PHYSICS INVESTGATORY PROJECT

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

GOKINA DINESH SHRI MADHAVARAO D

12TH A PGT PHYSICS
 CERTIFICATE:

This is to certify that GOKINA DINESH,

CLASS XII Science, Kendriya Vidyalaya Malkapuram, has satisfactorily
completed the project in PHYSICS titled as “TO STUDY VARIATION
OF CURRENT USING A LDR. "
during the academic year 2023-24 towards partial fulfillment of credit for
the PHYSICS practical evaluation of AISSCE 2023-24, and submitted
satisfactory report, as compiled in the following pages, under my
guidance. I have examined the project and hereby accord my approval of
it.

SHRI Madhavarao D CBSE EXAMINER’S

SIGN
PGT PHYSICS

SHRI SATYAJEET MISHRA

PRINCIPAL KV MALKAPURAM
 ACKNOWLEGEMENT

It is with great pleasure that I find myself penning down these

lines to express my sincere thanks to various people who
helped me a long way in completing this project. I hereby
acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude & indebtedness to Mr
Madhavarao sir PGT(PHYSICS) Whose immense help,
genius guidance, Encouragement, necessary suggestion and
Inspiration made this work a master art. Thanks to all my
classmates who helped me during the development of this
project with their constructive criticism and advice. I would
also like to thank all the teaching and non- teaching staff of
K.V.MALKAPURAM who helped Me directly or indirectly in
the successive completion of this project.

DECLARATION:
I hereby declare that project work entitled
“TO STUDY VARIATION OF CURRENT
USING A LDR” ,
submitted to the DEPARTMENT OF
PHYSICS,KENDRIYAVIDYALAYA
MALKAPURAM
For the subject PHYSICS under the
guidance of SHRI D MADHAVARAO, is a
record of original work done by me. I further
declare that this project or any part of it has
not been submitted elsewhere for any other
class.

INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE ii

INTRODUCTION 01
OBSERVATIONS 10
RESULT & CONCLUSION 12
SOURCES OF ERROR 13
BIBLIOGRAPHY 14

APPLICATIONS 02
AIM & APPARATUS 03
THEORY 04
PROCEDURE 09
 INTRODUCTION

The general purpose photoconductive cell is also

known as LDR – light dependent resistor. It is a type
of semiconductor and its conductivity changes with
proportional change in the intensity of light.
There are two common types of materials used to
manufacture the photoconductive cells. They are
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide
(CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have
a ground state energy closer to the conduction band
since the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower
energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. Two
of its earliest applications were as part of smoke and
fire detection systems and camera light meters. The
structure is covered with glass sheet to protect it from
moisture and dust and allows only light to fall on it.

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Applications
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs
are used for the mid infrared spectral
region. GeCu photoconductors are among the best
farinfrared detectors available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

Analog Applications
· Camera Exposure Control
· Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
· Photocopy Machines - density of toner
· Colorimetric Test Equipment
· Densitometer
· Electronic Scales - dual cell
· Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
· Automated Rear View Mirror

Digital Applications
· Automatic Headlight Dimmer
· Night Light Control
· Oil Burner Flame Out
· Street Light Control
· Position Sensor
*LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes, its resistance
changes drastically for a particular light intensity.

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 AIM & APPARATUS
AIM:
To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit
containing a LDR, because of a variation:-

(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to

‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed
distance).

(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed

power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Connecting Wires
Source of different power rating (bulbs)
Bulb Holder
Metre scale
Multi Meter
Battery

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 THEORY
1.) LDR and its characteristics

When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and

thereby it excites an electron from valence band into
conduction band. Due to such new electrons coming up in
conduction band area, the electrical resistance of the
device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo-conductive
transducer has the resistance which is the inverse
function of radiation intensity.

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters e =

charge on one electron, in Coulombs Ew =
work function of the metal used, in Ev

Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength

greater than the value obtained in above equation
CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this
device.

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The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV
and for Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large
energy gaps, both the materials have extremely high
resistivity at room temperature.
Characteristics of photoconductive cells
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance
is called as dark resistance. This resistance is typically of
the order of 1013 ohms. When light falls on it, its
resistance decreases up to several kilo ohms or even
hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of light,
falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two commercial
cells were compared in our laboratory. And we found that
there is almost no response to the radiation of a
wavelength which was shorter than 300nm. It was very
interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide cell has a
peak response nearer or within the green color of the
spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be used
nearer to the infra-red region up to 750nm. It was found
that the maximum response of Cadmium
Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm
and also it can be used in the infra-red region up to
about 970nm.

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Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship

between the light falling on the device and the
resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell,
one is dealing with the relationship between the
incident light and the corresponding resistance of
the cell.

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Spectral Response

Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a

photoconductive cell is dependent on the
wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each
photoconductor material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the relative
response of the photocell versus wavelength of light.

2.) luminous flux variation:

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Considering the source to be a point radiating in all
directions; consider a steradian (or even a simple
sphere), take a small element dA on the steradian at a
distance ‘r’ from the source. It comprises a small part
of the energy radiated (dEr).
Now, go further to a distance ‘R’ (R>r) from the source,
consider the same area element dA, it comprises a
much smaller part of energy radiated
(dER).
[dEr > dER].
It varies inversely as the square of the distance.

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 PROCEDURE
• Choose a specific position for the source and mount it
using a holder, make sure it is stable.
• Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect it
to the holder as shown in the figure.
• Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the multimeter in series.
• Set the multimeter to ohm section and select suitable
range and measure the resistance with a bulb on.
• Similarly switch to current section and move to micro
ampere in the multimeter. This gives the value of the
current.
• Repeat these steps with different power sources at
different distances and note down observations.

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 OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using
various sources with different power ratings.
Voltage of the battery = 6 V

1.) 15 watts (yellow) (wavelength = 570nm)

Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

2.) 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

3.) 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)

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 Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

4.) 20 watts (CFL) (white light)

Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

CONCLUSION & RESULT

• The LDR resistance decreases with increase in

intensity of light and hence there is an increase in the
flow of current.

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 • There is an increase in the current as the distance
from the source decreases.

• The intensity decreases as the distance from the

source increases

• The error lies within the experimental limit.

SOURCES OF ERROR

• The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.

• Connections may be faulty.

• The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.

• Measurements should be taken accurately.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• NCERT physics class XII

• Art of Electronics by paul worowitz

• www.wikipedia.com/

• www.electronics2000.co.uk/links/education-hobby/

• www.ecelab.com/

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