: LCALL has a broader the timer. The timer increments on
LCD_DATA = command; addressing range and can call each pulse.
// Enable pulse subroutines from anywhere in the 64 Understanding Timer Mode 2 is
EN = 1; KB program memory space. It uses a essential for applications requiring
delay(1); 16-bit address. precise timing, as it provides a
EN = 0; ACALL: ACALL is more limited, meant convenient auto-reload feature for
} for calling subroutines within the continuous timing operations.
// Function to send data to the LCD same 2 KB page of program memory. Immediate addressing mode in
void lcd_data(unsigned char dat) { It utilizes an 11-bit address. microcontroller programming
// RS=1 for data Instruction Size: involves specifying the operand
RS = 1; LCALL: The LCALL instruction is 3 directly within the instruction. Here
// RW=0 for write bytes long, as it requires more are key points for immediate
RW = 0; memory to store the 16-bit address addressing:
// Send the data to the LCD of the subroutine. Operand Specification:
LCD_DATA = dat; ACALL: ACALL is a more compact 2- In immediate addressing mode, the
// Enable pulse byte instruction, utilizing an 11-bit actual data or operand is provided in
EN = 1; address and taking up less memory the instruction itself.
delay(1); space. Example:
EN = 0; The 8051 microcontroller has four For example, in the instruction MOV
} parallel I/O ports, namely P0, P1, P2, A, #35H, the value 35H is the
// Function to initialize the LCD and P3. General-Purpose I/O: P0, P2, immediate data, and it is directly
void lcd_init() { P3: These ports are general-purpose moved to the accumulator A.
// Function set: 8-bit mode, 2 lines, I/O ports, and each of them is 8 bits Understanding immediate addressing
5x7 font wide. P0 is often used for external is important for handling constant
lcd_command(0x38); data bus connections, P2 is data or values directly within the
// Display on, cursor off, blinking commonly used for interfacing with instruction, providing a quick and
off external memory, and P3 is direct way to work with specific
lcd_command(0x0C); frequently employed for special numerical values in the program.
// Entry mode set: Increment functions like interrupts.
cursor, no display shift Special Function I/O: P1: Port P1 is
lcd_command(0x06); also 8 bits wide but has additional
} functions associated with it. It can be
void main() { configured as a general-purpose I/O
// Initialize LCD port or used for special functions like
lcd_init(); Timer 2 external count input and
external interrupt input.