Unit 1&2

describe research design

Research design refers to the overall plan or strategy that guides the collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data in a research study. It outlines the structure and methodology of the
research, detailing how the study will be conducted and how data will be gathered to address
the research objectives or hypotheses. A well-designed research study ensures that the data
collected is valid, reliable, and relevant to the research questions being investigated.

Here are the key components typically included in a research design:

Research Objectives: Clear and specific research objectives or research questions are
identified at the outset of the study. These objectives guide the entire research process and
help ensure that the study remains focused and relevant.

Research Methodology: The research methodology outlines the overall approach and
methods that will be used to conduct the study. This includes decisions about whether the
study will be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods, as well as the specific data
collection techniques and tools that will be employed.

Sampling Strategy: The sampling strategy outlines how participants or cases will be selected
to participate in the study. This includes decisions about the target population, sampling
frame, sampling method (e.g., random sampling, stratified sampling), and sample size.

Data Collection Methods: The data collection methods detail how data will be gathered from
participants or sources. This may involve surveys, interviews, observations, experiments,
archival research, or a combination of methods, depending on the nature of the research
questions and objectives.

Data Analysis Plan: The data analysis plan describes how the collected data will be analyzed
to address the research objectives. This includes decisions about data coding, statistical
techniques, software tools, and procedures for interpreting the results.

Validity and Reliability: Considerations of validity and reliability are crucial in research
design. Validity refers to the accuracy and soundness of the research findings, while
reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the data collection and measurement
procedures.

types of research design

Exploratory Research Design:

Exploratory research is typically conducted when a researcher aims to investigate a problem

or a research question with little prior knowledge or understanding. This type of research is
used to explore new ideas, gain insights, and generate hypotheses that can guide future
research. Exploratory research design is flexible and often qualitative in nature.

Techniques of Exploratory Research:

Secondary Source Analysis: This involves the analysis of existing data and literature relevant
to the research topic. Researchers review published studies, reports, articles, and other
sources to gain insights, identify trends, and generate hypotheses. Secondary source analysis
helps researchers build a foundation of knowledge and identify gaps in the existing literature.

Expert Opinion Survey: Expert opinion surveys involve seeking input and insights from
individuals who are considered experts in the field relevant to the research topic. Experts
may include academics, practitioners, industry professionals, or policymakers. Surveys or
interviews are conducted to gather expert opinions, perspectives, and insights, which can
help researchers gain a deeper understanding of the research problem and generate
hypotheses.

Focus Group: Focus groups are small maybe between 6-10 participants, focus group
discussions involving participants who share common characteristics or experiences relevant
to the research topic. Participants are encouraged to express their opinions, attitudes, and
experiences in an open and interactive setting. Focus groups allow researchers to explore
topics in depth, uncover diverse perspectives, and identify emerging themes or patterns. The
qualitative data obtained from focus groups can inform further research and hypothesis
generation.

Descriptive Research Design:

Descriptive research design is used to describe characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, or

phenomena within a population. It aims to provide a comprehensive snapshot of the current
situation or the research.

For example you could use descriptive research to understand fashion trends in a given city when
planning your clothing collection for the year. Using descriptive research you can conduct in depth
analysis on the demographic makeup of your target area and use the data analysis to establish
buying patterns.

Conducting descriptive research wouldn’t, however, tell you why shoppers are buying a particular
type of fashion item.

Techniques of Descriptive Research:

Cross-Sectional Design: Cross-sectional design involves collecting data from a sample of

individuals or units at a single point in time. Researchers gather information on the variables
of interest from a representative sample of the population and analyze the data to draw
conclusions. Cross-sectional studies are useful for describing the characteristics of a
population at a specific moment and examining relationships between variables at a single
point in time. Cross sectional study is carried out at a single movement in a time and thus
applicability Is not relevant for a specific. For example one cross sectional study was
conducted in two 2002 To study the attitude of American towards Asian American after the
9/11 terrorist attack. This revealed the mistrust towards Asian

Longitudinal Design: Longitudinal design involves collecting data from the same individuals
or units over an extended period of time. Researchers follow participants longitudinally,
collecting data at multiple time points to track changes, trends, and relationships over time.
Longitudinal studies allow researchers to examine patterns of change, causality, and the long-
term effects of variables. Common longitudinal designs include cohort studies, panel studies,
and time series analysis. However the problem is getting a committed group of people for an
entire study perioud. Secondly there is an element of mortality and attrition where the
member of panel might leave midwin replace new recruits might be vastly different and
should skew the result in an absolutely different direction

Causal Research Design:

Causal research design, also known as explanatory research design, aims to establish cause-
and-effect relationships between variables. It investigates the impact of one or more
independent variables on a dependent variable.

what is Syndicated research design?

Syndicate research, also known as syndicated research or syndicated market research, refers
to research conducted by market research firms that is sold to multiple clients. In syndicate
research, the cost of data collection and analysis is shared among multiple clients, making it
more affordable compared to custom research projects.

Here are some key points about syndicate research:

Cost Sharing: Syndicate research allows multiple companies to share the costs of market
research studies, making it more affordable for individual businesses compared to
commissioning their own custom research projects.

Wide Coverage: Syndicated research often covers broad market segments or industries,
providing comprehensive insights into market trends, consumer behavior, competitive
landscape, and other relevant factors.

Standardized Reports: Syndicate research reports typically follow a standardized format and
methodology, allowing for easy comparison across different studies and facilitating decision-
making for clients.

Access to Insights: Companies that purchase syndicated research gain access to valuable
insights and data that they may not have the resources or expertise to gather independently.
Limited Customization: While syndicated research offers valuable insights at a lower cost, it
may lack the level of customization and specificity that some companies require for their
unique business needs. In such cases, companies may opt for custom research projects
tailored to their specific requirements.

The types of companies that may utilize syndicate research include:

Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs): SMEs often lack the resources to conduct
extensive market research on their own. Syndicate research provides them with affordable
access to valuable market insights.

Large Corporations: Even large corporations may use syndicate research to supplement their
internal research efforts or to gain insights into markets or segments where they have limited
expertise.

Consulting Firms: Consulting firms may use syndicated research to support their advisory
services to clients, providing them with data-driven insights to inform strategic decisions.

Investment Firms: Investment firms may rely on syndicated research to assess market
opportunities, evaluate potential investments, and understand industry dynamics.

Marketing Agencies: Marketing agencies may leverage syndicated research to develop

targeted marketing strategies, understand consumer preferences, and identify emerging
trends in various industries.

Overall, syndicate research plays a crucial role in providing valuable market intelligence to a
wide range of companies across industries, enabling them to make informed decisions and
stay competitive in the marketplace.

Neilsen India: Neilsen Is a global measurement and data analytics company that provides the
most complete and trusted view for consumers and markets worldwide.Nielsen Is in more
than 100 countries around the world covering more than 90% of the world population, Neilen
provides clients the most complete understanding of what consumers watch and buy

Kantara TNS India: As one of the largest research agencies in the world they provide powerful
insights on how to unlock the moment that will help you flourish.They are part of Kantar, One
of the world's leading data insights and consultancy companies with presence in over 80
countries
RNB Research: Is the global market research agency with IsO certificate headquarters in New
Delhi india. RNB Research operates through its own office in 50 cities across 10 countries
china egypt Kenya Philippines Russia South Africa thailand and Vietnam.

Criteria for evaluating secondary source data

When evaluating secondary source data, it's crucial to assess its quality, relevance, credibility, and
applicability to your research objectives. Here are several criteria to consider:
1. Accuracy: Determine the accuracy of the information provided in the secondary source. Check for
errors, inconsistencies, and outdated information. Look for data that is supported by credible sources and
is free from bias or manipulation.

2. Relevance: Assess the relevance of the secondary source data to your research objectives and
questions. Ensure that the data aligns with the specific variables, concepts, and phenomena you are
investigating. Consider whether the data covers the time period, geographic area, and population of
interest.

3. Credibility of the Source: Evaluate the credibility and reputation of the source that produced the
secondary data. Consider factors such as the author's expertise, the publication or organization's
reputation, and the peer-review process (if applicable). Reliable sources are typically those with
established expertise, credibility, and a track record of producing high-quality research.

4. Objectivity and Bias: Examine the objectivity of the secondary source and assess whether it presents
information in a balanced and unbiased manner. Be wary of sources that exhibit bias or advocacy for a
particular viewpoint, agenda, or interest group. Look for evidence-based analysis supported by empirical
data.

5. Currency: Determine the currency of the secondary source data and assess whether it reflects the most
up-to-date information available. Consider the publication date or the time period covered by the data. Be
cautious when using outdated data, as it may not accurately represent current trends, conditions, or
dynamics.

6. Scope and Depth: Evaluate the scope and depth of the secondary source data in relation to your
research needs. Consider whether the data provides sufficient detail, breadth, and depth of coverage on
the variables or topics of interest. Determine if the data offers comprehensive insights or if additional
sources are needed to supplement gaps in information.

By evaluating secondary source data against these criteria, researchers can make informed decisions
about the quality, relevance, and reliability of the information and its suitability for addressing their
research objectives.

Steps of Marketing Research Process

The marketing research process is a systematic approach used by businesses to gather,

analyze, and interpret information relevant to their marketing activities. It involves several
steps aimed at understanding customer needs, market dynamics, and the competitive
landscape to make informed decisions. Here's an overview of the marketing research process:

Defining the Problem: The first step in the marketing research process involves identifying
and defining the problem or opportunity that requires investigation. This may involve
understanding consumer needs, assessing market trends, or evaluating the effectiveness of
marketing strategies. To define the research problem the researcher may choose one or more
of the following ways:(i) Discussion with the decision makers.(ii) Interview with industry
experts(iii) Analyse of secondary data(iv) Some qualitative research
Statement of Objectives and Hypotheses: Once the problem is identified, clear and specific
research objectives are established. These objectives outline what the research aims to
achieve and guide the subsequent steps in the research process. Hypotheses may also be
formulated, stating the expected relationships between variables. This involves the following
(i) Developing a theoretical framework(ii) Framing research questions(iii) Stating objectives(iv)
Designing an analytical model(v) Formulation of hypothesis.

Research Design Choices: Research design choices involve determining the overall approach
and methodology for conducting the study. This includes decisions about whether the
research will be exploratory, descriptive, or causal, as well as the specific methods and
techniques that will be used to collect and analyze data.The relevent questions for research
design are:(i) What kind of information is needed.(ii) From what sources it can be collected.(iii)
What method of inquiry should be appropriate to gather data?.(iv) If people are involved how
many persons are to be contacted?

Information Required Analysis: In this step, researchers identify the types of information and
data required to address the research objectives. This may involve determining the key
variables, concepts, and measures that need to be studied, as well as the sources from which
the data will be obtained.In The case considered by us, the information requirements include:
(i) How many sales people are working.(ii) What is their track record performance? what is
their current performance?.(iii) What are their attitudes towards work and company? what
factors are motivating them? what are the performance dampening factors?(iv) What are
their experiences education age and gender details?

Design Choices: Based on the information required analysis, researchers make design choices
regarding the overall structure and logistics of the research study. This includes decisions
about the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will
be used.

Selecting a Data Collection Method: Researchers choose the most appropriate data
collection methods for gathering information from respondents or sources. Common data
collection methods include surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and secondary
research.

Data Collection Instruments: Data collection instruments are tools or instruments used to
collect data from respondents. This may include survey questionnaires, interview guides,
observation checklists, or experimental protocols. These instruments are designed to collect
data on the variables of interest in a standardized and systematic manner.

Sampling: Sampling involves selecting a subset of the population that will be included in the
study. Researchers choose a sampling method (e.g., random sampling, stratified sampling)
and determine the sample size based on considerations such as representativeness,
reliability, and practicality.
Data Presentation and Analysis: Once the data is collected, it is analyzed to identify patterns,
trends, and relationships. Data analysis techniques may include descriptive statistics,
inferential statistics, qualitative coding, thematic analysis, and data visualization.

Report Preparation and Presentation: Finally, the findings of the research study are
summarized and presented in a comprehensive report. The report typically includes an
executive summary, introduction, methodology, findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
The report may be presented to stakeholders, management, or clients to inform decision-
making and strategy development.

By following a structured marketing research process, businesses can gather, analyze, and
interpret data effectively to address research objectives, make informed decisions, and
achieve marketing success.

Difference between Management decision problem vs Marketing research problem

Management decision problem and marketing research problem are two distinct concepts
that are closely related in the context of business problem-solving. Here's a breakdown of the
differences between the two:

1. Definition:

- Management Decision Problem:This refers to a broader organizational issue or challenge

that requires a managerial decision. It is a general problem faced by the management, often
framed in strategic or operational terms.

- Marketing Research Problem:This is a specific issue within the broader management

decision problem that can be addressed through marketing research. It is a more narrowly
defined question that serves as the focus of the research study.

2. Scope:

- Management Decision Problem: Has a wide scope and can encompass various aspects of
the organization, such as overall strategy, resource allocation, or organizational structure.

- Marketing Research Problem:Has a narrower scope and specifically relates to marketing-

related issues, such as understanding consumer behavior, assessing market potential, or
evaluating the effectiveness of marketing strategies.

3.Focus:

- Management Decision Problem: Focuses on making a decision or taking action to address a

general organizational challenge.

- Marketing Research Problem: Focuses on gathering information and insights related to a

specific aspect of the broader management decision problem, providing data to support
decision-making.

4. Level of Detail:

- Management Decision Problem: Typically stated in broad terms, without specific details on
what information is needed to make the decision.

-Marketing Research Problem:More detailed and specific, outlining precisely what

information is required to address the marketing-related aspects of the management decision
problem.

5. Example:

Management Decision Problem: "Our company is experiencing declining sales. What should
we do to improve overall performance and profitability?"

- Marketing Research Problem:"To understand the factors contributing to declining sales,

what are the key customer preferences and perceptions regarding our products compared to
competitors in the target market?"

6. Relationship:

Management Decision Problem: Often leads to the identification of multiple marketing

research problems that need to be addressed to inform the decision-making process.

Marketing Research Problem: Is derived from the broader management decision problem and
serves as a specific area for focused research.

In summary, the management decision problem is the overarching challenge faced by the
management of an organization, while the marketing research problem is a specific, more
narrowly defined issue within that broader context. Addressing the marketing research
problem provides the necessary information to support decision-making in response to the
management decision problem.

Role of marketing research in decision-making

Marketing research plays a crucial role in decision-making across various aspects of business strategy and
operations. Here are some key roles of marketing research in decision-making:

1. Identifying Opportunities and Threats: Marketing research helps organizations identify emerging market
trends, customer needs, and competitive threats. By gathering data and insights about market dynamics,
consumer behavior, and competitor activities, businesses can uncover new opportunities for growth and
innovation while mitigating potential risks.

2. Understanding Customer Needs and Preferences:Marketing research enables businesses to gain a deep
understanding of their target customers' needs, preferences, and buying behavior. By conducting surveys,
interviews, and focus groups, organizations can gather insights into customer attitudes, perceptions, and
motivations, allowing them to tailor their products, services, and marketing strategies to better meet
customer demands.

3. Assessing Market Potential:Marketing research provides valuable information about market size, growth
potential, and segmentation. By analyzing market trends, demographics, and consumer behavior,
businesses can assess the attractiveness of different market segments and prioritize their resources and
investments accordingly.

4.Evaluating Marketing Effectiveness:Marketing research helps organizations evaluate the effectiveness of

their marketing strategies, campaigns, and promotional activities. By tracking key performance indicators
(KPIs) such as brand awareness, customer satisfaction, and sales metrics, businesses can measure the
impact of their marketing efforts and identify areas for improvement.

5. Optimizing Product Development:Marketing research informs product development by gathering

feedback from customers and stakeholders about their preferences, satisfaction levels, and unmet needs.
By conducting concept tests, product trials, and usability studies, organizations can refine their product
offerings, features, and packaging to enhance customer value and competitive advantage.

6.Supporting Pricing Decisions:Marketing research provides insights into pricing dynamics, competitive
pricing strategies, and customer price sensitivity. By conducting pricing studies, conjoint analysis, and
price elasticity tests, businesses can determine optimal pricing strategies that maximize profitability while
remaining competitive in the market.

7. Informing Distribution and Channel Strategies: Marketing research helps organizations understand
distribution channels, channel preferences, and customer buying behaviors. By analyzing channel
performance, retailer feedback, and logistics data, businesses can optimize their distribution strategies,
expand into new markets, and enhance channel relationships to improve market reach and penetration.

8.Guiding Strategic Planning:Marketing research informs strategic planning by providing data-driven

insights into market opportunities, competitive threats, and industry trends. By conducting market
assessments, SWOT analyses, and scenario planning exercises, organizations can develop informed
strategies that capitalize on strengths, mitigate weaknesses, and adapt to changing market conditions.

In summary, marketing research serves as a critical tool for decision-making by providing actionable
insights and data-driven recommendations that enable organizations to understand their markets,
customers, and competitors better. By leveraging marketing research effectively, businesses can make
informed decisions that drive growth, innovation, and competitive advantage in today's dynamic business
environment.

Application of Marketing research

Marketing research has a wide range of applications across various aspects of business strategy,
operations, and marketing management. Here are some key applications of marketing research:

1.Understanding Customer Needs and Preferences: Marketing research helps businesses gain insights into
customer needs, preferences, attitudes, and behavior. By conducting surveys, interviews, and focus
groups, organizations can identify customer pain points, preferences, and unmet needs, allowing them to
tailor their products, services, and marketing strategies to better meet customer demands.
2.Market Segmentation and Targeting: Marketing research enables businesses to segment their target
market based on demographic, psychographic, behavioral, and geographic factors. By analyzing market
segments and identifying target customer groups, organizations can develop targeted marketing
campaigns, promotions, and product offerings that resonate with specific audience segments.

3. Product Development and Innovation:Marketing research informs product development by gathering

feedback from customers and stakeholders about their preferences, satisfaction levels, and feature
requirements. By conducting concept tests, product trials, and usability studies, organizations can refine
their product offerings, features, and packaging to enhance customer value and competitive advantage.

4.Brand Positioning and Differentiation: Marketing research helps businesses understand how their brand
is perceived in the market relative to competitors. By conducting brand awareness studies, brand image
assessments, and competitive benchmarking, organizations can identify opportunities to strengthen their
brand positioning, messaging, and differentiation strategies

5. Marketing Strategy and Planning: Marketing research informs strategic decision-making by providing
data-driven insights into market opportunities, competitive threats, and industry trends. By conducting
market assessments, SWOT analyses, and scenario planning exercises, organizations can develop informed
marketing strategies that capitalize on strengths, mitigate weaknesses, and adapt to changing market
conditions

6. Advertising and Promotion Effectiveness: Marketing research evaluates the effectiveness of advertising
and promotional campaigns in reaching target audiences and driving desired outcomes. By conducting
pre-testing and post-testing of advertising content, measuring ad recall, and tracking key performance
indicators (KPIs) such as brand awareness and purchase intent, organizations can optimize their
advertising spend and messaging to maximize impact.

7. Pricing Strategy and Optimization: Marketing research helps businesses understand pricing dynamics,
customer price sensitivity, and competitive pricing strategies. By conducting pricing studies, conjoint
analysis, and price elasticity tests, organizations can determine optimal pricing strategies that maximize
profitability while remaining competitive in the market.

8.Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty: Marketing research measures customer satisfaction and loyalty levels
through surveys, feedback forms, and customer satisfaction indexes (CSIs). By understanding customer
perceptions and experiences, organizations can identify areas for improvement, enhance service quality,
and build long-term customer relationships and loyalty.

Overall, marketing research serves as a critical tool for businesses to make informed decisions, optimize
marketing strategies, and drive growth, innovation, and competitive advantage in today's dynamic
marketplace.

What is Primary data?

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiment in an experimental research but in case we
do research of the descriptive type and perform survey, Whether ample surveys or census survey then we
can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in
one form or another or through personal interviews.
Difference between survey vs observation

Surveys and observations are two common methods used in research to collect data, but they differ in
several key aspects. Here's a breakdown of the differences between surveys and observations:

1.Methodology:

-Survey:Surveys involve asking questions to individuals or groups of respondents to gather information

about their attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics. Surveys typically use standardized
questionnaires or interviews with predetermined questions and response options.

- Observation:Observations involve directly observing and recording behaviors, actions, or events as they
occur in natural settings. Observations may be structured, with specific behaviors or events being
observed and recorded according to predefined criteria, or unstructured, with researchers simply
observing and recording whatever happens without interference.

2.Data Collection:

-Survey:Surveys collect data through self-reported responses from participants. Participants may
respond to survey questions verbally (in interviews) or in writing (on paper or electronically). Surveys can
gather information on a wide range of topics, including attitudes, opinions, preferences, behaviors, and
demographic characteristics.

- Observation:Observations collect data through direct observation of behaviors, actions, or events.

Observers may use tools such as checklists, rating scales, or video recordings to document observations
systematically. Observations provide data on actual behavior rather than self-reported information.

3. Subjectivity:

- Survey:Surveys rely on participants' subjective perceptions, interpretations, and responses to

questions. Responses may be influenced by factors such as social desirability bias, response bias, or
misunderstanding of questions.

-Observation:Observations aim to capture objective, observable behaviors or events without relying on

participants' self-reports. Observations are less susceptible to biases associated with self-reporting,
providing a more accurate representation of behavior in natural settings.

4. Control:

- Survey:Surveys offer researchers greater control over the content, structure, and timing of data
collection. Researchers design survey instruments, select participants, and administer surveys according
to predetermined protocols.

- Observation:Observations involve less control over the behaviors, actions, or events being observed, as
researchers must rely on what naturally occurs in the environment. While researchers can specify the
behaviors or events of interest, they cannot control or manipulate them as they can in experimental
settings.

5. Interpretation:
 - Survey:Survey data require interpretation of participants' responses to derive meaningful insights.
Researchers analyze survey data using statistical techniques to identify patterns, trends, relationships, or
associations among variables.

-Observation: Observation data require interpretation of observed behaviors or events to draw

conclusions. Researchers analyze observation data to identify patterns, trends, or themes in behavior,
often using qualitative analysis techniques such as coding, categorization, or thematic analysis.

In summary, surveys involve asking questions to gather self-reported information from participants, while
observations involve directly observing and recording behaviors or events in natural settings. Both
methods have strengths and limitations and may be used alone or in combination, depending on the
research objectives and context.

what are Qualitative research tools?

Qualitative research involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data to

understand social phenomena, human behavior, and subjective experiences. Various tools
and techniques are used in qualitative research to gather rich, in-depth insights from
participants. Here are some common qualitative research tools:

Depth Interview:

Definition: A depth interview is a qualitative research method in which an interviewer

engages in a one-on-one conversation with a participant to explore their thoughts,
feelings, experiences, attitudes, and behaviors in-depth.
Purpose: Depth interviews aim to uncover deep insights and understanding by allowing
participants to express themselves freely in a comfortable and confidential setting.
Process: The interviewer conducts a semi-structured or unstructured interview, using
open-ended questions to encourage participants to share detailed responses. The
conversation may flow naturally, allowing the interviewer to probe deeper into specific
topics or follow up on interesting insights.
Advantages: Depth interviews provide a high level of detail and richness in data, as
participants can express themselves openly and in their own words. They also allow
researchers to explore sensitive or personal topics in a private setting.
Disadvantages: Depth interviews can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, as they
require individual interviews with each participant. They may also be subject to
interviewer bias, as the interviewer's probing and interpretation can influence the
direction of the conversation.

Focus Group:

Definition: A focus group is a qualitative research method in which a small group of

participants (typically 6-10 individuals) are brought together to discuss a specific topic or
issue in-depth under the guidance of a moderator.
Purpose: Focus groups aim to generate interactive discussions and collective insights by
capitalizing on group dynamics, interactions, and diversity of perspectives.
Process: The moderator leads the discussion, asking open-ended questions and
facilitating dialogue among participants. Participants are encouraged to share their
 opinions, experiences, and ideas, while the moderator keeps the discussion focused and
ensures that all participants have an opportunity to contribute.
Advantages: Focus groups allow researchers to explore group norms, consensus, and
divergent viewpoints in a dynamic and interactive setting. They can generate a wide
range of perspectives and insights in a relatively short period of time.
Disadvantages: Focus groups may be influenced by dominant personalities, groupthink,
or social desirability bias. They also require careful planning and moderation to ensure
that all participants feel comfortable sharing their opinions.

Projective Techniques:

Definition: Projective techniques are a set of qualitative research methods designed to

uncover participants' subconscious thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and motivations by
asking them to respond to ambiguous stimuli or situations.
Purpose: Projective techniques aim to bypass conscious defenses and social desirability
biases to reveal deeper, underlying perceptions and emotions that participants may not
express directly.
Examples: Common projective techniques include word association, sentence
completion, story completion, image or photo interpretation, and role-playing exercises.
For example, participants may be asked to complete sentences like "I feel happiest
when..." or interpret ambiguous images or situations.
Advantages: Projective techniques can elicit spontaneous, unfiltered responses that
provide insights into participants' subconscious thoughts and emotions. They can be
particularly useful for exploring sensitive or taboo topics.
Disadvantages: Projective techniques may be subject to interpretation bias, as
researchers must analyze participants' responses qualitatively. They may also lack
standardization and reliability compared to more structured research methods.
Tools of Projective techniques are:(i)Sentence completion(ii)Role Playing(iii)TAT(Themetic
approch test)(iv)Brand Association

Overall, depth interviews, focus groups, and projective techniques are valuable qualitative
research tools that allow researchers to gather rich, nuanced insights into participants'
thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviors. Each method has its strengths and limitations,
and researchers may choose to use them alone or in combination depending on their
research objectives and the nature of the research questions being investigated.

Unit-iv

What are the Primary scales of Measurement? it's defination

The primary scales of measurement, also known as levels of measurement or types of data,
are fundamental concepts in statistics and research methodology. They represent different
ways in which data can be categorized, organized, and analyzed. Here are the primary scales
of measurement along with their definitions:

The nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales are levels of measurement in statistics These
scales are broad classifications describing the type of information recorded within the values
of your variables. Variables take on different values in your data set. For example, you can
measure height, gender, and class ranking. Each of these variables uses a distinct level of
measurement.

1.Nominal Scale:

- Definition: A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers
serve as “tags” or “labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals
with the non-numeric variables or the numbers that do not have any value.

- Characteristics:

- Data are qualitative and represent categories with no inherent order or ranking.

- Examples of nominal data include categories such as gender (male/female), ethnicity

(Asian, Hispanic, Caucasian), marital status (single, married, divorced), and types of vehicles
(car, truck, motorcycle).

- Variables are typically represented by labels or names.

- Mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, or multiplication are not

meaningful on the nominal scale.

Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female

Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

2.Ordinal Scale:

The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of
data without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the
“order.” Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped,
named and also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale shows the performace ranking of the variables

It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the
rankings of those variables
The interval properties are not known
 The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the identified
order of variables

Example:

Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

Ratings in restaurants
Evaluating the frequency of occurrences
a. Very often
b. Often
c. Not often
d. Not at all
Assessing the degree of agreement
a. Totally agree
b. Agree
c. Neutral
d. Disagree
e. Totally disagree

3. Interval Scale:

The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In other
words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in which the
presence of zero is arbitrary.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values
It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values
between the variables
The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical
values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.

Example:

Likert Scale
Net Promoter Score (NPS)
Bipolar Matrix Table

4. Ratio Scale:

The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of
variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals.
The ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

 Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero
It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly
added, subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using
the ratio scale.
Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.

Example:

An example of a ratio scale is:

What is your weight in Kgs?

Less than 55 kgs

55 – 75 kgs
76 – 85 kgs
86 – 95 kgs
More than 95 kgs

What is scaling? what are its techniques?

Scaling is a process used in research and statistics to measure and quantify abstract
concepts or variables. It involves assigning numerical values to the characteristics or
attributes of a concept or object in order to facilitate comparison and analysis. Scaling
techniques are methods used to create scales or measures for assessing attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and other subjective phenomena. Here are some common scaling techniques:

Paired Comparison Scaling:

Paired Comparison Scaling is a technique used in psychometrics and market research. It

involves comparing two items or alternatives and determining which one is preferred or has a
higher value. Here’s how it works:

Pairwise Comparisons: Participants are presented with pairs of items (products, features,
concepts, etc.). They then choose which item they prefer or consider more valuable. This
process is repeated for multiple pairs.

Ranking and Scaling: Based on the collected preferences, researchers can rank the items or
assign scores to them. The most preferred item receives the highest score, and the least
preferred item receives the lowest score.

Applications:

In marketing, it helps evaluate product features or advertising messages.

In psychology, it assesses preferences or attitudes.

In decision-making, it aids in prioritizing options.

Remember, the effectiveness of this method depends on the quality of the paired
comparisons and the sample size.

Rank Order Scaling:

The Rank Order Scaling is a yet another comparative scaling technique wherein the respondents
are presented with numerous objects simultaneously and are required to order or rank these
according to some specified criterion.

The Rank order scaling is often used to measure the preference for the brand and attributes. The
ranking data is typically obtained from respondents in the conjoint analysis (a statistical
technique used to determine how the brand and the combination of its attributes such as
features, functions, and benefits, influences the decision making of a person), as it forces the
respondents to discriminate among the stimulus objects. The Rank order scaling results in the
ordinal data.

Constant Sum Scaling:

The Constant Sum Scaling is a technique wherein the respondents are asked to allocate a
constant sum of units, such as points, dollars, chips or chits among the stimulus objects
according to some specified criterion.

In other words, a scaling technique that involves the assignment of a fixed number of units to
each attribute of the object, reflecting the importance a respondent attaches to it, is called as
constant sum scaling. For example, Suppose a respondent is asked to allocate 100 points to the
attributes of a body wash on the basis of the importance he attaches to each attribute.

In case he feels any attribute being unimportant can allocate zero points and in case some
attribute is twice as important as any other attribute can assign it twice the points. The sum of all
the points allocated to each attribute should be equal to 100.

Semantic Differential Scaling:

Semantic Differential Scaling is a technique used in psychology and social sciences to

measure the connotative meaning of concepts or objects. It involves rating items on a scale
based on their perceived attributes. Participants are asked to rate pairs of opposing
adjectives (such as “good” vs. “bad,” “happy” vs. “sad,” etc.) in relation to a specific concept
or object. The resulting data can reveal underlying attitudes, preferences, or associations
related to that concept. It’s a valuable tool for understanding subjective perceptions and
preferences.Respondents indicate their perceptions or attitudes toward the items by
selecting positions along the scales that best represent their feelings.

This technique provides interval or ordinal data and allows for the measurement of
attitudes or perceptions.
Example: Participants may be asked to rate a product on scales such as "cheap-
expensive," "modern-traditional," and "reliable-unreliable."
Itemized Rating Scaling:

Definition: The Itemized Rating Scale is an Ordinal Scale that has a brief description or
numbers associated with each category, ordered in terms of scale positions. The
respondents are asked to select the category that best describes the stimulus object
being rated.

Ratings are typically provided on a numerical scale, such as a 5-point or 7-point scale.
This technique allows for the measurement of attitudes, opinions, or perceptions in a
structured manner.
Example: Respondents may be asked to rate their agreement with statements about a
brand's customer service on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Likert Scale:

The Likert Scale is a commonly used psychometric measurement tool for assessing people’s
attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. It typically consists of a series of statements or
questions to which respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement on a five-
point scale. The scale usually ranges from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree”:

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neutral
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree

Researchers and survey designers use the Likert Scale to gather quantitative data on
subjective opinions or feelings. It allows them to analyze and compare responses across
different individuals or groups. Keep in mind that the Likert Scale is just one of many tools
used in social science research and is valuable for understanding people’s perceptions and
preferences.