UNDERSTANDING THE ORIGINS

OF THE FIRST COMPLEX CELLS

Chapter 1

History of
Life

Archeopteryx is a fossil organism which has both

avian and reptilian characteristics. Feathers are
visible as are solid bones and claws.

Learning Targets

1. analyze and explain the experiments of the

historical scientific perspectives, fossil record, and
the modern ideas of the origin and diversity of life
(e.g. Redi, Pasteur, Miller and Urey, Lamarck,
Darwin, Wallace and Modern Synthesis)
 minute of that day. If we are such newcomers on planet Earth,
how do we know about the vast period of time that went before
us? How have we learned about the distant past?

How do we learn about the past?

We study the remains of things that existed many years ago. The
Ruins of Pompeii have given archeologists, historians, and other
scholars a tremendous amount of information about life two
thousand years ago. This section discusses studying things that
are many thousands of years older than these remains.

Earth in a Day

It’s hard to grasp the vast amounts of time since Earth formed
and life first appeared on its surface. It may help to think of
Earth’s history as a 24-hour day, as shown in the picture on the
next page. Humans would have appeared only during the last
History of Earth in a Day. In this model of Earth’s history, the planet formed at
midnight. What time was it when the first prokaryotes evolved?
Learning About the Past

2
Much of what we know about the history of life on Earth is based
on the fossil record. Detailed knowledge of modern organisms
also helps us understand how life evolved.
The Fossil Record
To be preserved as fossils, remains must be covered quickly by
sediments or preserved in some other way. For example, they
may be frozen in glaciers or trapped in tree resin. Sometimes
traces of organisms—such as footprints or burrows—are
preserved. The conditions required for fossils to form rarely occur.

Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of organisms that Therefore, the chance of an organism being preserved as a fossil

lived in the past. The soft parts of organisms almost always is very low.

decompose quickly after death. On occasion, the hard parts— The photo on the left
mainly bones, teeth, or shells—remain long enough to mineralize shows an ancient
and form fossils. An example of a complete fossil skeleton is frog trapped in
hardened tree resin,
shown in figure below. The fossil record is the record of life that
or amber. The photo
unfolded over four billion years and pieced back together through on the right shows
the analysis of fossils. the fossil footprints
of a dinosaur.

Video: Fossils

Extinct Lion Fossil. This fossilized skeleton represents an extinct lion species. It
is rare for fossils to be so complete and well preserved as this one.
Watch this video link to see in more detain how fossils
form.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A5i5Qrp6sJU

In order
3
for fossils to “tell” us the story of life, they must be dated. Then Relative Dating Using Rock

they can help scientists reconstruct how life changed over time. Layers. Relative dating
establishes which of two fossils
Fossils can be dated in two different ways: relative dating and
is older than the other. It is
absolute dating. based on the rock layers in
which the fossils formed.
Relative dating determines which of two fossils is older or
younger than the other, but not their age in years. Relative dating
is based on the positions of fossils in rock layers. Lower layers
were laid down earlier, so they are assumed to contain older
fossils. This is illustrated in figure on the next page.

Absolute dating determines about how long ago a fossil

organism lived. This gives the fossil an approximate age in years.
Absolute dating is often based on the amount of carbon-14 or
other radioactive element that remains in a fossil.

You can learn more about carbon-14 dating by watching the

animation at this link: http://www.absorblearning.com/media/
attachment.action?quick=bo&att=832 .

Molecular Clocks

Evidence from the fossil record can be combined with data from
molecular clocks. A molecular clock uses DNA sequences (or
the proteins they encode) to estimate relatedness among species.
Molecular clocks estimate the time in geologic history when

4
related species diverged from a common ancestor. Molecular climate, and the evolution of life. It organizes Earth’s history and
clocks are based on the assumption that mutations accumulate the evolution of life on the basis of important events instead of
through time at a steady average rate for a given region of DNA. time alone. It also allows more focus to be placed on recent
Species that have accumulated greater differences in their DNA events, about which we know the most.
sequences are assumed to have diverged from their common
ancestor in the more distant past. Molecular clocks based on
different regions of DNA may be used together for more accuracy.

Consider the example in the table below. The table shows how
similar the DNA of several animal species is to human DNA.
Based on these data, which organism do you think shared the
most recent common ancestor with humans?

Organism Similarity with Human DNA (percent)

Chimpanzee 98

Mouse 85

Chicken 60

Fruit Fly 44

Geologic Time Scale

Another tool for understanding the history of Earth and its life is
the geologic time scale, shown on the next page . The geologic
time scale divides Earth’s history into divisions (such as eons, Geologic Time Scale. The geologic time scale divides Earth’s history into units
eras, and periods) that are based on major changes in geology, that reflect major changes in Earth and its life forms.

5
Click on this link: A Brief History of Life; Explore 4.5 billion years Review
of life in just a few minutes.
1. What are fossils?
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/brief-history-life.html
2. Describe how fossils form
Summary
Species DNA Similarity with Species A

• Much of what we know about the history of life on Earth is Species B 42%
based on the fossil record.
Species C 85%
• Molecular clocks are used to estimate how long it has been Species D 67%
since two species diverged from a common ancestor.
Species E 91%
• The geologic time scale is another important tool for
understanding the history of life on Earth. 3. This table shows DNA sequence comparisons for some
hypothetical species. Based on the data, describe evolutionary
relationships between Species A and the other four species.
Explain your answer.

4. Compare and contrast relative and absolute dating.

6
Don't Call That A Duckbill!!
Student Exploration
Because most of them went extinct and the Age of Dinosaurs ended
and the Age of Mammals began, some people still think of dinosaurs
as failed organisms. Somehow they weren't as good as mammals,
they were flawed and these flaws did them in. Science no longer sees
dinosaurs this way. Remember, science is an ongoing process where
theories and views are reevaluated as new information comes in. The
ongoing work of scientists has led to the recognition of Dinosauria
as a distinct phylum all its own, as well as recognizing that not all
dinosaurs went extinct, just the non-avian ones, which is a fancy
way of saying dinosaurs are still around, we just call them birds.
One reason for these advances are new fossil finds. As more and
more finds were discovered and science advanced in other areas like
geology, ecology, paleoclimatology, evolution and genetics, it be-
came increasingly clear that dinosaurs were not just big lizards but
something quite different and quite well adjusted to the world they
lived in.
Video: Leonardo the Mummified Dinosaur
Watch this video to find out about a truly remarkable find, a
dinosaur with it's last meal preserved! http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=ihifMrV3-pY
Extension Investigation
Use the resources below to answer the following questions:
1. Why does Dr. Bakker hate the name duckbill? Explain your an-
swer as fully as you can.
2. How do the bills of duckbill dinosaurs differ from those of
ducks?
3. Why do large herbivores need to have large guts? What do
they have in these guts that humans don't need?
4. What was one suspicion of scientists that Leonardo confirmed?
5. How do the teeth of duckbill dinosaurs differ from those of
cows or horses? How did the vegetation that duckbill dinosaurs
ate differ from the vegetation eaten by cows and horses today?
7
 Chapter 2

The Origin of
Life

Miller and Urey designed an experiment using the

gases found in earth’s early atmosphere to help
determine how organic molecules may have been
created.

Learning Targets

1. analyze and explain the experiments of the

historical scientific perspectives, fossil record, and
the modern ideas of the origin and diversity of life
(e.g. Redi, Pasteur, Miller and Urey, Lamarck,
Darwin, Wallace and Modern Synthesis)

Jean Baptist Van Helmont (1580-1640) promoting the idea of
spontaneous generation with his suggestion that mice come from
dirty rags and rotting grains.
Origins: Early Ideas
source:http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/
Spontaneous_Generation.php
From the time of the ancient Romans, through the Middle Ages,
and until the late nineteenth century, it was generally accepted
that some life forms arose spontaneously from non-living matter.
Such "spontaneous generation" appeared to occur primarily in
decaying matter. For example, a seventeenth century recipe for
the spontaneous production of mice required placing sweaty
underwear and husks of wheat in an open-mouthed jar, then
waiting for about 21 days, during which time it was alleged that
the sweat from the underwear would penetrate the husks of
wheat, changing them into mice. Although such a concept may
seem laughable today, it is consistent with the other widely held
cultural and religious beliefs of the time.
The first serious attack on the idea of spontaneous generation
was made in 1668 by Francesco Redi, an Italian physician and
poet. At that time, it was widely held that maggots arose
spontaneously in rotting meat. Redi believed that maggots
developed from eggs laid by flies. To test his hypothesis, he set
out meat in a variety of flasks, some open to the air, some sealed
completely, and others covered with gauze. As he had expected,
maggots appeared only in the open flasks in which the flies could
reach the meat and lay their eggs.
This was one of the first examples of an experiment in the
modern sense, in which controls are used. In spite of his well-
executed experiment, the belief in spontaneous generation
remained strong, and even Redi continued to believe it occurred
9
under some circumstances. The invention of the microscope only Academy of Sciences sponsored a contest for the best
served to enhance this belief. Microscopy revealed a whole new experiment either proving or disproving spontaneous generation.
world of organisms that appeared to arise spontaneously. It was Pasteur's winning experiment was a variation of the methods of
quickly learned that to create "animalcules," as the organisms Needham and Spallanzani. He boiled meat broth in a flask,
were called, you needed only to place hay in water and wait a few heated the neck of the flask in a flame until it became pliable, and
days before examining your new creations under the microscope. bent it into the shape of an S. Air could enter the flask, but
airborne microorganisms could not - they would settle by gravity
The debate over spontaneous generation continued for centuries.
in the neck. As Pasteur had expected, no microorganisms grew.
In 1745, John Needham, an English clergyman, proposed what he
When Pasteur tilted the flask so that the broth reached the lowest
considered the definitive experiment. Everyone knew that boiling
point in the neck, where any airborne particles would have
killed microorganisms, so he proposed to test whether or not
settled, the broth rapidly became cloudy with life. Pasteur had
microorganisms appeared spontaneously after boiling. He boiled
both refuted the theory of spontaneous generation and
chicken broth, put it into a flask, sealed it, and waited - sure
convincingly demonstrated that microorganisms are everywhere -
enough, microorganisms grew. Needham claimed victory for
even in the air. The idea of spontaneous generation was replaced
spontaneous generation.
with the theory of biogenesis. This theory states that only living
An Italian priest, Lazzaro Spallanzani, was not convinced, and he organisms can produce other living organisms.
suggested that perhaps the microorganisms had entered the
Origins: Modern Ideas
broth from the air after the broth was boiled, but before it was
sealed. To test his theory, he modified Needham's experiment -
he placed the chicken broth in a flask, sealed the flask, drew off
the air to create a partial vacuum, then boiled the broth. No
microorganisms grew. Proponents of spontaneous generation
argued that Spallanzani had only proven that spontaneous
generation could not occur without air.

The theory of spontaneous generation was finally laid to rest in

1859 by the young French chemist, Louis Pasteur. The French
10
If life can arise only from preexisting life, then how did the first life
form appear? All living things consist of organic molecules,
centered around the element carbon. Therefore, it is likely that
organic molecules evolved before cells, perhaps as long as 4
billion years ago. How did these building blocks of life first form?

Scientists think that lightning sparked chemical reactions in

Earth’s early atmosphere. The early atmosphere contained gases
such as ammonia, methane, water vapor, and carbon dioxide.
Scientists hypothesize that this created a “soup” of organic
molecules from inorganic chemicals. In 1953, scientists Stanley
Miller and Harold Urey used their imaginations to test this
hypothesis. They created a simulation experiment to see if
organic molecules could arise in this way (see the figure on the
next page.) They used a mixture of gases to represent Earth’s
early atmosphere. Then, they passed sparks through the gases to
represent lightning. Within a week, several simple organic
Miller and Urey’s Experiment. Miller and Urey demonstrated that
compounds, including amino acids, had formed. They believed
organic molecules could form under simulated conditions of early
that these organic molecules would have eventually supplied the
Earth. What assumptions were their simulation based upon?
precursors to life.
Watch this video, “Revealing the Origins of Life”. In a
landmark discovery, chemist John Sutherland (similar to Miller
and Urey) has created the conditions in which the building blocks
of RNA, one of the key molecules of life and the probable
precursor to DNA, assemble themselves naturally.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/origins-life.html

11
Which Organic Molecule Came First?

Living things need organic molecules to store genetic information

and to carry out the chemical work of cells. Modern organisms Video: RNA World
use DNA to store genetic information and proteins to catalyze
chemical reactions. So, did DNA or proteins evolve first? This is
like asking whether the chicken or the egg came first. DNA
encodes proteins and proteins are needed to make DNA, so each
type of organic molecule needs the other for its own existence.
How could either of these two molecules have evolved before the
other? Did some other organic molecule evolve first, instead of
DNA or proteins?

RNA world hypothesis

Some scientists speculate that RNA may have been the first
organic molecule to evolve. In fact, they think that early life was
based solely on RNA and that DNA and proteins evolved later.
You can learn more about the RNA world hypothesis and the evidence
This is called the RNA world hypothesis. Why RNA It can
for it by watching the video. http://www.youtube.com/watch?
encode genetic instructions (like DNA), and some RNAs can carry v=sAkgb3yNgqg
out chemical reactions (like proteins). Therefore, it solves the
chicken-and-egg problem of which of these two molecules came
first. Other evidence also suggests that RNA may be the most
ancient of the organic molecules.

12
Summary

• Spontaneous generation is a rejected theory which proposed

that life could originate from nonliving material.

• Through the work of many scientists, the theory of biogenesis

was accepted.

• The first organic molecules formed about 4 billion years ago.

• This may have happened when lightning sparked chemical

reactions in Earth’s early atmosphere.

• RNA may have been the first organic molecule to form as well
as the basis of early life.

Review

1. Scientific knowledge builds on the work of others and is

subject to change as new information is acquired. Explain how
these characteristics of science are seen in the rejection of
spontaneous generation and the acceptance of biogenesis.

2. Describe Miller and Urey’s experiment. What did it

demonstrate?

3. State the RNA world hypothesis.

13
Chapter 3

First Cells

Scientists have modeled what the first cells on

Earth may have looked like and how they may have
formed. This image represents the proposed “first
cell”.

Learning Targets

1. analyze and explain the experiments of the

historical scientific perspectives, fossil record, and
the modern ideas of the origin and diversity of life
(e.g. Redi, Pasteur, Miller and Urey, Lamarck,
Darwin, Wallace and Modern Synthesis)
 The First Cells

What was needed for the first cell? Some sort of membrane
surrounding organic molecules? Probably.

How organic molecules such as RNA developed into cells is not

known for certain. Scientists speculate that lipid membranes grew
around the organic molecules. The membranes prevented the
molecules from reacting with other molecules, so they did not
form new compounds. In this way, the organic molecules
persisted, and the first cells may have formed. The figure below
shows a model of the hypothetical first cell.
How do you make complex cells?

You start with simple ones. The first cells were most likely
primitive prokaryotic-like cells, even more simplistic than these E.
coli bacteria. The first cells were probably no more than organic
compounds such as a simplistic RNA, surrounded by a
membrane. Was it a phospholipid bilayer membrane? Probably
not — it was likely a simplistic membrane able to separate the
inside from the outside. Over time, as other organic compounds
such as DNA and proteins developed, cells also evolved into
more complex structures. Once a cell was able to be stable,
reproduce itself, and pass its genetic information to the next
generation, then there was life

Hypothetical First Cell. The earliest cells may have consisted of little more than
RNA inside a lipid membrane.

15
LUCA
No doubt there were many early cells of this type. However,
scientists think that only one early cell (or group of cells)
eventually gave rise to all subsequent life on Earth. That one cell
is called the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA). It
probably existed around 3.5 billion years ago. LUCA was one of
the earliest prokaryotic cells. It would have lacked a nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles.
Video: Facts Of Evolution: Universal Common Descent
To learn more about LUCA and universal common descent, watch this
video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G0UGpcea8Zg
Photosynthesis and Cell Respiration
The earliest cells were probably heterotrophs. Most likely they
got their energy from other molecules in the organic “soup.”
However, by about 3 billion years ago, a new way of obtaining
energy evolved. This new way was photosynthesis. Through
photosynthesis, organisms could use sunlight to make food from
carbon dioxide and water. These organisms were the first
autotrophs. They provided food for themselves and for other
organisms that began to consume them.
After photosynthesis evolved, oxygen started to accumulate in
the atmosphere. This has been dubbed the “oxygen
catastrophe.” Why? Oxygen was toxic to most early cells
because they had evolved in its absence. As a result, many of
them died out. The few that survived evolved a new way to take
advantage of the oxygen. This second major innovation was
cellular respiration. It allowed cells to use oxygen to obtain more
energy from organic molecules.
16
Summary

• The first cells consisted of little more than an organic molecule

such as RNA inside a lipid membrane.

• One cell (or group of cells), called the last universal common
ancestor (LUCA), gave rise to all subsequent life on Earth.

• Photosynthesis evolved by 3 billion years ago and released

oxygen into the atmosphere.

• Cellular respiration evolved after that to make use of the

oxygen.

17
 Chapter 4

Evolution of
Eukaryotes

The endosymbiosis theory explains how eukaryotic

cells may have evolved. It proposes that free-living
prokaryotes were engulfed by another primitive cell.
This picture demonstrates the process of
endosymbiosis.

Learning Targets

1. analyze and explain the experiments of the

historical scientific perspectives, fossil record, and
the modern ideas of the origin and diversity of life
(e.g. Redi, Pasteur, Miller and Urey, Lamarck,
Darwin, Wallace and Modern Synthesis)
 flagella (in the case of sperm cells), and feed on cells which make
our food with chloroplasts. All multicellular organisms and the
unicellular Protists share this cellular intricacy. Bacterial
(prokaryotic) cells are orders of magnitude smaller and have none
of this complexity. What quantum leap in evolution created this
vast chasm of difference?

Video: How did the evolution of complex life on Earth

begin?

Why can this fish live in these tentacles, but other fish cannot?

Anemones and Clown Fish have a well-known symbiotic

relationship. In the ocean, the Clown Fish are protected from
predator fish by the stinging tentacles of the anemone, and the
anemone receives protection from polyp-eating fish, which the
Clown Fish chases away. But what about symbiotic relationships
at a much smaller scale? Is it possible for two single-celled
organisms to have a symbiotic relationship? As you will find out,
yes it is!
In this video. Dr Adam Rutherford discusses the early evolution of
Evolution of Eukaryotes complex life on Earth with geneticists Professor Steve Jones and Dr.
Nick Lane. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q71DWYJD-dI
Our own eukaryotic cells protect DNA in chromosomes with a
nuclear membrane, make ATP with mitochondria, move with

19
The first eukaryotic cells - cells with a nucleus an internal
membrane-bound organelles - probably evolved about 2 billion
years ago. This is explained by the endosymbiotic theory . As
shown in the diagram on the next page, endosymbiosis came
about when large cells engulfed small cells. The small cells were
not digested by the large cells. Instead, they lived within the large
cells and evolved into organelles.
From Independent Cell to Organelle. The endosymbiotic theory explains how
eukaryotic cells evolved.
The large and small cells formed a symbiotic relationship in
which both cells benefited. Some of the small cells were able to
break down the large cell’s wastes for energy. They supplied
energy not only to themselves but also to the large cell. They
became the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. Other small cells
were able to use sunlight to make food. They shared the food
with the large cell. They became the chloroplasts of eukaryotic
cells.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
What is the evidence for this evolutionary pathway? Biochemistry
and electron microscopy provide convincing support. The
mitochondria and chloroplasts within our eukaryotic cells share
the following features with prokaryotic cells:
• Their organelle DNA is short and circular, and the DNA
sequences do not match DNA sequences found in the nucleus.
• Molecules that make up organelle membranes resemble those
in prokaryotic membranes – and differ from those in eukaryotic
membranes.
• Ribosomes in these organelles are similar to those of bacterial
ribosomes, and different from eukaryotic ribosomes.
• Reproduction is by binary fission, not by mitosis.
• Biochemical pathways and structures show closer relationships
to prokaryotes.
• Two or more membranes surround these organelles.
20
The "host" cell membrane and biochemistry are more similar to
those of Archaebacteria, so scientists believe eukaryotes Video: Endosymbiosis
descended more directly from that major group. The timing of this
dramatic evolutionary event (more likely a series of events) is not
clear. The oldest fossil clearly related to modern eukaryotes is a
red alga dating back to 1.2 billion years ago. However, many
scientists place the appearance of eukaryotic cells at about 2
billion years. Some time within Proterozoic Eon, then, all three
major groups of life – Bacteria, Archea, and Eukaryotes – became
well established.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-FQmAnmLZtE

What Does it all Mean?

Eukaryotic cells, made possible by endosymbiosis, were powerful

The three major domains of life had evolved by 1.5 billion years ago.
Biochemical similarities show that eukaryotes share more recent common
ancestors with the Archaea, but our organelles probably descended from bacteria
by endosymbiosis.
and efficient. That power and efficiency gave them the potential
to evolve new characteristics: multicellularity, cell specialization,
and large size. They were the key to the spectacular diversity of
animals, plants, and fungi that populate our world today.
Nevertheless, as we close the history of early life, reflect once
more on the remarkable but often unsung patterns and processes

21
of early evolution. Often, as humans, we focus our attention on
plants and animals, and ignore bacteria. Our human senses cannot
directly perceive the unimaginable variety of single cells, the
architecture of organic molecules, or the intricacy of
biochemical pathways. Let your study of early evolution give you a
new perspective – a window into the beauty and diversity of unseen
worlds, now and throughout Earth’s history. In addition to the
mitochondria that call your 100 trillion cells home, your body
contains more bacterial cells than human cells. You, mitochondria,
and your resident bacteria share common ancestry.

Summary

• Eukaryotic cells probably evolved about 2 billion years ago.

Their evolution is explained by endosymbiotic theory.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from prokaryotic
organisms.
• Eukaryotic cells would go on to evolve into the diversity of
eukaryotes we know today.

Review
1. Describe the endosymbiotic theory.
2. Discuss the evidence for the evolution of mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
I
22
I

23
Absolute dating

the process of determining an approximate computed age in archaeology and geology; the
determination of the age of an object with reference to a specific time scale, such as a fixed
calendar or in years, based on measurable physical or chemical qualities

Related Glossary Terms

Relative dating

Index Find Term

Chapter 1 - History of Life

Autotrophs

organism that captures energy from sunlight or inorganic substances to produce its own
food; provides the foundation of the food supply for other organisms; also called a
producer.

Related Glossary Terms

Heterotrophs, Photosynthesis

Index Find Term

Chapter 3 - First Cells

Biogenesis

the development of life from preexisting life.

Related Glossary Terms

Spontaneous generation

Index Find Term

Chapter 2 - The Origin of Life

Cellular respiration

chemical process in which organic molecules are broken down to release energy for use by
the cell; process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules
in the presence of oxygen.

Related Glossary Terms

Eukaryotic cells, Heterotrophs

Index Find Term

Chapter 3 - First Cells

Endosymbiotic theory

theory that eukaryotic cells formed from a symbiosis among several different prokaryotic
organisms; explains the evolution of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells.

Related Glossary Terms

Eukaryotic cells, Symbiotic relationship

Index Find Term

Chapter 4 - Evolution of Eukaryotes

Eukaryotic cells

cells with membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; generally larger and more complex
than prokaryotic cells.

Related Glossary Terms

Cellular respiration, Endosymbiotic theory, Prokaryotic cells

Index Find Term

Chapter 4 - Evolution of Eukaryotes

Geologic time scale

scale used by paleontologists to represent evolutionary time; model showing major

geological and biological events in Earth’s history.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here

Index Find Term

Chapter 1 - History of Life

Heterotrophs

organisms that cannot make its own food and gets its nutrients and energy requirements by
feeding on other organisms; also called a consumer.

Related Glossary Terms

Autotrophs, Cellular respiration

Index Find Term

Chapter 3 - First Cells

Last Universal Common Ancestor

is the most recent organism from which all organisms now living on Earth descend. Thus it
is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. The LUCA (last universal
common ancestor) is estimated to have lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here

Index Find Term

Chapter 3 - First Cells

Molecular clock

model that uses comparisons of DNA sequences to estimate phylogeny and rate of
evolutionary change.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here

Index Find Term

Chapter 1 - History of Life

Photosynthesis

process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and
carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches; a
two-phase anabolic pathway in which the sun’s light energy is converted to chemical
energy for use by the cell.

Related Glossary Terms

Autotrophs

Index Find Term

Chapter 3 - First Cells

Prokaryotic cells

microscopic, unicellular organism without a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles;

single-celled organism lacking a nucleus

Related Glossary Terms

Eukaryotic cells

Index Find Term

Chapter 3 - First Cells

Relative dating

used to arrange geological events, and the rocks they leave behind, in a sequence. The
method of reading the order of rock layers. Relative dating does not provide actual
numerical dates for the rocks; the science of determining the relative order of past events,
without necessarily determining their absolute age.

Related Glossary Terms

Absolute dating

Index Find Term

Chapter 1 - History of Life

RNA world hypothesis

proposes that a world filled with life based on ribonucleic acid (RNA) predates the current
world of life based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein. RNA, which can both store
information like DNA and act as an enzyme like proteins, may have supported cellular or
pre-cellular life. Some hypotheses as to the origin of life present RNA-based catalysis and
information storage as the first step in the evolution of cellular life.

proposes that self-replicating ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules were precursors to current
life, which is based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins. It is generally
accepted that current life on Earth descends from an RNA world.

Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here

Index Find Term

Chapter 2 - The Origin of Life

Spontaneous generation

It was once believed that life could come from nonliving things, such as mice from corn,
flies from bovine manure, maggots from rotting meat, and fish from the mud of previously
dry lakes. Spontaneous generation is the incorrect hypothesis that nonliving things are
capable of producing life. Several experiments have been conducted to disprove
spontaneous generation;

Related Glossary Terms

Biogenesis

Index Find Term

Chapter 2 - The Origin of Life

Symbiotic relationship

A close, prolonged association between two or more different organisms of different

species that may, but does not necessarily, benefit each member; a close and often long-
term interaction between two or more different biological species.

Related Glossary Terms

Endosymbiotic theory

Index Find Term

Chapter 4 - Evolution of Eukaryotes