Language Matters

Studies in the Languages of Africa

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Interpretation and Translation as Disciplines and

Professions in Zimbabwe: A Critical Appraisal

Eventhough Ndlovu

To cite this article: Eventhough Ndlovu (2020) Interpretation and Translation as Disciplines
and Professions in Zimbabwe: A Critical Appraisal, Language Matters, 51:2, 129-147, DOI:
10.1080/10228195.2020.1773518

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2020.1773518

Published online: 11 Aug 2020.

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 Article

Interpretation and Translation as Disciplines and

Professions in Zimbabwe: A Critical Appraisal
Eventhough Ndlovu
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5526-0518
University of the Free State, South Africa
evennthough@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract
This article examines the status of translation and interpretation as disciplines
and professions in Zimbabwe. A critical appraisal of both past and present
Zimbabwean language policy documents, triangulated with data from semi-
structured interviews and observations, reveals that the two disciplines and
professions are still in their formative stages despite their long history. It
emerged that translation and interpretation are para-professions and are neither
fully-fledged nor well-established disciplines. The lack of an enabling language
policy seems to account for this underdevelopment, at least to some extent. The
marginalisation of the majority of local languages thus appears to stifle and
thwart efforts to promote the disciplinary and professional growth of both
translation and interpretation in Zimbabwe. These observations suggest that
language policy, translation, and interpretation in the Zimbabwean context have
an intricate and symbiotic relationship; thus the lack of an enabling language
policy environment both past and present constrains their development.

Keywords: translation; interpretation; profession; para-profession; discipline;

language policy; Zimbabwe

Language Matters https://doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2020.1773518

www.tandfonline.com/rlms20 ISSN 1753-5395 (Online), ISSN 1022-8195 (Print)
Volume 51 | Number 2 | 2020 | 129–147 © Unisa Press 2020
 Ndlovu

1. Introduction
This article provides a critical appraisal of the status of interpretation and translation in
Zimbabwe. The article is premised on the argument that despite the long history of the
two disciplines, they are still in their formative stages and are para-professions. It is
argued that past and present language policy provisions in Zimbabwe have constrained
the growth of the two disciplines and professions. The study demonstrates that language
policy influences the nature and extent of the growth of translation and interpretation in
a nation. The article further shows that the negative attitudes towards local languages,
the low status accorded to local languages, and the lack of recognition of linguistic
human rights hinder the growth of language mediation. The symbiotic relationship
between language policy and language mediation makes clear the need to examine the
impact of a language policy on the growth of language mediation.

2. Methodology
The study employs a multi-method approach to facilitate triangulation. Data for this
study was collected through documentary analysis of the Zimbabwean language policy.
This was done in order to critically examine the potential relationship between the
Zimbabwean language policy and the past and present status of the disciplines and
professions of translation and interpretation in Zimbabwe. To triangulate the main data,
the study also employed non-participant observations as well as semi-structured
interviews with selected policy makers, budding and seasoned language practitioners,
and officials in selected strategic institutions which employ translation and
interpretation services, namely governmental and non-governmental entities. The study
did not work with a predetermined sample size, but was guided by data saturation and
the representativeness of the participants.

The study explores how the provisions included in a corpus of policy documents impact
translation and interpretation as disciplines and professions. Language policies conceal
certain linguistic, political, social, and economic ideologies which have a bearing on the
growth of language-related disciplines. Thus, language policies can be the source of
various forms of language-related (in)equalities and can determine the extent, rate and
nature of the growth of language-related disciplines and professions (Abdelhay,
Makoni, and Makoni 2011; Lo Bianco 2009; Ndlovu 2013; Novak-Lukanovič and
Limon 2012; Tollefson 2006; 1991; Tollefson and Tsui 2004).

More often, language policies conceal language status differentials which, in my view,
may have a very strong impact on the growth of language-related professions and
disciplines. This study therefore examines how past and present language policies
affected and affect the growth of translation and interpretation in Zimbabwe.

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3. Translation and Interpretation as Professions in Zimbabwe

A profession is defined as an occupation that has undergone the process of
professionalisation. It is an occupation that is based on specialised pre-service,
in-service, and life-long training. It has established acceptable qualifications and
professional association(s) to recommend best practice and to oversee the conduct of
members of the profession. It is an occupation which has some degree of distinguishing
between the qualified and unqualified amateurs. Thus, it has some form of professional
certification, occupational closure, and credentialism. It also employs licensure, in
which only those people with a valid license granted through a professional body or a
licensing board can practise (Brint 1993; Carpenter and Stimpson 2007; Friedson 1986).

In this study, a profession is therefore defined using these hallmarks: training;

certification; power; prestige; high remuneration; high social standing and
privileges/benefits; group norms of conduct and qualification of members of a
profession and a professional body or bodies, local and national association,
accrediting/licensing body or regulatory authority; accreditation/state licensing laws or
regulatory framework; code of ethics; autonomy and/or entrepreneurship.

3.1. Training, Certification, and Qualification

Observations of what obtains on the ground in Zimbabwe showed that most translation
and interpretation services are offered by translators and interpreters who are simply
bilinguals and who lack professional training in both fields. This was also substantiated
by interviews with officials in governmental and non-governmental organisations who
revealed that translators and interpreters are engaged on the basis of their bilingual
competencies and/or qualifications in language-related fields which are not necessarily
translation and interpretation such as a Bachelor of Arts in African/Foreign Languages,
Communication, Linguistics, Media and Journalism or Applied Language Studies.

Further corroborating this finding, in a Proposal Document for the Professionalisation

of Court Interpreters (Judicial Service Commission Zimbabwe 2013), the Secretary for
the Judicial Service Commission in Zimbabwe notes that

What became very clear from both the meetings and investigations conducted was that
the current situation in regards the eligibility criteria for recruitment, as a Court
interpreter is both unsatisfactory and undesirable. For one to be eligible for recruitment
it appears the main consideration is for the candidate to be bilingual i.e. fluent in English
(the court official language) and at least one other language.

In essence, this means that prior to 2011, the year in which the University of Zimbabwe
(UZ) was engaged to offer training, there were no established professional requirements
for recruitment of language mediators. Translation and interpretation in Zimbabwe were
not founded upon specialised educational training, and interpreters and translators were
not practising on the basis of a relevant professional qualification. This reveals that

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translation and interpretation have not achieved a professional status in the true sense
of a profession.

An analysis of adverts for the recruitment of court and parliament interpreters shows
that emphasis was placed on the applicant’s bilingual skills, not training and a
qualification in this field(s), a clear testimony that the nation was informed by the widely
dispelled myth that bilingualism is an adequate attribute of a translator or interpreter.
This has been the case largely because tertiary institutions did not have a fully-fledged
curriculum for training translators and interpreters, as will be shown in the discussion
of the two fields as disciplines. Consequently, the professions collectively, and the
professionals individually, did not possess a set of professional skills required for
engagement into the service. Practising interpreters and translators did not undergo
training in translation/interpretation theory, practice, and dynamics.

The letter from the Secretary of the Judicial Service Commission in Zimbabwe to the
Vice Chancellor of the UZ in December 2011 (Judicial Service Commission Zimbabwe
2011) further confirms this:

From 1980, up to now, the educational requirements for one to be a court interpreter
have been five “O” Levels, which must include English and another vernacular
language. No other formal training exists to develop and train court interpreters. I am
also reliably informed that no local institution offers any formal training to court
interpreters although some institutions may be offering a course in translation. The
absence of formal training has led to the post of court interpreters being regarded as
clerical and not professional …

It is against the above background that the Judicial Service Commission is appealing to
you and your institution for assistance in designing and possibly running a course or
courses at certificate or diploma level, to equip court interpreters with the relevant skills
that will see them becoming professionals.

This lack of formal training explains why most Zimbabwean court interpreters show
contempt of court and lack of biculturalism in their interpretation of Ndebele and Shona
taboo and offensive terms. Interpreters resort to equivalents which distort the politeness
of the source-language terms, evoke negative attitudes, and subject victims to secondary
victimhood. Their preferred equivalents are emotionally and ideologically charged and
overlook the socio-cultural context of the target-language culture. The justifications put
forward for Zimbabwean court interpreters’ preference for obscene, taboo, and
offensive terms reflect that their decisions are not based on an established knowledge
base and theories because they did not undergo professional training in the field.

This is true since, prior to 2011, in Zimbabwe there was no such thing as occupational
closure or credentialism to determine whether someone is permitted to undertake a task
or to speak as an expert. The only training that was available was in-house in the form
of dummy sessions in courts. Commenting on the inadequacy of this in-house training,

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the Secretary for the Judicial Service Commission in Zimbabwe (Judicial Service
Commission Zimbabwe 2013) notes that

Although, upon recruitment some kind of on-the-job training and occasionally short
workshop/seminar type training is conducted, this is neither systematic nor susceptible
to meaningful evaluation. In short this type of rudimentary training cannot qualify as a
solid foundation for a professional Court interpreter.

3.2. Accreditation and Regulatory Body

Translators and interpreters in Zimbabwe practise without a license because the country
does not have state licensing laws and bodies. In other countries such as the USA,
Britain, China, Spain, Australia, Germany, and South Africa, practitioners who want
recognition for their skills apply for accreditation, and their practical skills are tested
before they receive accreditation. In these countries, applicants for translator/interpreter
positions are required to pass translation/interpretation tests set and marked by
reputable, experienced professional translators/interpreters (Lombaard 2010, 7, 25).

Accreditation promotes professional development and gives a translator or interpreter

status as a member of the profession. Accreditation is an essential part of making sure
that the profession is taken seriously. It sets and maintains national standards to ensure
that only professionally trained and qualified members are engaged and available to
facilitate multilingual service provision. An accrediting body protects and improves the
legal and social status of interpreters and translators. It seeks to improve the conditions
of the profession and upholds translators’ and interpreters’ rights and ensures that their
terms and conditions of service are favourable. In other countries there are the following
accrediting bodies: the International Federation of Translators, the American
Translators Association, the National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and
Translators (USA), and the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and
Interpreters (Australia).

The South African Translators Institute (SATI) is a professional accrediting body and
association for language practitioners whose membership includes a wide variety of
practitioners. This, however, has its own attendant challenges. According to SATI
(n.d.), it has a mandate of supporting, protecting and safeguarding the interests and
welfare of language practitioners. It is charged with the responsibility of crafting and
enforcing compliance with professional codes for language-technical experts. However,
in Zimbabwe, translation and interpretation are unregulated professions, which means
that, with the exception of sworn translators and interpreters, it is legal for anyone to
engage in these professions and to call themselves translators and interpreters without
having had specific training or having to register anywhere.

Currently, there is no licensing body in Zimbabwe which upholds professional and

ethical conduct and standards. There is therefore need for a body whose work will
enhance the translation and interpretation industry’s competitiveness. There is need for

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a certification system designed to license professionals and uphold ethical and

professional conduct and standards. This body will expect individuals to demonstrate
that they meet these standards for them to be awarded a practising certificate. In
Zimbabwe, there is no body charged with the responsibility of enforcing adherence to
an ethical code or governing the conduct, rights, and obligations of translators and
interpreters. There are no regulatory bodies which oversee the curriculum, professional
training, accreditation, and adherence to set professional conduct and ethical behaviour.
There is therefore need to ensure that qualification by a professional body is considered
a prerequisite to practise. Individuals must have professional training and qualifications
and be licensed before they are engaged to offer services.

3.3. Professional Association/Body

Translation and interpretation in Zimbabwe are not organised into professional
associations which are charged with the mandate of meeting the needs of translators and
interpreters. There are no associations which promote interaction and provide a forum
for the exchange of ideas between practitioners in these fields and assist in promoting
research and the professionalisation of both professions. There is no professional body
whose aim is to foster scholarly and professional activities in the field of translation and
interpretation by facilitating the exchange of information and ideas through meetings,
conferences, publications, and other means.

3.4. Code of Ethics

There are no explicit written professional codes of ethics for translators and interpreters
in Zimbabwe. Mwaniki and De Lange (2010, 21) note that the code of ethics for
language services professionals engenders a culture of professionalism, accountability,
integrity, and quality service provision within the language services corps. They further
stress that these codes underscore the importance of language services professionals in
the public and private sector and of language in accessing services. In effect, these codes
serve as guidelines to language services professionals as to what is expected of them
from an ethical viewpoint, both in their individual conduct and in their relationships
with others.

3.5. Regulatory Framework

Currently, in Zimbabwe there is no regulatory framework for translators and
interpreters. Efforts to formulate one are being driven by the UZ Faculty of Arts
Language Consultancy (FALCONS) and the committee which translated the
Constitution. In South Africa, language practice is regulated by the South African
Language Practitioner’s Council Act of 2014 (South Africa 2014). According to
Erasmus (1999, 20–21), a regulatory framework provides protection for, and promotion
of, language practice in a nation. Its main objective is to oversee professional training
and licensing of language mediators. It promotes and protects the language practice
industry in the nation. It monitors and regulates all language facilitation activities and
the translation and interpretation industry. It also protects clients and promotes the
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recognition of translators and interpreters’ skills. It protects language practitioners’

professional interests, improves the image of the profession, and serves as a quality
control instrument by establishing and championing expected and required professional
and ethical standards. Against this background, there is an urgent need for a
Zimbabwean language practitioners act.

3.6. Autonomy
According to Mather (2011), a profession enjoys autonomy. Its members agree amongst
themselves on what they consider ethical and professional conduct and standards. They
formulate regulatory frameworks and codes of ethics which regulate the conduct of the
profession’s members. Autonomy entails that the profession regulates itself and is able
to make independent professional judgements about its work. However, in Zimbabwe,
this does not obtain in the language mediation professions. Language mediators do not
enjoy autonomy and control over their work. This explains why, as revealed by court
interpreters, magistrates and lawyers dictate to them how they should interpret taboo
and offensive words. Autonomy eliminates cases where a non-professional dictates to a
professional how to do his/her job. This then makes clear that translation and
interpretation in Zimbabwe are still para-professions since they lack autonomy.

3.7. Status and Prestige

Moreover, a profession enjoys status and prestige and people aspire and wish to become
practitioners in it. In Zimbabwe, it is unheard of for someone to say, “When I grow up,
I want to be a translator/interpreter.” Both professions are unknown and unpopular
among Zimbabweans. Interviews with 2017 and 2018 first-year UZ BA Honours and
Diploma in Translation and Interpretation Studies students also confirmed that both
disciplines are not popular. The outright majority of the students expressed that they
heard of the professions and disciplines when they were applying for enrolment. They
noted that they had never in their lifetime heard of people who indicated that they
wanted to be translators or interpreters when they grew up. They indicated that the
professions are not as common as others which children aspire to join when they grow
up. Interviews with practising Zimbabwean court interpreters showed that they do not
enjoy esteem, status, or prestige in society. Court and parliament interpreters argued that
they were invisible and lowly regarded by other professionals whom they worked with,
largely because they did not undergo professional training for their job.

3.8. Workers’ Union/Association

Interviews with practising court, media, parliament, and freelance interpreters and
translators and those serving in consultancy firms such as FALCONS, Cendel,
Translation Pro, Vickstrom International, Applied Language Solutions (ALASO),
Tolika.com and Linguists Unlimited showed that there are no local and national
translators’/interpreters’ associations or trade/workers’ unions for translators and
interpreters in Zimbabwe.

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It emerged that this is largely due to the unprofessional nature of the disciplines since
there are no professional grades for these offices in the Zimbabwean Public Service
Commission. It was noted that there is no body mandated with advancing the interests
of language mediators and assisting in dispute resolution during disciplinary panel
hearings at the workstation and in the Works Council. Most interpreters employed in
government institutions lamented the lack of a workers’ union which engages in
collective bargaining and noted that this explains their meagre salaries, which tempt
them to accept bribes, especially in courts. The foregoing further confirms that
translation and interpretation are still para-professions in Zimbabwe.

4. Translation and Interpretation as Disciplines in Zimbabwe

In this study, a discipline is defined as a field of study, an academic field, a field of
enquiry or a research field or branch of knowledge that has its own theories, methods
and has attracted research (Brint 1993; Carpenter and Stimpson 2007; Friedson 1986).

Translation and interpretation are not yet fully-fledged disciplines/fields of study in

Zimbabwe. They are still in their formative stages of development. Before 2011,
professional training was not provided through a well-established curriculum in tertiary
and higher education institutions. Both para-professions were not based on undergirding
disciplines on which they based their own skills, practice, theory, and applied
knowledge. They did not have formal and institutionalised qualifications based on
education, training, and examinations as well and an accrediting body. According to
Jacob (1999, 19), a discipline must have some institutional presence, i.e. it must be
taught as a certificate, diploma or degree programme in higher and tertiary institutions
and must be identified with a professional body.

Prior to 2011, translation and interpretation did not qualify to be referred to as

disciplines in the true sense because they were not taught and researched at tertiary level.
An assessment of the curriculum of selected state universities in Zimbabwe reveals that
before 2011 translation was only taught as a semester-long optional course at
undergraduate level, with interpretation being subsumed under it. This curriculum was
not sufficient to produce a well-rounded translator or interpreter. It was just an
introductory course which covered the rudiments of the translation discipline and
touched upon interpretation. Currently, the UZ is the only university in the country
which offers a Bachelor of Arts Honours degree in these disciplines. In the wake of the
2013 Constitution Amendment (No. 20) Act (Zimbabwe 2013), more state universities
responded by introducing Certificates and Diplomas in Translation and Interpretation
Studies. This is a clear indication of the influence of a language policy on the growth of
language-related disciplines and professions.

Interviews with academics in the Departments of African Languages and Literature at

UZ, Lupane State University, and Great Zimbabwe University showed that the
recognition of the 16 official languages and the firm provisions of section 6 (3) (a)
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and (b) of the 2013 Constitution inspired universities to introduce training in translation
and interpretation in order to professionalise the disciplines. These participants noted
that section 6 provides a principal legal framework for multilingual service provision.
It was noted that this partially enabling policy development creates an impetus for the
growth of translation and interpretation as disciplines and professions.

According to Hyland (2004, 27), disciplines are recognised by the academic journals
where scholars in that discipline and related disciplines publish their research. Prior to
2011, the two disciplines lacked a well-established roster of Zimbabwean journals and
conferences. The first dedicated public gathering on translation and interpretation at
university level in Zimbabwe was during the launch of FALCONS in April 2016. In
October 2018, UZ hosted an inaugural workshop to commemorate International
Translation Day, which is now an annual event at the university. All these are efforts
aimed at establishing translation and interpretation as disciplines. The introduction of
the academic programmes in the universities stimulated the need for research in the two
areas. So far, to my knowledge, there are three doctoral theses on translation and
interpretation on Zimbabwe, namely, Ndhlovu (2012) Svongoro (2017) and Kufakunesu
(2018). However, the year 2014 saw a sudden increase in research outputs in the form
of projects for the Diploma in Translation and Interpretation Studies on Zimbabwe.
There is, however, still a serious shortage of publications and research output in these
fields on Zimbabwe. One can count the few contributors in these areas; much work thus
lies ahead in terms of promoting research in these largely under-researched fields.
Translation and interpretation are not recognised by Zimbabwean academic journals in
which research is published.

5. Why Is the Situation as It Is?

5.1. Lack of an Enabling Language Policy Environment
The findings of this study show that there is an intricate, dialectic, and symbiotic
relationship that exists between language policy and translation and interpretation.
These disciplines permeate each other so fully that it is difficult, if not impossible, to
separate one from the other. Translation and interpretation are key mechanisms for
facilitating language policy implementation in terms of implementation status, corpus,
prestige, and acquisition planning goals. Translation and interpretation promote,
perpetuate, entrench, undermine or redress existing linguistic hegemonic practices
initiated by a language policy because every translation and interpretation activity has
a political motivation stemming from the influence of the language policy. Translators
and interpreters act based on political choices, whether intentional or not. As such, every
single translation and interpretation decision has a language-policy relevance, and,
consequently, a political dimension.

A language policy influences and determines the languages into or from which one
translates or interprets. Translation and interpretation activities thus often reflect an

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existing language policy. Translation and interpretation activities often reflect the
linguistic hegemony initiated, perpetuated, sustained, and entrenched through a
language policy. As such, translations and interpretations are done into or from
hegemonic languages or languages promoted by the language policy. A language policy
must therefore provide an enabling framework for promoting the growth of language-
related professions and disciplines. It must promote multilingual service provision,
functional multilingualism, and respect for language rights.

An observation of what obtains on the ground in Zimbabwe shows that translation and
interpretation activities into and from African languages are limited to the dominant
African languages, namely Shona and Ndebele. It was observed that these trends reflect
the impact of the implicit trilingual language policy that was in force in Zimbabwe
before the 2013 Constitution. All the sources of data for this study confirm that colonial
and post-colonial Zimbabwean language policies failed to recognise Zimbabwe’s
linguistic diversity, which resulted in imbalances in translation and interpretation
activities. This resulted in language inequalities and the hegemony of English, Ndebele,
and Shona and consequently constrained the growth of translation and interpretation as
disciplines and professions.

This also confined translation and interpretation activities to the three dominant
languages of Zimbabwe. Colonial and post-colonial Zimbabwean language policies
gave rise to a hierarchy of languages, major vs minor languages. It emerged that, to date,
management of multilingualism in Zimbabwe is a problem because there is no inclusive
language policy, and the overt and covert trilingual language policy led to the hegemony
of English, Ndebele, and Shona in the socio-economic and political domains of
Zimbabwean society.

The policy documents which enshrine the Zimbabwean language-in-education policy

are the 1987 Education Act as Amended in 2006 (Zimbabwe 1987; see section 62); the
Secretary’s Circular, numbers 1 and 3 of 2002 (Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture
2002a and 2002b) and the Director’s Circular, number 26 of 2007 (Ministry of
Education, Sport and Culture 2007). They promote the hegemony of English, Shona,
and Ndebele and do not guarantee educational interpretation. The use of sign language
as a priority language of education for the deaf and hard of hearing as provided for in
section 62 of the Education Act falls into the realm of declaration without
implementation because teachers are not trained in sign language or sign-language
interpretation. These policy documents have not been amended to align with provisions
of section 6 of the 2013 Constitution. Their provisions confine translation and
interpretation services to the three major languages English, Shona, and Ndebele, which
in turn constrains the growth of educational translation and interpretation.

The Civil Evidence Act (sections 17 and 55; Zimbabwe 1992a), Criminal Procedure and
Evidence Act (sections 264 (ii) and 319F (1) (a); Zimbabwe 1989a), Magistrates Court
Act (sections 5 and 7; Zimbabwe 1989b), Supreme Court Act (sections 29–31;

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Zimbabwe 1992c), High Court Act (sections 49–50; Zimbabwe 1981) and Small Claims
Courts Act (sections 5 and 21; Zimbabwe 1992b) promote the hegemony of English,
Shona and Ndebele, and this limits the growth of translation and interpretation. These
policy documents present a very weak case for court interpretation. They have not been
amended to align with the provisions of sections 6 and 70 of the 2013 Constitution.
Moreover, court interpretation is only provided during the trial process. The extension
of the right to an interpreter from the arrest process onwards will stimulate the growth
of translation and interpretation (see Ndlovu 2017).The Standing Orders and Rules of
the National Assembly and the Senate, sections 204 and 205 (Zimbabwe 2015a and
2015b), respectively also present a very weak case for parliamentary interpretation
because English, Shona, and Ndebele enjoy the lion’s share in Parliament.

In the health sector, the situation is even worse, as there are no medical interpreters.
Instead, hospital staff and patients’ relatives are at times used as interpreters, especially
for the deaf and hard of hearing and speakers of ethnic minority languages and Ndebele.
Section 34 (2) of the Public Health Act (Zimbabwe 2018) acknowledges in a weak and
neutralised manner the need for practitioners to use a language familiar to the patient,
but no provisions are made for medical interpretation, and this affects the growth of
medical interpretation and translation. English is the language of record in hospitals and
all patients’ records are in English.

The Zimbabwe Broadcasting Services Act (Article 13:06) as amended in 2008

(Zimbabwe 2008) also promotes the hegemony of English, Shona, and Ndebele. English
and Shona enjoy the lion’s share. Subtitling is not employed, and news translations are
mainly into Ndebele and Shona and, to a very limited extent, into the other local
languages. News translators just like court interpreters are not trained. Sign-language
interpretation (also by untrained personnel) is largely confined to news broadcasts and
selected national programmes, mainly for political expediency. Section 62 of the 2013
Constitution guarantees access to information, but not in one’s language of choice, and
this renders this right null and void. Consequently, the lack of an enabling language-
policy environment which promotes multilingual service provision and functional
multilingualism constrains the growth of translation and interpretation in Zimbabwe.

However, in the wake of the 2013 Constitution, sections 6, 63 and 70, there are
substantially visible efforts to promote multilingual service provision in Zimbabwe—a
move which it is hoped will stimulate the growth of language-related disciplines and
professions. It is hoped that this will promote translation and interpretation services in
previously marginalised languages as efforts of ensuring that the state and all
institutions and agencies of government at every level take into account the language
preferences of people affected by governmental communications or measures, and of
promoting the equitable treatment, development, and use of all the officially recognised
languages.

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It is hoped that the provisions of the afore-cited sections of the Constitution will ensure
respect for linguistic human rights and the promotion of universal and equal access to
services, which all stimulate the growth of language mediation. However, these
provisions seem to fall into the realm of declaration without implementation because
the implementation procedures are left unspecified (Bamgbose 1991; Ndlovu 2013;
2017).The sections do not set out an enabling framework for a functional multilingual
era because they do not specify how this will be done. There are no watchdogs to enforce
compliance and sanctions to discourage non-compliance or incentives to promote
compliance, and this renders the policy a case of declaration without implementation.
This Constitution should have been followed by the setting-up of institutional support
structures and by enabling language policy frameworks for a functional multi-
lingual era.

5.2. Cost-Benefit Analysis for Multilingual Services Provision

Interviews with the participants of this study showed that there is a general assumption
that multilingual service provision is a costly approach. It emerged that there is no
institutionalised culture of multilingual service provision where quality and accessibility
of government service delivery is understood from the viewpoint of effective
communication. There is no fiscal policy for the implementation of the multilingual
dispensation. Underscoring the value of multilingual services provision, Mwaniki
(2012, 42) notes that the centrality of the discourse of multilingual services provision
stems from a history where language has been used for social, political, and economic
profiling; where there has been a tendency to turn political victories into linguistic
victories. Relating this to the Zimbabwean situation, the colonial government imposed
English as a language of access and success. Alongside English, although with a lower
status, Shona and Ndebele were accorded space as national languages, an initiative
which saw the marginalisation and exclusion of ethnic linguistic minorities. From
independence onwards, i.e. 1980 to 2013, the government maintained the colonial
policy, and this further widened the gap between ethnic minority-language speakers and
speakers of the hegemonic languages. In essence, all this restricted the growth of
translation and interpretation as professions and disciplines.

Further making clear the role of multilingual services provision in the growth and
development of language-related professions and disciplines, Mwaniki (2012, 42) notes
that the increasing link between language and the processes of development and
democratisation locate language at the core of national and individual development and
democracy. He further contends that a multilingual dispensation does not only help
address past language-related injustices, but it also engenders a culture of consultation
and participation in mainstream social and political discourses, processes, and
outcomes. In Zimbabwe, there is a strong and visible lack of acknowledgement,
mainstreaming, and validation of the intricate link between language and the processes
of development and democratisation. Science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics are understood as the major economic drivers and principal agents of

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development. This constrains the growth and development of language-related

professions and disciplines.

Failure to appreciate and embrace the contemporary definitions of inclusive sustainable

human development in Zimbabwe has significantly contributed to the lack of
recognition and promotion of translation and interpretation. Current definitions of
development are people/human-centred, where development is conceptualised as
human development in which people’s choices are enlarged. The prevailing discourses
on inclusive sustainable human development focus on a process where peoples’ choices
are enlarged, and chief among these processes is language mediation where translation
and interpretation services are key processes for enlarging people’s choices and
ensuring their access and success. Language is seen as a critical enabler for inclusive
sustainable human development.

Current discourses on inclusive sustainable human development foreground

development for the people and by the people. These discourses stress the need for
people to actively take part in all processes which affect them (Djité 2008; Mwaniki
2012; Ndlovu 2013; 2015; Prah 2000; UNDP 1999; 2001; 2004). All this is made
possible through multilingual services provision where translation and interpretation
among other processes of enlarging people’s choices are used as bridges to facilitate
and enhance access and success, inclusion, and participation.

As Mwaniki (2012, 56) rightly observes, languages in their multiplicity play a crucial
role in the processes of consultation, participation, and information and knowledge
transfer. Effective consultation between citizens and the public and private sector must
take place in languages that the masses understand. Local languages are critical in the
generation and transfer of knowledge which initiates, drives, and sustains inclusive
sustainable human development. In multilingual set-ups like that in Zimbabwe,
translation and interpretation are useful in ensuring effective participation and
information and knowledge transfer.

In Zimbabwe, there is still a strong lack of awareness and appreciation of the

inextricable link between economic success and access, participation and output, and
language as a facilitator and enabler of knowledge and information access, transfer, and
sharing (See section 62 of the 2013 Constitution, where there is no reference to
language, although this section guarantees access to information). In essence, this
thwarts and subdues the growth of translation and interpretation.

5.3. Negative Attitudes towards African Languages

Findings from all the sources of data used in this study show that, owing to negative
attitudes towards multilingual service provision, the state and all its institutions and
agencies do not take into account the language preferences of the masses. There is a
general perception that local languages are not fit for use in high-function domains.
There are very strong and ingrained negative language attitudes towards local languages

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held by the elite and speakers of the languages concerned. Local languages are not seen
as critical components of development, and language matters are not considered urgent
or a priority. These ingrained attitudes have contributed to the underdevelopment of
translation and interpretation into and from the marginalised languages.

5.4. The Level of Development of African Languages

It emerged that the excuse of the lack of development of other local languages has also
contributed to the exclusion of the so-called non-developed languages in translation and
interpretation services into and from them. This has been used to exclude other local
languages in translation and interpretation activities in several high-function domains.
The so-called non-developed languages are considered to be unable to handle the
sophisticated jargon of innovation, science, and technology, and, consequently, people
tend to shun them. However, it must be appreciated that languages develop through
increased use in high-function domains through translating and interpretation into and
from them (Adegbija 2001; Bamgbose 2007; Benson 2004; Ndlovu 2013).

5.5. Misconceptions about Language Proficiency Levels

It was also revealed that, in Zimbabwe, there is a strongly and widely held
misconception that everyone understands English, Shona, and Ndebele, and this has
limited translation and interpretation into and from these three hegemonic languages of
Zimbabwe. This has thwarted, subdued, and constrained the growth of translation and
interpretation because the fertile ground for the growth of these disciplines and
professions is where functional multilingualism is promoted and in an environment
where services are provided in a multiplicity of languages.

5.6. Lack of Appreciation of the Value of Translation and Interpretation

It was observed and confirmed through interviews and documentary analysis that there
is a very strong misconception that translation and interpretation are a waste of resources
and time. There is a general lack of acknowledgement, understanding, validation, and
mainstreaming of the value of the two professions and disciplines among leaders and
the public, and this explains and accounts for the status of these two professions and
disciplines in Zimbabwe. It must be noted that these disciplines facilitate language
policy implementation. They are mechanisms for policy implementation. They are
bridges to access and success where language is a barrier and they facilitate equal access
to public services. They facilitate knowledge and information transfer and sharing. They
facilitate inclusivity and national participation by all in mainstream social, political, and
economic processes, discourses, and outcomes. They are a means of redressing
language-related social, political, and economic injustices.

Translation and interpretation facilitate the processes of inclusive sustainable human

development and democratisation. They promote efficient and effective service
delivery. They help communicate public-sector service expectations and standards to
the citizenry. This ensures a buy-in into initiatives aimed at delivering better services

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and often, citizens, through their own creativity, can supplement the efforts of the public
sector to render quality services. They promote functional multilingualism and
multiculturalism, which foster the protection and exercise of linguistic human rights.
Linguistic human rights guarantee the enjoyment of other basic human rights because
language rights constitute the basis for the enjoyment of other basic human rights.
Recognition of linguistic human rights through translation and interpretation constitutes
an avenue for the enjoyment of other basic human rights. They promote the enjoyment
of the rights of access to information, especially given that language can be a barrier to
access to information. They promote the enjoyment of the rights of the arrested and
detained persons, the right to a fair hearing, the right to education, the right to healthcare,
the rights of linguistic minorities, and the rights of persons with disabilities, especially
through sign-language interpretation, voice-over, and subtitling, among other
initiatives. Translation and interpretation are effective and alternative measures for
promoting the enjoyment of the right to equality and non-discrimination.

They facilitate multilingual service provision and the equal treatment, development, and
use of all languages. They help service providers take into account citizens’ language
preferences and serve as key mechanisms for reaching out to many people. For example,
in the advertising industry, adverts in the target audience’s language have greater appeal
to the audience than adverts in a foreign language. Christianity has spread to almost all
the corners of the world through the use of translation and interpretation services, and
the Bible has been translated into the majority of the world’s languages. All this makes
clear the value of these professions in reaching out to the widest audience possible.

It has therefore emerged that, in Zimbabwe, there is a general lack of acknowledgement,

understanding, validation and mainstreaming of the value of the two professions and
disciplines, and this explains and accounts for the low status of these two professions
and disciplines in Zimbabwe.

6. Conclusion
The findings of this study show that, prior to 2011, translation and interpretation in
Zimbabwe lacked, and to some extent still lack, the defining characteristics of a
profession, namely having institutionalised and formal training; a cognitive base;
licensing; professional autonomy; a professional association; a regulating/accrediting
body; high standards of professional and intellectual excellence; a regulatory
framework; and a code of ethics. Translation and interpretation are not recognised by
Zimbabwean academic journals in which research is published. Consequently, they are
para-professions, and they are not yet fully-fledged disciplines in Zimbabwe. They do
not fit squarely and neatly into the definitions of a true discipline and profession. It was
also observed that language policy and translation and interpretation have an intricate,
mutual and symbiotic relationship, and this proved to be very useful in explaining the
disciplinary and professional status of translation and interpretation in Zimbabwe. Past
and present covert and overt language-status differentials inextricably embedded in
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Zimbabwean language policy documents have had a very strong determining effect on
the growth of language mediation.

7. Recommendations
Based on these findings, this study recommends the setting up of institutional support
structures, enabling language policy frameworks, and implementation modalities to
facilitate the implementation of the language provisions of the 2013 Constitution. With
these measures in place, the growth of translation and interpretation as disciplines and
professions will be stimulated, especially given that enabling language policy
environments provide fertile ground for the growth of translation and interpretation as
disciplines and professions.

8. Acknowledgements
The African Translation and Interpreting Workshop which led to this publication was
sponsored by the British Academy 2019 Writing Workshops and co-organised by Aston
University and the University of the Free State and hosted by Stellenbosch University.
A big thank you to the project coordinator Dr David Orrenjo-Carmona and all the
mentors in this project, and especially to my mentor, Dr Vanessa Enriquez Raido, for
offering very helpful advice and constructive suggestions.

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