2

BYJU’S IAS
MAINS TEST SERIES

2021
ANTHROPOLOGY (MTS-ANT-02) EXPLANATION
SECTION – A
1. Write short notes on the following questions in not more than 150 words each.
1. (a) Foster child study

(10 Marks)
Approach:
It is a straightforward question in which one has to first discuss the concept of foster child
study. You should also discuss the result of some major case studies and their conclusions.
Specify the limitations of these types of studies. Highlight the significance of this method in
the conclusion.
Part 1 Explain what foster child studies in introduction.
Part 2 Describe the process of foster child studies in detail
Part 3 Specify major case studies with conclusions of foster child studies.
Part 4 Discuss the limitations of these kinds of studies.
Part 5 Conclude the discussion by highlighting the importance of foster child studies.
Introduction:
Foster child study is one of the prominent methods of analysing the influence of heredity and
environment in the development of a trait in an organism.
Body:
In foster child study, various groups of children are randomly selected. Then, these children
are placed in different homes. The homes are classified as good, average and poor homes.
The underlying assumption behind this study is that because the children are selected at
random, hence the genetic component of a factor (height, intelligence, agility etc.) is equally
distributed in all of them. Therefore, foster child study will be able to know the influence of
the environment.
After they are placed in foster homes, they are studied after a certain period of time on
different parameters such as intelligence. It is believed that if intelligence is influenced by the
environment, then the children placed in good homes will score better than those placed in
average and good homes.
Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 1

There have been various case studies of foster homes, some of the major cases are
discussed below:
1. Minnesota graded home study:

In this experiment, two groups of children were chosen. One group of children belonged
to the managerial class, another belonged to the labour class. Then children of managerial
class were placed in homes of labour class and vice versa.
After a lapse of time, these children were studied. It was found that there was an effect of
the environment on Intelligence Quotient (IQ) as children of labor class had improvement
in IQ when they were put in homes of managerial class.
However, It was also observed that children of managerial class had more IQ in the
labour class than their own homes which indicates importance of heredity in
determination of IQ.
2. Chicago study:
In this study, it was found that mean IQ scores of adopted children were in correlation
with the quality adoptive homes.
The mean scores of IQ of different groups were as follows:
Quality of homes No. of adopted children Average IQ score
Good homes 45 112
Average homes 39 105
Poor homes 27 96
Foster studies are simple experiments to solve the nature-nurture conundrum. However,
there are certain limitations of these studies such as:
• The experiments are supposed to function in a bias-free manner. However, experiments
have never been bias-free in practice.
• Further, children selected for placement in different homes are generally not random. For
instance, intelligent children from good homes are placed in good homes. Hence, the
purpose of study stands defeated.
Conclusion:
Foster child studies have been widely used to understand the influence of heredity and
environment on human traits. These studies have demonstrated that both of these are
determining factors of human traits.

1. (b) Genetic load
(10 Marks)
Approach:
In the question, first the concept of genetic load needs to be explained. Then, the factors
affecting genetic load need to be discussed in detail. One needs to also mention why genetic
load is not always disadvantageous as it may be required for survival of human species. In
the end provide a balanced conclusion mentioning both aspects of genetic load.
Part 1 Define genetic load
Part 2 Describe various reasons behind genetic load such as mutation
Part 3 Explain how genetic load may be advantageous for population
Part 4 Give a balanced conclusion by summarizing the above arguments.
Introduction:
Genetic load is defined as the extent to which a population departs from a perfect genetic
constitution. In other words, genetic load of a population is the relative amount by which the
fitness of the population is lowered in comparison to the optimum genotype.
Hence, in a random mating population,
L= 1 - W
Where L is genetic load and W is amount by which fitness of the population is lowered
Body:
There are several reasons for genetic load in a population. One of the most important reasons
is mutation. It is generally observed that most of the mutations are recessive and harmful.
Hence, an increase in the number of mutant genes creates a negative burden on the
population because many of its members will be weak and sterile. If mutations are lethal,
then many healthy members die too.
Therefore, it is often seen that genetic load is directly proportional to mutation rate. High
mutation rate means high genetic load and vice-versa.
Selection has no role in formation of genetic load as it can only increase or decrease the
number of such genes in the population. Further, high selection coefficients will cause the
mutant genes to be eliminated more rapidly while low selection coefficients will permit the
mutant gene to remain longer in the population. In both of these cases, genetic load remains
the same.
Though genetic load is considered harmful for the population, it is not always so. Geneticists
argue that the optimum genotype does not remain stable always. With a changing
environment, the advantages of various genotypes also change.
Hence, it may be possible that in absence of mutation, the population with optimum
genotype gets extinct if the environment changes rapidly. On the other hand, it may be
possible that the population with genetic load may survive because mutant genes might be
suitable in the changed environment.
Conclusion:
Therefore, though the genetic load may be measured in terms of deviation from the optimum
genotype, the evolutionary value of a particular optimum genotype may be a very limited
one. The optimum genotype changes from time to time, place to place and environment to
environment. Hence, many times genetic load becomes necessary for survival of species.

1. (c) Cro Magnon
(10 Marks)
Approach:
It is a straightforward question. In this, you need to provide details of fossil remains of Cro
Magnon. Then, you need to list various features of Cro Magnon. You may draw suitable
diagrams to demonstrate various features. In the end, you can conclude by highlighting the
theories or assumptions of their extinction.
Part 1 Discuss the fossil remains of Cro Magnon.
Part 2 List down the features of Cro Magnon. You should cover the skull, face, jaws,
teeths, legs, hands, culture etc.
Part 3 You may choose to mention various theories behind their extinction in the
conclusion or you may highlight that Cro Magnon had advanced features than
that of earlier Hominids.
Introduction:
Cro Magnons were prehistoric men revealed through skeleton findings from Europe. Cro
Magnon was first discovered by Lartet in 1868. Lartet found five skeletons (two adult men,
one woman, an infant and an old man) from a cave, Cro Magnon in France. Due to their
advanced features, Cro Magnon was included in Homo Sapiens species.
Body:
Cro Magnons have been estimated to live around 30,000-40,000 years ago. Following are the
features of Cro Magnons:
• Height: Cro Magnons were tall and had height around 180 cm with large.
• Brain and Skull:
o Massive skulls with cranial capacity ranging from 1550 cc to 1650 cc.
o The skull was very long but short in breadth, hence skull shape is dolichocephalic.
o Brow Ridges were small and divided.
o The skull was characterized by presence of prominent parietal tuberosities laterally
so that skill appears pentagonal in outline.
o There was a marked prognathism in the skull.
• Face
o Cro Magnons had disharmonious combinations of face and skull because on the one
hand, the skull was narrow and long while on the other hand, the face was broad,
short and flat.
o Orbits were rectangular. Nose was long and narrow and hence was leptorrhine.
• Lower jaw and teeth
o Chin was well marked in the lower jaw. Also, both front and cheek teeth were
smaller.

Figure: Cranial features of Cro Magnon
Source: https://aspergerhuman.wordpress.com/2017/02/08/cro-magnon-a-casual-visual-
inquiry/
• Postcranial elements
o Bones of legs were long compared to thighs while forearms were longer compared to
arms.
o Longer legs indicate efficient bipedalism.
o Femur is developed with linea aspera hence suggesting musculature.
o Pelvis of females indicated birth of less mature babies and this indicated longer
socialization.
• Culture
o Culturally, these people were more advanced than the earlier forms. They are
associated with aurignacian culture.
o Associated finds belong to aurignacian culture of upper paleolithic consisting of bone
and stone tools, cave paintings, sculptures, stone statues of female figurines etc.
o Remains show that they used bow and arrow, spears, hearths, methods of food
storage, clothing, large dwelling etc.
o The elaborate cave paintings in France suggest that they had ideas about critical life
transitions such as puberty, burials and belief systems.
o Along with fossils, the animal bones belong to mammoths, cave bears etc.
Conclusion:
Though Cro Magnon were considered to become extinct at the end of paleolithic, some
anthropologists believe that they did not extinct but continued to the present times. People
with such characteristics can be found in France.

1. (d) Allen’s and Bergman’s rule
(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, first concept of ecological rules of evolution to be discussed in brief. Then,
Allen’s rule needs to be described in detail with suitable examples. Same description should
also be given for Bergmans rule. Provide a brief and concise conclusion in the end by
summarizing the above arguments.
Part 1 Define ecological rules of evolution.
Part 2 Describe Allen’s rule. How this rule is observed in various racial stocks.
Part 3 Describe Bergman’s rule. How this rule is observed in various racial stocks.
Part 4 Conclude by summarizing the above discussion.
Introduction:
Different factors of environment, physical and biological affect organisms. Also, over the
evolutionary period, various groups of species develop more or less similar adaptations
particular to an environment. Such unity of mode of adjustments against a given set of
ecological demands is referred to as ecological rules of evolution.
Allen’s and Bergman’s rules are among the most important ecological rules.
Body:
Allen’s rule:
According to this rule, extremities i.e. limbs, ears etc. tend to be increased in hotter areas and
tend to be decreased in size in colder areas.
This tendency helps in increasing the surface area of the body in hotter areas. With the
increase in surface area, the blood below the skin comes more in contact with the surrounding
air which helps in heat loss.
In colder areas, extremities size is decreased which leads to decreasing surface area of the
body. It is necessary to avoid heat loss.
Allen’s rule can be observed in racial analysis of people belonging to different geo-climatic
regions. For instance, Negrito live in hot and humid conditions, therefore they have longer
legs and are tall. Thes bodily features help them in loss of heat as sweating is ineffective in
them and loss of heat is mainly through radiations.
Populations living in hot and dry climates tend to have shorter limbs because low surface
area avoids heat contracting (sunstroke). Also, Eskimos living in colder areas also have short
limbs too which help them in preserving heat.
Bergman’s rule:
According to this rule, inhabitants of colder areas have large bodies. For example, bears and
Alaska are bulky.
This rule can be observed if we analyse the racial stocks across the climatic regions.
Populations living in temperate regions having extreme cold seasons tend to be heavier and
bulky. Further, their trunk length is greater than limb length.
A large body has a large body mass and this large body mass means higher metabolic heat
needed by these people.
Conclusion
Therefore, these rules provide insight into variations in the physical features of various
groups of people living in different geo-climatic conditions. These rules confirm that physical
features are the result of ecological factors.

1. (e) Growth curves
(10 Marks)
Approach:
The question should be answered by defining the growth curves firstly. Then, various growth
curves need to be explained eliciting the growth pattern over the years. Then, a suitable
diagram should be drawn. In the end, you may conclude the answer by pointing out the
significance of growth curves.
Part 1 Define growth curves.
Part 2 Describe major growth curves i.e. general body growth, brain, fat, gonadal
growth etc.
Part 3 Draw a suitable diagram demonstrating all these curves.
Part 4 Highlight the importance of these curves in the concluding paragraph.
Introduction:
Growth curves are empirical models of evolution of a quantity over time. These curves help
in understanding and predicting the pattern of growth and development of various parts and
structures of the body.
Body:
Following are major Growth curves drawn for human growth and development:
1. General body growth:
The general body growth is rapid during foetal life, in the first one or two years of
postnatal life and during puberty. However, in the intervening years of mid childhood,
the somatic growth velocity slows down relatively. Hence, we get an overall sigma
shaped curve.
2. The brain growth:
The brain grows and enlarges rapidly during latter months of foetal life and early months
of postnatal life. At birth, the head size is about 65-70% of the expected head size
in adults. By age of 2 years, it reaches 90% of the adult head size. Therefore, the curve is
initially stepped up and then flattens.
3. The gonadal growth or genital growth:
Growth of genitals is dormant during childhood. In puberty, there is a marked growth in
gonads. After which, it flattens up and later stepped up.
4. Lymphoid growth:
The growth of lymphoid tissues is most notable during mid childhood. During this
period, the lymphoid tissue is overgrown and its mass may appear to be larger than that
in the fully mature adult.
From four years to eight years, children have hypertrophied tonsils and large lymph
nodes which is a sign of lymphoid hyperplasia. Thus, it reaches its maximum peak before
adolescence. During adult phase, it regresses to some extent because of sex-hormones. So,
overall we get a bell shaped curve.

Figure: growth curves of parts and tissues of the body. On the vertical axis is the plotted
percentage of total gain from birth to 20 years.
Source: https://quizlet.com
5. Subcutaneous fat:
Subcutaneous fat begins to get deposited in foetus at about 34 weeks. The fat deposition
continues till 9 months. After this period, fat deposition decreases till 7 years. After this, it
increases once again.
Subcutaneous fat deposition depends on sex also. The decrease of fat deposition is less in
girls than boys so that after a year, girls have more fat than boys.
After 7 years, fat increases in both sexes. However, at adolescence, the limb fat in boys
decreases and is not gained back until the age of 20 years. On the other hand, in girls,
there is a slight halt in increment of limb fat but trunk fat steadily increases during this
period.
Conclusion:
Therefore, growth curves are mathematical curves that summarize and illustrate human
growth data. These curves help us analyze the growth patterns of various body parts and
tissues.

2. (a) What is somatotyping? Describe Sheldon’s system of somatotyping
(20 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, first the definition of somatotyping is to be provided. Then, how
somatotyping of Sheldon needs to be explained in detail. In conclusion, one may highlight the
general observation of somatotypes.
Part 1 Define Somatotyping.
Part 2 Discuss Sheldon’s somatotypes in detail. Describe physical features of three

extreme somatotypes.
Part 3 Mention the somatotypes which are prevalent most in the world in the concluding
paragraph.
Introduction:
Somatotyping is a taxonomy developed by Herbert Sheldon to categorize human physiques
according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed
‘somatotypes’.
Body:
These three fundamental elements in Sheldon's scheme of somatotypes: Endomorphy,
Mesomorphy and Ectomorphy.
Each person is evaluated on a scale for each of the elements. The rating scale is from 1 to 7
where 7 is the highest and 1 is the lowest.
Extreme endomorphy is denoted as 7-1-1.
Extreme mesomorphy is denoted as 1-7-1.
Extreme ectomorphy is denoted as 1-1-7
Extreme endomorphy has following features:

• Physical appearance is spherical.
• A round head and a large fat abdomen which is predominating over the thorax.
• Floppy arms and elgs
• High amount of fat in upper arms and thighs but slender wrists and ankles.
• Larger liver, spleen and ankles
• Higher amount of subcutaneous fat
• Thoracic and pelvic skeleton is greater in anterior-posterior than in transverse direction
• Higher fat cells than other normal people

Extreme mesomorphy has following features:
• Muscular physique in which bones and muscles predominate
• More muscle cells
• Cubical, massive head, broad shoulders and chests
• Heavily muscled arms and legs
• Heart muscles is larger relative to his size
• Minimal amount of subcutaneous fact
Extreme ectomorph has following features:

• Linear physique
• Thin face with a receding chin
• High forehead, a thin and narrow chest
• A narrow heart
• Thin arms and legs
• Neither much muscle nor much subcutaneous fact but a large skin area and a large
nervous system
Conclusion:
It has been observed that the vast majority of people are not extremes but have a moderate
amount of each component. Thus, the common somatotypes are the 3-4-4, 4-3-3 or 3-5-2 of
endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorph.

2. (b) Discuss various physiological and cultural responses to heat in humans.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, the first one has to describe physiological responses to heat both in dry and
wet regions. Then, cultural responses are to be mentioned. In the end, give a brief and concise
conclusion summarizing the above discussion.
Part 1 Describe Physiological responses to heat.
Part 2 Mention cultural responses to heat.
Part 3 Conclude the answer by giving a summary to the above discussion.
Introduction:
Humans have innate physiological tolerance to moderate heat because homo sapiens species
developed in tropical savanna type climate. However, problems arise when temperature gets
above 35 degrees. Humans have both physiological and cultural adaptations to heat.
Body:
Following are physiological adaptations to heat:

1. Thermal gradient: Thermal gradient occurs due to heat radiation from body to
surrounding air. It is the first response to the heat.
This is possible through vasodilation i.e. dilation of blood vessels.
2. Sweating in a low vapour pressure area: When heat tolerance does not happen through
radiation then sweat glands become active causing sweating. This sweating lowers the
core temperature of the body.
Though the number of active sweat glands does not vary significantly among the human
population, the observed differences are the result of acclimatization rather than
genetics.
Further, it has been noted that a small body will improve heat tolerance because the
surface area for heat loss will be greater in relation to the heat producing mass of the
body.
3. Heat adaptations by thermal gradient only in high vapor pressure area: In moist humid
hot climates there is no heat loss by sweating. Here, heat loss happens through thermal
gradient by means of radiation. In these conditions, smaller individuals are at advantage
because smaller individuals have a higher ratio of surface area to body weight. The
smaller body weight generates less metabolic heat and larger surface area dissipates
heat.
4. Heat acclimatization is the final stage of heat tolerance: When a person is exposed to
heat for some days, then heat acclimatization develops in the body. During
acclimatization, sweating rate rises under a given heat and work load. Also, body
temperature falls down which helps in reducing strain on the cardiovascular system.
It has been observed that heat acclimatization occurs only when there is a heat load. As
soon as heat load is removed, acclimatization is completely lost.
Humans have also developed elaborate mechanisms to reduce heat exposure through
cultural adjustment.
For instance, in hot and dry deserts, houses have thick walls so as to reduce the heat load
inside the house. Further, clothing covers the whole body so as to reduce the radiative
loss.
In hot and wet areas, houses are open and clothing is minimal to promote sweat
evaporation.
Also, people living in desert regions have scheduled their work activity in such a manner
that it reduces their exposure to the Sun.

Conclusion:
Therefore, humans have developed physiological and cultural responses to tolerate heat. The
physiological responses to heat are uniform with very small variations.

2. (c) How heredity influences growth and development? Discuss with suitable examples.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one needs to explain in detail how heredity affects growth and development.
Then this needs to be substantiated with description of specific examples. In the end, give a
summary of the above discussion in conclusion.
Part 1 Describe the role of heredity in growth and development.
Part 2 Substantiate the argument with the help of specific examples. Mention empirical
evidence if possible.
Part 3 Conclude the answer by summarizing arguments.
Introduction:
Heredity is the dominant component of growth and development. Various studies confirm
the role of genetic blueprint in developing certain characteristics.
Heredity factors include all the genes contained in an organism. Some of these genes have
narrow reaction range means these genes are least modified by environmental factors. For
example, genes responsible for the pattern of teeth, bone have narrow reaction ranges. On the
other hand, some genes have a wide reaction range and hence their actions are modified by
the environment.
Body:
Following are the examples to support the view that heredity influences growth and
development:
1. Phenotype:
It has been found that phenotypic traits such as height pass on to offsprings from parents.
Thus, tall parents usually have tall children and vice-versa.
Similarly, size of the head is also closely related to that of parents that are the size and
shapes of hands and feet. Also, the structure of the chest and fatty tissues of offspring
have significant resemblance with that of parents.

2. Twin studies:
Twin studies have clearly demonstrated the role of genetics in growth and development.
These studies have suggested that
(a) Age at menarche follows genetic control of development as identical twins reach
menarche at average of 2 months apart. However, for non-identical twins, this period
is 10 months.
(b) Skeletal maturity shows a close correspondence at all ages in identical twins. It has
been found that the number and stages of development of ossification areas are
similar in identical twins.
(c) There is a high concordance rate for certain characters such as eye color, hari colors,
schizophrenia, rickets, diabete mellitus etc. in identical twins.
3. Sex:
Generally, boys are longer and heavier than girls at the time of birth. However, at the age
of one year, there is no perceptible difference between a boy and a girl with reference to
height and weight.
Pubertal growth occurs in girls earlier than the boys, yet their mean height and weight
are less than those in boys in corresponding ages at the time of maturity. The reason for
this is the difference in sex chromosomes. Girls possess two X-chromosomes while boys
have one X-chromosome. These chromosomal differences manifest in growth and
development of boys and girls, getting least altered by the environment.
4. Characteristics of patients:
Studies suggest that the patients with high Intelligence Quotient (IQ) are more likely to
have children with higher levels of inherent intelligence. However, these characters may
get influenced by the environment as suggested by foster child studies.
5. Biorhythm:
It has been observed that girls reach the menarche at a similar age as their mothers. Also,
it has been found that both have similar length of menstrual cycle.
In addition, female individuals belonging to a particular community have similar ages of
menarche, provided all have equal levels of nutrition. For instance, Assamese girls and
European girls both reach menarche at the age of 13.2 years despite inhabiting
completely different environments.
Therefore, the age of menarche is largely influenced by heredity and least influenced by
environment.
6. Skeletal maturity:
Maturity and shape of bones are significantly determined by the heredity factors. In an
experiment, an immature limb bone was removed from a newborn mouse and implanted
under the skin of the back of an adult mouse of the same inbred strain. It was found that
that bone was continued to develop until it closely resembled a normal adult bone. This
experiment showed that bones’ shape and growth are largely a product of heredity.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be seen that heredity plays a significant role in growth and development as
formation of a human organism starts from a cell itself which is formed by genetic
contributions from parents.

3. (a) Genetic Counselling offers significant information to parents about genetic aberrations, yet
genetic counselling suffers from various problems.” Elaborate.
(20 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one has to first explain the genetic counselling process. Thereafter, one has to
describe the importance of genetic counselling in brief. Then, one has to describe various
problems with counselling. In conclusion, summarize the above discussion while giving a
future outlook.
Part 1 Define genetic counselling. Explain main components of genetic counselling and its
objectives.
Part 2 Describe various problems with genetic counselling with suitable examples.
Part 3 Conclude the answer by providing a summary of above discussion.
Introduction:
Genetic counselling is a communication process which aims to help individuals, couples and
families understand and adapt to the medical, psychological, familial and reproductive
implications of the genetic contribution to specific health conditions.
Therefore, genetic counselling broadly caters to the following:

• It aims at screening of a genetic disorder and explanation to the patients or their patients
the genetic and medical implications of the disorder.
• Calculating the likelihood of recurrence of such genetic disorder in a family.
• Genetic counselling suggests ways and means that constitute the best course of action in
view to occurrence of genetic disorder.
Body:
However, the process of genetic counselling is not a foolproof as it suffers from many
problems such as:
1. Mistaken paternity:
Genetic counselling may not be able to provide right advice when a patient has mistaken
paternity i.e. when the legal husband is not the biological father. Many a times, mothers
are unwilling to transmit this information during the genetic counselling and screening
sessions, particularly when the husband is present.
However, Mistaken paternity may be revealed if a child is homozygous for an allele that
only the mother carries such as Tay-Sachs disease. Mistaken paternity also gets revealed
when a child carries an allele that neither mother nor the husband carries such as sickle
cell trait.

2. The confidentiality issues:
It is a major issue that causes challenges to genetic counselling procedures. Sometimes
during screening process or pedigree analysis, counsellor may discover a serious genetic
ailment affecting the patients and a similar probability to the patient's relatives.
Disclosing such information violates the confidentiality agreement between patient and
counsellors. However, this information gets out sometimes and becomes a reason of
discrimination of various kinds.
3. Difficulty in interpretation of genetic analysis:
Genetic counselling and screening is essentially about the probabilities, especially in
autoimmune diseases where a particular type of HLA predisposes to the disease. Thus,
many times, interpretations of genetic analysis are not correct.
There are also conditions where a dominant disease allele has a low expressivity, the
advice becomes difficult.
4. Failure to differentiate between neutral polymorphism and genetic disease:
Both neutral polymorphism and genetic disorder involve DNA changes. The genetic
screening is performed, many people are found to have DNA mutants. But these mutants
do not cause any genetic disease, but they are not normal. In such cases, there is only one
way to differentiate between neutral polymorphism and genetic disorder is to wait and
watch.
For instance, it is difficult to differentiate between mutations in CFTR genes. CFTR is a
gene for Cystic Fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator.
5. Counselling in late developing diseases:
There are many disorders or diseases which show symptoms or develop ailments after
many years. For example, Huntington’s disease is one such condition. In these conditions,
it is difficult to counsel a patient or his relative who has a high probability of developing
the ailments.
Conclusion:
Genetic counselling plays a major role in health care in many countries. However, it is still a
growing field which gets limited by many problems as discussed above. It is hoped that
technological advancements in future will be able to resolve many of these problems.

3. (b) What is Gene Mapping? Discuss different approaches of gene mapping.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
The question has two parts. In the first part, you have to define gene mapping. Then, you
have to describe various methods or approaches of gene mapping. At last, provide a brief
conclusion highlighting the importance of the gene mapping process.
Part 1 Define gene mapping.
Part 2 Describe three major approaches of gene mapping.
Part 3 Conclude the answer by highlighting the significance of gene mapping.
Introduction:
Gene mapping is a process which provides us an opportunity to know which gene is located
on what place of which chromosome.
There are various approaches of gene mapping. Some of major approaches are:
Body:
1. Linkage Maps:
Linkage maps find out relative distances of genes on chromosomes. To prepare linkage
maps, 2-point, 3-point or 4-point test cross is made in which a dihybrid, tri-hybrid or
tetra-hybrid is mated to double recessive, triple recessive or quadruple recessive
individuals separately.
After the mating, hybrids form different types of gametes and different types of
progenies are obtained. Then, frequency of crossover and progeny can be known and
distances of genes in the chromosome is calculated from recombination frequency.
2. Cytogenetic Maps:
Cytogenetic maps are constructed on the basis of data from studies that link phenotypic
changes to chromosomal rearrangements. In this method, loci of a particular gene can be
determined by detailed comparison of mutant phenotype relative to mutant banding
pattern.
Cytogenetic maps can also be made by Somatic Cell Hybridization. In this process, a gene
is aligned to a specific chromosome. The process involves fusion of human cells and
mouse cells in presence of polyethylene glycol which results into a hybrid cell to be
cultured in a specific medium. It is found that human chromosomes are gradually
eliminated from hybrid cells, leaving one human chromosome eventually. Thus, panels of
human cell lines with different chromosomes can be obtained and human proteins can be
examined.
3. Physical maps
In this method, genes are mapped in terms of base-pair distances. This approach involves
two methods: upside down method and bottom up method.

(a) Upside Down Method or Restriction Mapping
In the upside down method, also known as restriction mapping, two samples of the
same DNA are cut by restriction enzymes. Then, DNA fragments are separated by gel
electrophoresis.
In the next step, DNA fragments from one enzyme are digested with another enzyme
and vice-versa. Since restriction enzymes are always cut at specific points, the
sequence of bases at specific cut points by a specific enzyme can be known. This
information can be used to map bases on DNA segment selected for the study.
(b) Bottom up method or Contiguous Mapping
In this method, DNA of a chromosome is broken into very small pieces, cloned and
base sequences are analysed. This is called the bottom up method because we start
with individual clones and later on by detecting overlapping of DNA segments in
clones, the latter are arranged in a large number of contiguous sets of overlapping
clones. This develops into a map of the whole genome. This method was used in the
Human Genome Project.
Conclusion:
Genes are responsible for all anatomical and physiological characteristics of a species.
Therefore, it is important to know about their locations on chromosomes to get the complete
genetic blueprint of species which is possible through genetic mapping.

3. (c) Explain ABO as a genetic marker with a brief description on its population variations.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In the question, one should first explain the concept of genetic marker. Thereafter, one needs
to explain the ABO blood group system and illustrate in brief how it is a genetic marker.
Explain alleles, antigens and antibodies of various types. Then, one needs to describe the
population variation of the ABO system in brief. At last, one needs to conclude the answer by
highlighting the importance of ABO.
Part 1 Define genetic markers. Briefly explain this concept first.
Part 2 Highlight how ABO is a genetic marker. Describe ABO blood group system by
mentioning alleles, antigens and antibodies
Part 3 Describe ABO’s population variation across the world.
Part 4 Highlight the significance of the ABO system in conclusion.
Introduction:
A genetic marker is a DNA sequence or gene with a known location on a chromosome that
can be used to identify individuals or species. Genetic markers usually consist of
polymorphisms, which are discontinuous genetic variations that divide individuals of a
population into distinct forms.
A genetic marker may be a short DNA sequence such as Single Nucleotide Polymorphism or
a long DNA sequence such as minisatellites.
Body:
ABO blood group is considered as a good genetic marker as its location is known and its
alleles are limited in number which help differentiate between individuals.
ABO blood group system is controlled by a single gene which has three alleles - IA, IB IO
The IA allele gives type A, IB allele gives type B and IO gives type O. IA and IB are dominant
over IO. Therefore, a person with O blood type will have only IO allele.
A and B expresses codominance which means that type A and type B parents can have AB
children.
Out of these three, a person can possess two alleles. Below is the given types of blood
group in ABO system, its allelic determinants, antigens and antibodies:
Blood group Allelic determinants Antigens Antibodies
A IAIA, IAIO A anti-B
B IBIB, IB IO B anti-A
AB IA, IB A, B None
O IOIO None anti-A, anti-B
ABO blood group system is the most important of all blood groups in blood transfusion. A
mismatch in serotype can cause a potentially fatal adverse reaction after a transfusion.

Population variation of ABO blood group:
Blood group A is prevalent among 21.5% of people around the world. It is most prevalent in
Europe, Eurasia and amongst Australian aborigines. Most of the Caucasoids demonstrate the
prevalence of A type.
Blood group B is found among 16.2% of people in the world. It is mostly found in North India
and Central Asian people. This type is mostly absent in Australian aborigines. It appears that
frequency of B decreases and that of A increases as one proceeds westward from the Pacific
coast of Asia to the Atlantic coast of Europe.
The most prevalent blood group type is O as around 63% people have O blood group. It is
mostly prevalent in American people.
Conclusion:
ABO blood group system is an important genetic marker which is used in racial classification,
paternity diagnosis, blood transfusion, determining the susceptibility of a person to a disease
for instance, Pancreatic cancer, Ovarian tumor and now COVID-19.

4. (a) Describe the salient physical characteristics and geographical distribution of Homo erectus.
(20 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, discovery of Homo erectus should be described first. Then, various physical
characteristics both advanced and primitive need to be mentioned. Then, geographical
distribution of H. erectus needs to be described. In the end, summarize the above discussion in
3-4 lines.
Part 1 Give a brief description of discoveries which led to finding of H. erectus.
Part 2 Discuss both advanced and primitive features of H. erectus.
Part 3 Describe geological distribution of H. erectus. You may draw a diagram to show
it.
Part 4 Conclude the answer by giving a summary of the above answer.
Introduction:
Homo Erectus were extinct hominids who were distributed across Eurasia, Africa from over
1.6 million years ago to 0.12 million years ago.
It was Dubois who first collected a skull cap, teeth and bones from Java in 1891 which were
then named as Pithecanthropus erectus which meant erect ape-man. Later, W.C. Pei and
others discovered several fossil skulls and teeth from Zhoukoudian near Beijing province of
China. Later, these fossils were named as Sinanthropus pekinensis by D. Black.
Body:
Since, H. erectus were advanced than H. australopithecus but they were primitive than H.
sapiens, the characteristics of Homo erectus can be categorized under advanced and primitive.
Advanced features of H. erectus:

• Cranial capacity of H. erectus ranges from 775 to 1421 cubic centimeter. Highest cranial
capacity is found in Narmada man which is close to 1450 cc.
• Height of the cranium is more than the width like us.
• The erect posture is evident from the more anterior placement of foramen magnum.
• Dental arcade is more parabolic than Australopithecus. Also parabolic shape of dental
arcade nears to that of H. sapiens.
• Dental morphology is similar to modern man, having the same size and shape.
• Linea aspera is well developed in femur.
• In Homo erectus, the zygomatic arch is thin like H. sapiens.
• Sagittal crest is reduced or absent in H. erectus, hence it is a significant advancement over
australopithecine.
• Parietal lobe of the brain is well developed which signifies development of language as
means of communication and thinking process.
• Sexual dimorphism is not much pronounced because selection favored larger females for
carrying and birth to infants with larger brains and bodies.
Primitive features of H. erectus

• Forehead is sloping in H. erectus, which is a primitive feature as H. sapiens have a near
vertical forehead.
• There is a presence of prominent brow ridges which extend as a bar of bone across the
nasal root and both orbits. It is absent in modern hominids.
• Occipital region is angular.
• The widest part of cranium is at the levels of ears.
• The nasal is relatively flatter in H. erectus. It is elevated in us.
• Mandible is larger and stronger, hence, making a prognathic face.
• There is an absence of chin in H. erectus, however, a well marked chin is present in us.
• Molars are larger in H. erectus. Also, molars show fine wrinkles and a thickened ring of
enamel around the base.
• There are several mental foramina in the jaw. However, in modern humans, there is one
mental foramina on each side of the jaw.
• The greatest width of the lower jaw is at the level of the third molar. In the modern
human, the greatest width is at the level of the 2nd molar because tooth rows slightly
turn inside in modern humans.
• Average height of H. erectus is around 5 to 5.5 feet which is lesser than modern humans.
• Average weight of H. erectus was 53 kg, again lesser than modern humans.
Figure: Skull of Homo erectus

Source: https://vivadifferences.com
Geological distribution of H. erectus

It is believed that Homo erectus were distributed across Africa, China, Java and Europe.
Africa: The earliest examples of H. erectus are from Koobi Fora and Nariokotoma of Lake
Turkana. Later, various fossils were discovered from Tanzania, South Africa, Nigeria,
Ethiopia etc.
China: H. erectus fossils have been found from Zhoukoudian and Lantian near Beijing which
concluded the presence of H. erectus in China.
Java: Java fossils are mostly from Sangiran and Modjokerto which are dated to 0.7 to 1.0
million years ago.
India: In India, H. erectus has been discovered from Hathnora, near Hoshangabad in
Narmada valley.

Europe: There is a debate whether H. erectus were present in Europe or not. However,
skeleton remains have been discovered from Georgia.
Figure: distribution of H. erectus

Source: P Nath
Conclusion:
Homo erectus was an extinct species of archaic humans from the Pleistocene. Homo erectus
were a significant improvement over Australopithecus in terms of physical and cultural
features. They were the first human ancestor to spread throughout Eurasia, Africa and Asia.

4. (b) “Origin and extinction of Neanderthals is still shrouded in mystery”. Discuss various theories
of origin and extinction of Neanderthals.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
This question demands to elaborate the statement given above. For this, you need to mention
various hypotheses or theories of origin on neanderthals followed by their extinction. In the
end, you may conclude by reiterating the above statement in your own words.
Part 1 Give a brief introduction of neanderthals.
Part 2 Discuss various theories of origin.
Part 3 Describe various theories of extinction along with their limitations.
Part 4 Conclude the answer by reiterating that there are various theories, hence
confusion still remains.
Introduction:
Neanderthals were a distinctive group of people who lived from 1,20,000 years ago to 30,000
years ago. Skeleton remains demonstrated that these lived primarily in Europe and Central
and East Asia. Due to their considerable similarities with modern humans, they were
included in same species, though in a separate subspecies i.e. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis.
However, anthropologists have not reached a unanimous view regarding their origin and
extinction. Therefore, its origin as well extinction is still shrouded in mystery.
Body
Following are various theories of origin of neanderthals:

1. Neanderthal phase of Human Hypothesis:
According to this theory, there is a single line of human evolution. It maintains that early
sapiens evolved in neanderthals most of which become adapted to cold conditions. It also
maintains that other neanderthals developed in isolated pockets into higher form of man
i.e. Cro Magnon. Therefore, this considers neanderthals as a specialised stage in human
evolutionary progressions.
2. Dual phase of Human Hypothesis:
This hypothesis was given by Kennedy. According to him, after Homo erectus, there
existed two lineages, one was through Laetoli hominid which led to the path of human
evolution. The second lineage was through Steinheim, Swanscombe, Ehringsdorf, La
Chapelle Aux etc. which ended with neanderthals.
3. Varied phase of Human Hypothesis:
This theory believes that it is wrong to think of neanderthal origin as a single line
evolution. Hence, it is wrong to assume that all later forms received genes from H. erectus
and had crossed through neanderthal origin and modern sapiens were separated in
watertight compartments.
According to this theory, evolution of neanderthals was an interwoven and interlaced
phenomenon with immense possibility of hybridization in which many ancestral lines
crossed and recrossed to cause new forms.
There was no one hominid living at a certain time as an ancestor of all hominids living at
a later time, rather each later hominid received genes from varying predecessors some of
whom contributed more than others.
Hence, neanderthals might have received some genes from H. erectus and not all genes
from it. Some of its ancestors are still unknown.
This theory finds its validity from the evidence presented by Dorothy Garrod which
showed that fossils discovered from Mount Carmel, Israel had hybrid genes.

Theories of extinction of Neanderthals:
Neanderthals are assumed to get extinct completely by 30,000 years ago. There are various
hypotheses behind their extinction. Some of the major ones are mentioned below:
1. Physical extermination:
According to this hypothesis, more evolved people from elsewhere hunted neanderthals
who were lesser evolved. However, there is no evidence to this.
2. Competitive exclusion:
According to this, due to change in ecological conditions, neanderthals became unfit to
survive, and another group thrived instead. However this hypothesis has limitations as
there was no ecosystem change around 40,000-30,000 years ago and similar food and
hunting games continued as before.
3. Over specialization:
Neanderthals’ cause of extinction was attributed to their overspecialised features such as
a stocky and robust body, suitable to cold climates only. Later when cold conditions
moderated, neanderthals could not survive.
This theory has a weakness as the coldest period of the Pleistocene existed around 25,000
years ago. Hence, if this theory were right, neanderthals would have survived till this
period. But, they got extinct around 30,000 years ago.
4. Total assimilation:
This theory believes that when more evolved people invaded neanderthal’s territory, they
interbred with it. In this process, neanderthal’s gene completely assimilated by this
evolved group.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be seen that reaching a conclusion over the origin and extinction of
neanderthals is still not possible due to lack of evidence and variety of interpretations.

4. (c) Define Microevolution. What are various factors which account for microevolution?
(15 Marks)
Approach:
This question has two parts. In the first part, you need to define microevolution. Then, you
need to describe various factors which cause microevolution. In the end, you may conclude
how microevolution leads to macroevolution in the long run.
Part 1 Define microevolution.
Part 2 Describe factors of microevolution in detail.
Part 3 Conclude the answer by pointing out the role of microevolution in

macroevolution.
Introduction:
The concept of microevolution was first given by Goldschmidt to emphasize the fact that
small mutations accumulate in a population to bring about small changes in it and result in
evolution of and subspecies.
Microevolution is defined as changes in allele frequency that can be observed within a
population. Microevolution can be observed and measured in a short period of time, even
within a single generation.
There are five main factors that account for microevolution:
Body:
1. Mutation:
Microevolutionary changes are produced by small mutations which cause changes in
phenotypic characters of small magnitude. However, it is to be noted that the changes
introduced by these mutations do not jeopardize the age old adaptations.
These small mutations can be witnessed in heat and cold adaptations in Eskimos,
Nepalese and Africans.
2. Natural selection:
Molecular genetics, trait distribution and single population studies explain the action of
natural selection in bringing out microevolution.
Natural selection selectively incorporated or weeds out mutations. Variation population
studies also suggest that certain genotypes are more preferred or less preferred than other

genotypes. For instance, A and AB blood groups are related to high incidence of smallpox
in rural India, thus there is a high frequency of group B in such populations.
Hence, it is the main agent of evolution which works in a directional and disruptive way
to produce micro evolution changes.
3. Gene flow:
Gene flow refers to the movement of genes across the population boundaries. If a number
of people immigrating is large and the degree of difference in gene frequencies between
the recipient and immigrating population is large, the effect of gene flow can be drastic.
4. Genetic drift:
Genetic drift is a phenomenon in which gene frequencies undergo random change in
small populations. Genetic drift causes microevolutionary changes . For example, in a
hypothetical scenario, when beetles reproduced, just by random chance brown genes
reproduced more than green genes due to which the frequency of brown genes in second
generation is 29% as compared to first generation (25%).
Figure: genetic drift causing change in gene frequency

Source: https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_39
5. Isolation and Hybridisation

Isolation is an important factor behind microevolution since populations are exposed to
different mutations, selection pressures, migrations or drift trends. Occasional
hybridisation between them prevent emergence of reproductive isolation and restrict the
evolution upto the geographical races.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be seen that various factors cause microevolution. An accumulation of small
changes caused by microevolution will eventually lead to macroevolution through the
process of speciation

SECTION – B
5. Write short notes on the following questions in not more than 150 words each.
5. (a) Lethal genes

(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one needs to first define the lethal genes. Then, one needs to describe
different types of lethal genes by giving suitable examples. In the end, conclude the answer
by highlighting implications of lethal genes.
Part 1 Define lethal genes. Also cover conditional lethal genes in the definition with
example
Part 2 Describe various types of lethal genes with suitable examples.
Part 3 In the conclusion, highlight implications of these genes. You can also mention why
these genes are circulating in human populations.
Introduction:
Lethal genes are those genes which kill its possessors. However, lethality of genes depends
on the environment. A gene may be lethal or may not be lethal in particular environments.
For example, mutants of Phenylketonuria are normal if they are kept on a Phenylalanine-free
diet. In such cases, it is termed as conditional lethal.
Body:
Lethal genes have many variants which are discussed as follows:

1. Semi-lethal genes:
Genes which kill the possessor after attainment of reproductive age are called semi lethal
genes.
2. Sub-lethal genes:
Genes which cause death in early infancy or childhood are called sublethal genes.
Above two types of lethal genes can be divided into following sub-categories.

1. Dominant lethal:
Those lethal genes which kill its possessors even in heterozygous conditions are called
dominant lethal. These lethal genes can of two types:
(a) Sub-lethal: Dominant lethal genes are sub-lethal causing conditions as Epiolia in
which there are multiple skin tumours. A person having these conditions dies at an
early age.
(b) Semi-lethal: Dominant lethal genes are semi lethal in conditions such as
Huntington’s disease. The age of onset of this disease can be from 40 years to 60
years.
2. Recessive lethal:
Those lethal genes which cause death only in homozygous conditions are referred to as
recessive lethals. These genes can also be categorized into:
(a) Sub-lethal: Thalassemia, Sickle Cell Anaemia are conditions caused by sublethal
recessive genes.
(b) Semi-lethal: Conditions such as Hemophilia are the result of semi lethal recessive
genes. Females suffer more from Hemophilia because in a homozygous condition, the
gene causes death of zygote or embryo.
Females become carriers if they have one such gene on the x-chromosome. These
females also survive due to one x-chromosome.
Conclusion:
Many recessive lethal genes, which are potentially harmful, are circulating among the
population due to heterosis and artificial reduction of natural selection using medical sciences
and sociocultural practices.

5. (b) Fecundity and fertility
(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, both terms need to be defined first. Thereafter, factors affecting fecundity
and fertility need to be mentioned in brief. Further, various methods to measure fertility need
to be mentioned. In the end, provide a brief conclusion by summarizing the above discussion
and highlighting the interrelations.
Part 1 Define fecundity. Highlight factors influencing fecundity.
Part 2 Define fertility. Highlight factors affecting fertility.
Part 3 Summarize the above discussion while highlighting that many factors affect
fertility and fecundity.
Introduction:
Fecundity and fertility are important bioevents in the life of a woman. These two are closely
related terms linked to reproduction.
Body:
Fecundity:
Fecundity refers to the potential of a woman to bear a child. If a woman is unable to bear a
child, she is sterile. Therefore, fecundity focuses on the potential of a woman to reproduce
children.
However, this potentiality is seldom achieved. As there are many factors which affect
fecundity. For instance, fecundity is affected by suckling because it blocks the pituitary-ovary
axis and blocks consequent ovulations. Apart from suckling, fecundity is affected by several
biological, economic and social factors.
Fertility:
Fertility is the actual output of reproduction. In other words, fertility is the capacity of a
woman to bear a live child.
It differs from fecundity because fecundity is about potential, while fertility is about actual
output.
Apart from this, a woman who can conceive is fecund but if she repeatedly suffers from
miscarriages then she is infertile. On the other hand if a woman who is exposed to intercourse
but does not conceive is Infecund.
One needs to note that unmarried women, widow, married women using fertility control
measures are not called infecund.
Fertility is measured in following ways:

• Crude birth rate: the expression for crude birth rate is:
CBR = (Total Births/ Mid year population) * 100
• Corrected birth rate: the formula for corrected birth rate is:
Corrected BR= ((B+100)/P)*1000
Where B is total birth and P is mid year population. Factor of 100 is added to the
corrected birth rate because 100 is the case of birth which may be unreported as in
developing societies.
• The General fertility rate (GFR): the formula is
GFR = [B/(Pf 15-49)]*1000
Where Pf means male is excluded and female of 15-49 age group (mid year)

Conclusion:
Fecundity and fertility are important bioevents which are related to each other because if a
woman is in-fecund she cannot be fertile. But, the opposite is not true. Also, fertility and
fertility vary across populations due to various social, economic, nutritional and cultural
factors.

5. (c) Grimaldi man
(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, first give a brief introduction of Grimaldi Man. Enumerate its various cranial
and post cranial features. In the end, conclude by highlighting the fact it had a lot of
similarities with Negroid.
Part 1 Briefly introduce Grimaldi man. You may specify fossil discoveries, timeline etc.
Part 2 Enumerate various cranial and post cranial features.
Part 3 Highlight the similarities between Negroid and Grimaldi Man.
Introduction:
Grimaldi man is the name assigned to two human skeletons discovered from a cave called
Grotte des Enfants in the village Grimaldi, Italy in 1901. These remains are dated to 26000 to
22,000 years ago and classified as part of the modern homo sapiens population.
Body:
Following are cranial features of fossils associated with Grimaldi man:

1. Skulls were long and narrow compared to Cro Magnon Skulls. These skulls are classified
as hyper dolichocephalic due to this fact.
2. Cranial capacity was 1250 to 1450 cc which was lower than that of Cro Magnon.
3. Face was short but below the cheekbones, the face was more narrow, therefore the overall
appearance of the face was triangular.
4. The face resembled Negroid as it had feebly developed supraorbital ridges and bulged
forehead.
5. The orbits were rectangular i.e. low in height comparison to its breadth.
6. The lower border of the nasal aperture was not sharp, which shows another similarity
with Negroid.
7. The Alveolar border was U-shaped and had marked prognathism. The chin was poorly
developed.
8. Lower jaw was as strong as those of Negroids. It was broad with a thick body but low
ramii.
9. Teeth were larger and molars were like those of australoids having 4 cusps in upper and
5 cusps in lower series.
Postcranial features are as follows:

1. Hind Limbs were very long compared to forelimbs which indicate less energetic
bipedalism. The forearm was longer than the arm and the leg was longer than the thigh.
Therefore, such features were similar to Negroids. Hence, these are compared with
Bushmen and Hottentots of South Africa.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be concluded that Grimaldi man had several Negroid features due to which
it has been proposed that Grimaldi Man represent late incursion of African race into
European territory as compared to Cro Magnon.

5. (d) Concept of Race
(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one has to mention the various definitions and interpretations of scholars,
researchers who tried to define races. One should also include how scholars provided
different racial classification. In the end, one should mention that the concept of race and
racial classifications do not hold true in reality as there is only one human race.
Part 1 Mention definitions of race by various scholars
Part 2 Explain how scholars classified races.
Part 3 Conclude by highlighting the diversity of opinions on race. Also mention that
there is only one race.
Introduction:
Concept of race is a complex one as race has been defined, understood and discussed in many
ways by various scholars.
Body:
Hooton defined race as a great division of mankind, the members of which, though
individually varying, are characterised as a group with a certain combination of
morphological and metrical features, primarily non-adaptive, which have been derived from
their common descent.
Thus, Hooton laid emphasis on morphological features while giving the concept of race.
Montagu defined race or an ethnic group as representing a number of populations under

species Homo sapiens, which individually maintain their differences, physical and cultural,
by means of isolating mechanisms such as geographic and social barriers.
Here, Montagu focussed on physical and cultural differences in categorizing races.
Dobzhansky defined race from genetic perspective. According to him, Races are genetically
distinct Mendelian populations. They are neither individuals nor particular genotypes who
differ genetically among themselves. According to him, the traditional morphological races of
the anthropologists were interference of genetic races.
Boyd also defined race on the basis of gene frequency. He defined the race as a population
which differs significantly from other human populations with regard to the frequency of one
or more genes it possesses.
Buettner-Janusch in his book ‘Origin of Man’ defined race as a Mendelian population

separated from another by major geographical barriers; breeding isolate; a population
distinguished from another by demonstration of differences in allele frequencies.
Therefore, it can be seen that race has been defined in several ways. However, two
assumptions underlie in almost all definitions. One is that geographical isolation contributed
towards race formation. Another is that the breeding population formed a collection of genes
which set a race apart from others.
Since, various scholars defined and understood races in different ways, they also gave
different versions of racial classification.

For instance, Linnaeus (1735) classified humans into four racial groups: American, European,
Asian and African.
Blumenbach (1795) classified human races on the basis of skull shapes. As per him, there are
five varieties of humans which are Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American and Malay.
The most accepted racial classification is Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid.
Conclusion:
Though, there are various ways to define, understand and classify races. However,
researchers and scholars have now agreed that there is only one race - the human race. In fact,
there is no “human race” rather there is only “human species”. All human beings belong to a
single species because they can inbreed and produce offspring.

5. (e) Occupational diseases
(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one has to first define the occupational disease. Thereafter, one has to
describe various types of occupational diseases. Thereafter, one has to summarize the above
discussion in conclusion and highlight the global action on the same.
Part 1 Define occupational disease in the introductory part.
Part 2 Describe various types of occupational disease.
Part 3 Summarize the above discussion. Also, highlight the global action on the same.
Introduction:
Occupational diseases are those diseases or disorders which are caused by work or working
conditions.
Many occupations or industrial operations are characterized by handing and release of

harmful substances. Hence, industrial workers may get exposed to various types of
occupational hazards.
Body:
It has been observed that the main occupational hazard is because of inhalation of dust
particles. The size of these dust particles varies between 0.1 and 150 micrometer. Studies
show that particles smaller than 3 micrometer are directly inhaled into lungs and cause
various kinds of occupational diseases.
Following are various occupational diseases:
(i) Silicosis: This disease is caused by inhalation of dust containing free silica or silicon
dioxide. This disease is widely prevalent in mining industries, pottery, ceramic
industries, sand blasting, building and construction works, rock mining etc.
The main symptoms of Silicosis are cough and pain in the chest. However, in extreme
cases, it may lead to Silico-tuberculosis which causes reduced oxygenation.
(ii) Asbestosis: This disease is caused by inhalation of Asbestos dust.This disease harms
the lungs primarily. In addition, it may also cause chest pain, cough, asthma, lung
cancer etc.
(iii) Tobaccosis: This disease is caused due to inhalation of raw tobacco dust by the workers
engaged in processing of tobacco products. Further, tobaccosis may damage the
mucous membrane of the lungs and may open the floodgates of recurrent secondary
pulmonary infections.
(iv) Anthracosis: This is a disease which results due to deposition of fine coal dust in the
lungs of coal-miners. This disease may damage the mucous membrane of lungs and
pulmonary infections in the long run.
(v) Siderosis: This disease is more prevalent among the workers of steel and iron
manufacturing. In this disease, very fine dust of iron is inhaled and deposited in the
lungs. This disease may also damage the blood vessels of the lungs and may damage
severe joint pains.
(vi) Farmer’s lungs: Farmers are exposed to fine dust of hay or grain which accumulates in
the lungs. The damage is mainly to the mucous membrane of lungs and nasal mucosa.

(vii) Byssinosis: It is due to inhalation of cotton fibre dust. The symptoms are chronic cough
ending in chronic bronchitis. This type of disease is mostly prevalent among textile mill
workers.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be observed that occupational diseases cause great harm to workers. The
WHO has a Global Plan of Action on Workers’ Health for improving the diagnosis and
reporting of occupational diseases along with building capacities for estimating the
occupational burden of diseases.

6. (a) Distinguish between physical characteristics of Progressive and Classical Neanderthals.
(20 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, first give a brief description of neanderthals. Then, you can distinguish
between physical characteristics of both in a table. At the end, you may conclude by
mentioning that classical developed special features due to their ecological conditions.
Part 1 Give a brief description of neanderthals.
Part 2 Differentiate between their physical characteristics in tabular format.
Part 3 Conclude by pointing out the significance of these special features in classical.
Introduction:
Neanderthals were a distinctive group of people who lived from 1,20,000 years ago to 30,000
years ago. Skeleton remains demonstrated that these lived primarily in Europe and Central
and East Asia.
Neanderthals are divided into two groups on the basis of their physical and structural
features and their distributions.
Body:
Differences between characteristics of progressive and classical neanderthals can be

described as follow:
Features Progressive (Mount Carmel Classical (La Chapelle Aux

Man) Saints)
Distribution Skeletons of progressive Skeletons were discovered from

Neanderthals were mainly caves in France. Their distribution
recovered from Mount Carmel, is considered to be concentrated in
Palestine. Therefore, it is believed Western Europe. La- Chapelle Aux
that it lived primarily in East and Saints is a typical example of
Central Asia Neanderthals.
Age They existed from 1.2 lakh years Their age is roughly 75,000 years to
before to about 50,000 years ago. 30,000 years ago.
Cranial capacity Cranial capacity was in the range Cranial capacity was in the range
of 1400 cc, however, it was less of 1600 cc which was higher than
than classical. average man.
Skull Longer but less broader than Less longer than Progressive.
Classical. Hence, the Cephalic Cephalic index was around 74.5.
index was higher.
Skull was low vaulted, hence
Skull was high vaulted. looked flattened
Skull surface was less rough Skull surface was rough, indicating
which suggested lesser the presence of muscular
development of attachment impressions.
surfaces as compared to Classical

Forehead It was less receding. Occipital It was more receding and the
region was slightly projection occipital region was more
protruded than Progressive.
Supraorbital Supraorbital ridge was slightly They were heavy, rounded and
ridge present and was discontinuous continuous
Orbits They had comparatively rounded Orbits had greater transverse

orbits diameter than the vertical
diameter.
Maxilla It did not project in a muzzle like It projected in a muzzle like

fashion. fashion.
Nose It was less broad with nostrils less It was broad and wide.
widely separated.
Lower Jaw It was slightly larger than modern It was large and strong. Chin was
man. Also, there was a distinct reduced. Ascending ramii were
chin in them. large and broad.
Vertebral It was longer. Due to this Short and stout in comparison to

column progressive had more height than progressive neanderthals.
classical.
Conclusion:
Therefore, both progressive and classical had different cranial and postcranial features.
According to Trinkaus, special physical features such as the shortness of the limbs in classical
neanderthals were adaptations for protection against cold and conservation of body heat
which was prevalent in Europe at that time.

6. (b) Explain Darwin's theory of Natural Selection.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, you need to first give a background study of this theory. Then, you need to
explain factors which influenced Darwin’s ideas. Thereafter, summarize his postulates and
observations to describe this theory. In the end, conclude the answer by outlining the
importance of this theory.
Part 1 Mention his study, observation during which he propounded this theory.
Part 2 Mention various factors which influenced Darwin.
Part 3 Describe the postulates of Darwin with suitable examples
Part 4 Give a summary of the above discussion. You may choose to highlight the
importance of this theory.
Introduction:
Theory of natural selection was first given by Darwin during his journey to South America
where he collected ample collections of flora and fauna of these regions.
There were various studies, observations which influenced Darwin to propound the theory
of natural selection such as:
• Malthusian essay on population which indicated that population increases by geometric
ratio whereas food production increases by arithmetic ratio.
• Industrial revolution which proved that in order to survive, the organism must be
evolved with favorable variations.
• From the theory of uniformitarianism by Charles Lyell, Darwin observed that the
environment is continuously modifying the earth and its organisms.
• Finches of Galapagos Islands indicated that ancestor species have undergone speciation
into many species due to environmental changes.
Body:
The theory of natural selection can be described in following observations and logical
deductions:
1. Overproduction:
An organism gives birth to young ones in much greater number than actually survive
because a great number of eggs, immature stages are destroyed in following ways:
• By predation: eggs are food for many species of animals and hence they are
destroyed by predators.
• Low viability: eggs and larvae are immature stages which are delicate and have low
viability.
• High vulnerability to environment: eggs and larvae are defenseless against biotic and
abiotic pressure and hence die more often.
2. Struggle for existence:

Since food production increases by arithmetic ratio while population increases in
geometric fashion, there is a struggle among organisms for existence and survival. These
struggle can exist at following levels:

• Intraspecific struggle: The struggle occurs among the members of the same species.
The competition is intense here because organisms occupy the same ecological
niche For instance, Paramoecium aurelia and Paramoecium caudatum compete for
food and space.
• Interspecific struggle: there is a complex relation of struggle among plants and
animals. For instance, when Paraguay lays its eggs in the navel of cattle. These flies
are controlled by birds. If the population of birds increases, the number of parasitic
insects decrease, causing an increase in the number of flies hence afflicting more
cattles causing a surge in vegetation. This, in turn, will support more insects.
• Struggle against the environment: the environment, climate change and extreme
weather events act as effective checks on organisms at large.
3. Variation:
Darwin mentioned four types of variations in his theory:
• Individual variations: It is the most important variation. These variations are the
slight differences which appear in the offsprings of the same parents of a species.
• Sports of sudden variation: These are those characters which are not present in
parents, and appear in children suddenly. Darwin considered them of lesser
importance.
• Variation due to use and disuse: He supported Lamarck on this. He observed that
udders in cows and goats develop because of frequent milking.
• Hybrid variations: Darwin emphasized that individual variation is often
strengthened by a cross between distinct varieties and strains.
4. Survival of the fittest:

In the struggle for existence, only the fittest survive. Fitness of a group of population is
decided on two criterias:
1. Capacity of adaptation and preadaptation: Individuals should possess not only those
characteristics that are essential for living in that particular environment, but also
possess sufficient variations as a measure of preadaptations that would help
organisms to survive in adverse environments.
2. Differential reproduction: In order to be fittest, individuals must have capacity to
leave more offspring forming the next generation.
Conclusion:
Darwin theory of natural selection was the first complete and comprehensive theory of
organic evolution dealing with both vertical and horizontal aspects of evolution.

6. (c) Distinguish between Parallel and Convergent evolution with suitable examples.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, you need to define parallel and convergent evolutions in the introduction.
Then, you need to describe them in detail with suitable examples and diagrams. In
conclusion, you may give a brief summary of the basic difference between these two.
Part 1 Define parallel evolution and convergent evolution.
Part 2 Describe parallelism in detail. Mention suitable examples and draw diagrams.
Part 3 Describe convergence in detail. Mention suitable examples and draw diagrams.
Part 4 Give a brief and crisp summary of the above in 3-4 lines.
Introduction:
Parallel evolution is the independent evolution of similar traits, starting from a similar
ancestral condition. On the other hand, convergent evolution is the process where organisms
which are not closely related, evolve similar traits independently as a result of having to
adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.
Therefore, both these types of processes lead to similarities between two organisms in respect
of certain morphological patterns.
Body:
Parallel evolution or parallelism occurs when animals which are related (i.e. animals of the
same order or of common origin) show development of similar adaptive features in the
course of evolution, though they belong to separate species. Parallelism is also called
homologous evolution because two organisms have similarity in structures because of
descent from the same ancestral forms.
Examples of parallelism are as follows:

1. The present day crocodiles and some fossil types of crocodile of the Age of Reptiles
descended from some primitive reptiles. Both had to pass through distinct evolutionary
stages. In the course of evolution they underwent similar changes.
2. The absence of tail in man, great apes and gibbons may also be due to parallel evolution
as all of them had common ancestors who had tails. The tail was lost in the evolutionary
course of time in separate lines but in a parallel fashion.
3. Forelimbs of Birds and bats are homologous because they inherited forelimbs from a
common ancestor with forelimbs.
Figure: Bats and Birds inherited forelimbs from the same ancestor.
Source: https://evolution.berkeley.edu

Convergent evolution is usually applied when two species which are not related by common
ancestry or so, develop similar characteristics. Convergent evolution is also called analogous
evolution because though particular traits are common in two organisms but those organisms
are not related to each other.
Examples of convergent evolution are as follows:

1. Hummingbird and hummingmoth show convergence in their flying habits because they
follow a common way of searching nectar in flowers which is their food.
2. Development of wings of birds and bats may be due to convergent evolution. They have
separate evolutionary origins but are superficially similar as they might have faced
natural selection that influenced them to play a key role in flight.
Figure: (a) wings of bat and bird have similar structure (b) Birds and Bats are not related
Source: https://evolution.berkeley.edu
Conclude:
Therefore, parallel evolution and convergent evolution are similar as both of them lead to
similar traits in different organisms however they differ as in first case organisms are related,
but in the latter case they are not.

7. (a) Enumerate clinical features and genetic determination of Klinefelter Syndrome.
(20 Marks)
Approach:
In the question, one has to first explain the klinefelter’s syndrome. Also, various types of this
syndrome needs to be mentioned. Then, clinical features of all of these types need to be
outlined. Thereafter, genetic determination needs to be described. In this, the genetic
mechanism of nondisjunction needs to clearly explained with a diagram. In conclusion, try to
highlight the therapies or cures available for the syndrome.
Part 1 Explain Klinefelter syndrome and its variants.
Part 2 Describe clinical features of variants of Syndrome.
Part 3 Describe genetic determination which should include karyotyping, genetic

mechanism with a suitable diagram
Part 4 Discuss if any therapies or treatment available for this genetic disorder.
Introduction:
Klinefelter’s Syndrome is a genetic condition in which a human male possesses more than
one x chromosomes. It was first observed by Klinefelter. As the number of x-chromosomes
vary, Kilinefelter’s syndrome is classified on the basis of the number of extra x present.
Body:
Clinical features of Klinefelter’s syndrome I are as follows:

• The patient has an outward appearance of a male.
• Patients are usually long legged and hence higher than normal height is found in most of
them.
• Testes are infantiles which are characterized by Azoospermia. Hence, a person cannot
produce sperms and is infertile.
• Patients develop gynaecomastia due to additional X-chromosome. Thus, breast develop
in males.
• External genitalia are usually normal.
• Ketosteroids, which are metabolic product of testosterone, are found at subnormal levels
• Intelligence level is below than usual, hence there are very rare patients having high
education.

Clinical features of Klinefelter’s syndrome II:
In these cases, mental and physical disability increases directly with the number of sex
chromosomes. Hence 48, xxxy patients are severely mentally retarded. These patients also
show prognathism, lower ridge counts and more testicular atrophy.
Clinical features of Klinefelter’s syndrome III:

The clinical features are the same as that of Clinical features of Klinefelter’s syndrome II.
However, features are expressed in higher frequency and are more marked. Thus,
prognathism, mental retardation, testicular atrophy are more marked in the patients.
Genetic determination of Klinefelter’s syndrome:

Klinefelter syndrome is suspected in those male which have normal genitalia but small testes.
This can be confirmed from karyotyping of the patient which will show the presence of an
extra x-chromosome.
It has been observed that Klinefelter’s syndrome seldom occurs more than once in the same
sibship. Also, there is no record of affected individuals in two generations.
Main genetic cause of Klinefelter’s syndrome is nondisjunction event occurring during

parental meiosis. This nondisjunction can happen either during oogenesis or
spermatogenesis. However, studies show that 60% of Klinefelter’s syndrome I cases are
maternally derived. Further, studies also indicated that frequency of Klinefelter’s syndrome I
increases with maternal age.
Figure: Nondisjunction of chromosomes during meiosis causing extra X chromosome in

patient
Source: https://kleinfeltersdisease.wordpress.com
Another way to determine whether Klinefelter’s syndrome is maternally derived or not is by

analysing the inheritance of haemophilia. If a boy suffers from Klinefelter’s syndrome and
inherits a condition of haemophilia, it is certain that the extra x-chromosome is maternally
derived.
Conclusion:
There is no proven therapy to completely cure the disease as genetic variation is irreversible.
However, testosterone deficiency can be compensated by appropriate hormone replacement
therapy. Also surgical procedures can be adopted to remove breasts in case gynecomastia is
present in patients.

7. (b) Discuss the characteristics of Genetic Imprinting with suitable examples.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
It is a straightforward question. In this question, one has to define genetic imprinting first.
Thereafter, characteristics of genetic imprinting need to be described with suitable examples.
Provide a crisp conclusion highlighting significance of genetic imprinting.
Part 1 Define genetic imprinting. Explain its concept in brief.
Part 2 Describe its characteristics with suitable examples
Part 3 Conclude the answer by highlighting the implications of genetic imprinting.
Introduction:
Genetic imprinting is the phenomenon where during its passage from the male and female
parents, the automosomes and the X-chromosomes are stamped differently so that they bear
the marking which of the parents they are originating from.
Due to Genetic imprinting, much of the autosomes from two parents are similar in genetic
constitution but differ in their behaviors and manners of expression.
Body:
Following are characteristics of genetic imprinting:
1. Imprinted genomes express variously:

Imprinted male and female genes can have different amounts of expression. Also, there
may be differences in time of expressions. For example, In Huntington’s disease,
symptoms of the disease will be the same irrespective of maternal or paternal inheritance
but time of initiation of different symptoms and severity will be different depending on
whether the gene is paternal or maternal.

2. Gene imprinting is most common in mammals and flowering plants:
In mammals and flowering plants, paternal and maternal genes have different
phenotypic expressions. Various studies suggest it happens because both these groups
directly nourish their embryos.
3. Gene imprinting is not a rule:
Gene imprinting has been observed only in some male and female genes. Hence, most
genes do not show any gene imprinting. Therefore, gene imprinting is not a rule.
4. Gene imprinting is implicated in many disease:
Huntington’s Chorea, Angelman Syndrome, Embryonic tumors are some of the diseases
which can be attributed to genome imprinting.
5. Gene imprinting is erasable:
Genome imprinting takes place in gonadal tissues i.e. ovary and testes. An offspring
receives genes of father and mother along with respective markings. These markings are
erased during gamete formation in the ovary and testes of the offspring. He or she
stamps his or her own markings on the gene. Thus, gene imprinting is erasable.
6. Gene imprinting is species specific:
Imprinting of a gene varies from species to species. A gene imprinted in one species may
not be imprinted in another species. For instance, Insulin-like growth factor II is
imprinted in mice but not in humans.
Conclusion:
It has been observed that appropriate imprinting of certain genes is important for normal
growth and development. Genome imprinting, though not a rule, causes various genetic
disorders in humans.

7. (c) Describe Rh blood group system. Discuss its role in Hemolytic disease in the newborn.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
The question has two parts. In the first part, you should describe Rh blood group system in
detail by specifying its discovery, antigens and so on. In the second part, you should describe
how Rh blood group incompatibility can cause hemolytic disease in newborn or fetus.
Conclude your answer by mentioning the significance of understanding this blood group
system.
Part 1 Explain Rh blood group system in detail. Mention different antigens of Rh system.
Part 2 Discuss how Rh incompatibility may lead to hemolytic diseases in newborn and
fetus.
Part 3 Outline the importance of Rh blood group system in medical science in brief in
concluding paragraph.
Introduction:
The Rh blood group system is the second most important blood group system among 36
known systems.
The term “Rh” was earlier an abbreviation of “Rhesus factor” as it was first discovered by
Karl Landsteiner and A. S. Weiner in 1937 who then believed it to be a similar antigen found
in rhesus monkey red blood cells. Later, it was learnt that the human factor is not identical to
the rhesus monkey factor.
Body:
Rh blood group system consists of 49 blood group antigens. The most important antigens
among them are C, c, D, E, e.
A person having D antigen is termed as ‘positive’ and a person who does not have D antigen
is termed ‘negative’. For example, if the blood group of a person is A and has D antigen, his
blood group will be A+ and if another person has blood group A and does not have D
antigen, is termed as A-. The antigens allow positive blood cells to attach to specific
antibodies.
Figure:
1. This is an Rh-positive blood cell.
2. This is a Rh-negative blood cell.
3. These are antigens on the Rh-positive blood cell that makes it positive.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org

Rh blood group plays an important role in Hemolytic condition. This condition occurs when
there is an incompatibility between blood types of the fetus and its mother. The
incompatibility is also said to occur when mother is Rh negative and father is Rh positive.
Due to the Rh D incompatibility, a disorder is caused in the fetus which is called
erythroblastosis fetalis.
During birth or pregnancy, the Rh negative mother can be exposed to the infant's blood. This
causes the immune system to respond to the red blood cells as foreign and in response, IgM
antibodies are created. However, these do not cross the placenta, hence there are generally no
effects in first pregnancies for Rh-D mediated disease.
However, in subsequent pregnancies, the immune system mounts a memory response when
re-exposed, and these antibodies (IgG) cross the placenta into fetal circulation. These
antibodies are directed against a protein found on the surface of the fetal red blood cells
(RBCs). The antibody coated fetal red blood cells are destroyed, due to which the fetus dies.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be seen that the Rh blood group system from the point of view of blood
transfusion reactions and hemolytic diseases of the newborn. Understanding of Rh blood
group systems over the years has helped significantly in dealing with these negative
implications.

8. (a) How is human growth influenced by Growth hormone? Add a note on the regulation of
Growth Hormone.
(20 Marks)
Approach:
This question specifically demands a detailed description of growth hormone. In the first
part, you should explain how growth hormone stimulates growth in the human body. Then,
mechanism, level and regulation of growth hormone needs to be detailed. In conclusion, you
can summarize the above discussion in 2-3 lines.
Part 1 Give a brief introduction by explaining how hormones affect human growth in
general.
Part 2 Discuss how growth hormone stimulates growth in humans.
Part 3 Explain mechanism, levels and regulation of Growth Hormone.
Part 4 You may conclude by giving a brief summary of the above discussion.
Introduction:
Human growth and development is largely an interplay of hormones secreted by various
endocrine glands. There are some hormones, secretion of which is essential throughout the
life cycle. However, some hormones secrete at a particular time.
Body:
In the postnatal stage, Growth Hormone (GH) or Somatotrophic Hormone (STH) is the major
hormone responsible for growth. It is secreted by the foetal pituitary gland but it is not
essential for growth in the prenatal period. However, after birth upto attainment of
adolescence, GH is needed for growth.
Function of GH:
• GH causes growth by stimulating bone formation at the epiphyseal cartilaginous joints of
long bones.
• The above action of GH is mediated through Somatomedin A and C. Somatomedins are
proteinous growth factors released from plasma proteins of blood by action of GH.
• GH cannot cause growth alone as it requires a definite level of thyroxine hormone.
However, it is to be noted that the effect of thyroxine on growth is only peripheral.
Thyroxine helps in increasing responsiveness of the target tissues of GH. Therefore, an
organism which has both thyroxine and GH at optimum levels, attains maximum
growth.
• GH causes an increase in muscles because of increased protein synthesis. GH also
increases incorporation of amino acids in protein. Due to this reason, GH is also known as
protein anabolic hormone.
• GH causes utilization of fat in the adipose tissues. Thus, it shifts balance from fat
synthesis to protein synthesis. This is the reason that children with low GH are small and
fat.
Mechanism of action of GH:

• The mechanism of GH action consists of proliferation of cartilaginous tissues at the
epiphyseal ends via somatomedins A and C of plasma. These become the sites of bone
formation later on.
• It has also been seen that cartilaginous cells respond only when they are primed by
thyroxine hormone.
• Later, GH acts on the liver to produce somatomedin C.

Level of GH:
• During postnatal period, levels of GH are the highest during 2-17 years of age. However,
a daily rhythm is established only from the 4th years of age.
• Growth hormone does not secret continuously, rather it secrets in pulses. Under normal
conditions, 6-8 pulses occur each 24 hours. The amplitude and frequency of pulses
increases with puberty, contributing to the adolescent growth spurt.
Regulation of GH:
• GH is regulated by two hormones GH-RH (Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone) and
GH-IH (Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone). The former increases GH secretion while
latter causes decrease in GH secretion by pituitary gland. These two hormones are
released by hypothalamus.
• The levels of GH-RH and GH-IH are controlled, in turn, by levels of GH itself. Higher
levels of GH stimulate the GH-IH secreting cells of hypothalamus. While, lower levels of
GH stimulate GH-RH to secrete more amount of GH. Following diagram demonstrates
this mechanism:
Figure: interplay of GHRH or GRH, GHIH or GIH and GH

Source: P Nath
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be concluded that Growth hormone along with thyroxine hormone plays a
very important role in postnatal growth.

8. (b) Discuss the economic and social factors of fertility differentials.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, first economic factors of fertility differentials need to be explained with
examples. Then, social factors of fertility differentials should be described with suitable
examples. In the end, give a summary of the above answer.
Part 1 Define fertility in the introduction.
Part 2 Describe economic factors of fertility differentials.
Part 3 Describe social factors of fertility differentials.
Part 4 Conclude the answer by summarizing the above answer.
Introduction:
Fertility is the capacity of a woman to bear a live child. Fertility is not uniform across the
population rather varies depending on various factors. These factors may be biological, social
and economic factors.
Body:
Economic factors of differential fertility:
1. Socio-economic status of women:
It has been found that high literacy and high economic status among women lead to
greater control over their body. These women usually choose a long gestation period
resulting in a lesser fertility rate. On the other hand, women who are illiterate and are
poor undergo repeated pregnancies as they have less awareness about ill effects of
repeated pregnancies.
2. Distress from unemployment-inflation:
Population explosion and technological advancement have resulted in more and more
unemployment. Along with this, inflation spirals up often due to scarcity of resources. As
things such as education, health, food, clothing, rent etc become costlier people tend to
move towards two-child norm or one-child norm.
3. Benefit cost ratio:
There is high infant mortality in poor societies hence a need is felt to compensate the loss
by reproducing more children. Because in these societies, children are viewed as having a
high benefit cost ratio. On the other hand, in rich societies, children are viewed as having
low benefit-cost ratio because of high expenditure involved in upbringing of the child.
4. Behavioral economics:
Becker argued that knowledge, attitude and practice about family planning is the most
important factor that determines fertility. Apart from these, income is another factor
which causes differential fertility.

Social factors of differential fertility:
1. Age at marriage: Fertility period of women ranges from 15 to 49 on average. Hence, if a

woman marries late, then her fertility rate reduces. It can be seen that in Kerala and West
Bengal, marriage age is high hence there is low fertility. Conversely, in UP and Bihar
marriage age of girls is lower hence high fertility occurs in them.
2. Polygamy: It is prevalent in many societies. In this form of marriage, fertility is often high
than monogamy.
3. Widowhood: fertility is affected by the death of a husband.
4. Separation and divorce: physiological conflicts, divorces separate husband and wife, thus
affecting fertility.
5. Frequency of coitus: In developed societies, there are many reasons for recreation hence
frequency of coitus is reduced. In underdeveloped society, coitus is only means of
recreation, hence high fertility.
6. Spacing practice: Children upto 3 years need constant attention hence parents space
pregnancies. It can be achieved by abstinence during and after ovulation i.e. 14th to 18th
day of menstruation.
7. Social customs and beliefs: There is a strong desire to have male child because it’s custom
in many societies that the funeral pyre of parents is lit by a son. This is believed to be
essential for the final rest of the soul. Thus, notwithstanding number of female children,
children are born till a male child is born.
8. Social status of women: it is observed that as women get educated they aim for higher,
independent social status and avoid wasting time in repeated pregnancies and vice-versa.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be seen that fertility differential is determined by various social and
economic factors. Influence of these factors can be clearly seen in different fertility rates across
the populations.

8. (c) Explain the role of forensic anthropology in personal identification
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, forensic anthropology needs to be discussed first in the introduction. Then,
personal identification of the dead needs to be described in detail. Thereafter, various
methods of personal identification of alive persons need to be described in detail.
Part 1 Define forensic anthropology.
Part 2 Discuss how forensic anthropology helps in identification of dead persons.
Part 3 Discuss how forensic anthropology helps in identification of alive persons.
Part 4 Conclude by reaffirming the role of forensic anthropology in personal

identification.
Introduction:
Forensic anthropology is an applied branch of anthropology that employs every means to
identify a person through the anthropologically significant marks or remains of his or her
body, no matter how trivial it is. Forensic anthropology plays an important role in personal
identification.
Body:
Forensic anthropology helps in identification of both dead and alive persons. Personal
identification of persons can be done through following methods:
Personal identification of Alive persons
Personal identification from fingerprints:

This method is mostly followed to identify a criminal whose fingerprint recorded is often
registered with police. These fingerprints can be obtained by:
• Direct photograph
• Plastic prints on glass photographed in differential light exposure
• Latent print is photographed after treating the objects with carbon powder.
As per All India Forensic Science Congress, in order to identify a person, eight characteristics
of fingerprints should match. This match may be in matters of palm loops, arches, brakes etc.
Personal identification from DNA fingerprints:

This method is used in those cases involving parental determination related to paternal
disputes, immigration disputes or child born to a rape victim. For instance, DNA samples of
rape accused may be obtained from semen stains on clothes of victim, or hairs or skin left in

the nails of the victim. Later, this sample DNA is matched with the DNA of the accused to
confirm the crime.
Personal identification of Dead persons:
Personal identification of a dead person is done by analysing the material remaining at the
site of accident such as blood stains, charred bones, cells in bone marrow.
Personal identification from blood stains:

Often, blood stained clothes are recovered from the site of an accident. In such cases, the first
thing is to make sure that blood belongs to human beings and secondly, its group is
ascertained so that it can be matched with blood group profile of missing person under
investigation.
Blood stains can be analysed using following methods:
Personal identification from bones:

Bones recovered from site of accident can be used for age and sex determination as well as
personal identification. For personal identification, bones are used to find out the height of a
person so that it can be matched with the recorded height of the individual. Most commonly
used process for identification is Duepertius and Handem.
Personal identification from teeth:
Forensic odontology can be used to calculate the age of teeth. There are two approaches to do
that
The first method involves examining the extent of wearing teeth. The points to be noted are
accretion, secondary dentine, periodontosis, cementum apposition and root transparency.
In the second method permanent teeth and milk teeth are observed. Because time for dental
eruption is specific. For instance, time for dental eruption for milk teeth can be tabulated as
following:
Time for dental eruption
Lower incisor 5-12 months
Upper Incisor 6-14 months
First premolar 13-20 months
Canine 13-30 months
Second premolar 18-38 months

Personal identification from DNA fingerprinting
Dead persons can be identified from bone marrow cells present in charred bones. For
instance, identification of Naina Sahni was done on the basis of charred bones recovered from
Tandoor Furnace.
Conclusion:
Therefore, forensic anthropology, a branch of physical anthropology helps immensely in
identification of both dead and alive persons by employing various means.

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BYJU’S IAS

MAINS TEST SERIES

1. (a) Foster child study

Part 1 Explain what foster child studies in introduction.

Part 2 Describe the process of foster child studies in detail

Part 4 Discuss the limitations of these kinds of studies.

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 1

1. Minnesota graded home study:

Quality of homes No. of adopted children Average IQ score

Good homes 45 112

Average homes 39 105

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 2

Part 1 Define genetic load

Part 2 Describe various reasons behind genetic load such as mutation

Part 3 Explain how genetic load may be advantageous for population

Part 4 Give a balanced conclusion by summarizing the above arguments.

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 3

Part 1 Discuss the fossil remains of Cro Magnon.

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 4

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 5

Part 1 Define ecological rules of evolution.

Part 4 Conclude by summarizing the above discussion.

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 6

Part 1 Define growth curves.

Part 3 Draw a suitable diagram demonstrating all these curves.

Part 4 Highlight the importance of these curves in the concluding paragraph.

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 7

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 8

Part 1 Define Somatotyping.

Part 2 Discuss Sheldon’s somatotypes in detail. Describe physical features of three

Extreme endomorphy has following features:

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 9

Extreme ectomorph has following features:

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 10

Part 1 Describe Physiological responses to heat.

Part 2 Mention cultural responses to heat.

Part 3 Conclude the answer by giving a summary to the above discussion.

Following are physiological adaptations to heat:

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 11

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 12

Part 1 Describe the role of heredity in growth and development.

Part 3 Conclude the answer by summarizing arguments.

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 13

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-02) 14

Part 3 Conclude the answer by providing a summary of above discussion.

Therefore, genetic counselling broadly caters to the following:

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Part 1 Define gene mapping.

Part 2 Describe three major approaches of gene mapping.

Part 3 Conclude the answer by highlighting the significance of gene mapping.

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Part 1 Define genetic markers. Briefly explain this concept first.

Part 3 Describe ABO’s population variation across the world.

Part 4 Highlight the significance of the ABO system in conclusion.

Blood group Allelic determinants Antigens Antibodies

A IAIA, IAIO A anti-B

O IOIO None anti-A, anti-B

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Part 1 Give a brief description of discoveries which led to finding of H. erectus.

Part 2 Discuss both advanced and primitive features of H. erectus.

Part 4 Conclude the answer by giving a summary of the above answer.