Biology for Engineers Notes

Module – 01
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY:
The cell: the basic unit of life, Structure and functions of a cell. The Plant Cell and animal cell,
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell, Stem cells and their application. Biomolecules: Properties and
functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special biomolecules;
Enzymes (Classification with one example each), Properties and functions: vitamins and hormones.

Introduction to Biology:
Cell:

Cells are the fundamental units of life and they are made up of many smaller parts that work

together.

1. Every living organism, from the simplest bacteria to giant whales, is made up of cells. Even

single-celled organisms like amoebas are complete organisms in themselves, carrying out

all necessary functions within a single cell.

2. Multicellular organisms, like humans and plants, are composed of trillions of cells working

together in a highly coordinated way. Each cell type is specialized for a particular function,

like muscle contraction in muscle cells or nerve impulse transmission in nerve cells.

Understanding cells is critical for various fields:

1. Medicine: Studying cells helps us understand diseases like cancer, which arise from

abnormal cell growth.

2. Biotechnology: Genetic engineering involves manipulating cells to produce new products

or treatments.

3. Agriculture: Understanding plant cells is crucial for improving crop yields and

developing resistance to diseases.

Structure and Function:

The common Main Components

1. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane):

2. Cytoplasm:

3. Ribosomes:

4. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Fig. Structure of cell

1. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane):

This acts like a gatekeeper, controlling the flow of materials entering and leaving the cell.

It's a thin phospholipid bilayer that separates the cell's interior from the surrounding

environment.

2. Cytoplasm:

This jelly-like substance fills the cell and suspends all the other organelles. It's the site of

many cellular processes, like metabolism, that keep the cell functioning.
3. Ribosomes:

These tiny particles are responsible for protein synthesis, assembling proteins based on

instructions from DNA.

4. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):

The genetic material containing the instructions for building and maintaining the organism.

It's usually found in a chromosome form.

There are two main types of cells:

1. Prokaryotic cell

2. Eukaryotic cell

1. Prokaryotic cell

Prokaryotic cells are the simplest and oldest type of cell. They are found in bacteria

and archaea, which are single-celled organisms. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller

than eukaryotic cells (plant and animal cells).

Fig. Prokaryotic Cell Structure

Structure of Prokaryotic Cells:

Prokaryotic cells have a simpler structure compared to eukaryotic cells. They lack a membrane-

bound nucleus and most membrane-bound organelles. Here are the key components of a

prokaryotic cell:

 Plasma Membrane: The outer boundary of the cell, controlling what enters and leaves.

 Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance filling the cell, where most cellular processes occur.

 Ribosomes: Tiny particles responsible for protein synthesis.

 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The genetic material containing the instructions for

building and maintaining the organism. It's found in a single, circular chromosome located

in the cytoplasm.

 Cell Wall (in some prokaryotes): Provides structural support and protection.

 Capsule (in some prokaryotes): A sticky outer layer that helps with attachment or

protection.

 Flagella (in some prokaryotes): Hair-like structures for movement.

Functions of Prokaryotic Cells:

Prokaryotic cells carry out all the essential functions of life, even though they are simple. These

functions include:

 Growth and reproduction: Prokaryotic cells can grow and reproduce by binary fission, a

process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

 Metabolism: They can break down nutrients from their environment to obtain energy and

use those building blocks to construct new cellular components.

  Maintaining homeostasis: They can regulate their internal environment to maintain stable

conditions necessary for survival.

 Adapting to the environment: Some prokaryotic cells can move towards or away from

stimuli using flagella or cilia, or change their behavior in response to environmental

changes.

2. Eukaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are the foundation for all

multicellular organisms (animals, plants, fungi) and some single-celled organisms (protists). They

are larger and have a more elaborate structure compared to prokaryotes.

Fig. Eukaryotic Cell Structure

Structure of Eukaryotic Cells:

The hallmark feature of a eukaryotic cell is the presence of a membrane-bound nucleus, which

houses the genetic material (DNA) organized into chromosomes. Here are the key components of

a eukaryotic cell:

 Plasma Membrane: The outer boundary of the cell, controlling what enters and leaves.

 Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance filling the cell, where many cellular processes occur.

 Ribosomes: Tiny particles responsible for protein synthesis.

 Nucleus: The control center of the cell, containing the DNA organized into chromosomes.

 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of membranes involved in protein synthesis,

transport, and lipid production.

 Golgi Apparatus: Packages and distributes proteins and other molecules throughout the

cell.

 Lysosomes: The cell's cleanup crew, breaking down waste materials and foreign invaders.

 Mitochondria: The powerhouses of the cell, generating energy (ATP) for cellular

activities through cellular respiration.

Functions of Eukaryotic Cells:

Eukaryotic cells carry out all the essential functions of life, with their complex structure allowing

for specialized functions within different organelles. Here are some key functions:

 Growth and reproduction: Eukaryotic cells can grow and reproduce through mitosis, a

process that results in two daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell. They can

also reproduce sexually through meiosis, which leads to genetic diversity.

  Metabolism: They break down nutrients from food or their environment to obtain energy

and use those building blocks to construct new cellular components.

 Maintaining homeostasis: They regulate their internal environment to maintain stable

conditions necessary for survival.

 Differentiation: Eukaryotic cells in multicellular organisms can differentiate into

specialized cell types with specific functions, such as muscle cells for contraction or nerve

cells for transmitting messages.

Biomolecules

Biomolecules are the organic molecules that are essential for all living things. They are the

building blocks of life and are involved in all cellular processes.

There are four main types of biomolecules:

1. Carbohydrates,

2. Lipids,

3. Proteins, and

4. Nucleic acids.

1.Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules that play a critical role in living organisms. They are our

primary source of energy and provide the fuel for many cellular processes.
Properties of Carbohydrates:

 Structure: Made up of simple sugars called monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose,

galactose). These monosaccharides can be linked together to form more complex

carbohydrates:

o Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides joined together (e.g., sucrose, lactose)

o Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose)

 Solubility: Generally soluble in water due to the presence of hydroxyl groups that can form

hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

 Taste: Simple carbohydrates like monosaccharides tend to taste sweet, while complex

carbohydrates often have little to no taste.

 Energy Source: Carbohydrates are readily broken down by the body to produce energy

(ATP) through cellular respiration.

Functions of Carbohydrates:

 Energy Provision: The primary function of carbohydrates is to provide energy for cellular

activities. Glucose, the simplest form of carbohydrate, is the main energy source for most

cells.

 Energy Storage: Excess carbohydrates can be stored in the body for later use. In animals,

glycogen is the primary storage form of carbohydrates, mainly found in the liver and

muscles. Plants store carbohydrates as starches.

 Building Blocks: Carbohydrates are also used as building blocks for the formation of some

cellular structures, such as cellulose in plant cell walls.

  Fiber: Complex carbohydrates, like fiber, play a crucial role in digestion and gut health.

They promote regularity and can aid in lowering cholesterol levels.

2. Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are the molecules that store and transmit genetic information, the blueprint for life.

They are essential for all living things, playing a central role in inheritance, protein synthesis, and

cellular processes. Here's a closer look at their properties and functions:

Properties of Nucleic Acids:

 Structure: Polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three main components:

o A sugar molecule (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA)

o A phosphate group

o A nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine in DNA, uracil instead of

thymine in RNA) The sequence of these nitrogenous bases forms the genetic code.

 Types: There are two main types of nucleic acids:

o Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Double-stranded molecule with a characteristic

helical structure. Found in the nucleus of cells and contains the genetic instructions

for building and maintaining an organism.

o Ribonucleic acid (RNA): Single-stranded molecule with various types serving

different functions. Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis and other cellular

processes.

 Acidic Nature: Due to the presence of phosphate groups, nucleic acids are acidic.
Functions of Nucleic Acids:

 Storage of Genetic Information: DNA stores the genetic information that determines an

organism's traits and characteristics. This information is passed down from generation to

generation.

 Protein Synthesis: RNA plays a vital role in protein synthesis. It carries the genetic code

from DNA to ribosomes, where proteins are assembled based on the instructions coded in

the RNA sequence.

 Cellular Processes: Different types of RNA molecules (e.g., messenger RNA, transfer

RNA, ribosomal RNA) have specific functions within the cell, regulating various processes

like protein synthesis, modification, and transport.

 Some Viruses Use RNA: While DNA is the usual genetic material, some viruses use RNA

for their genetic information.

3. Proteins

Proteins are undoubtedly the most functionally diverse biomolecules in living organisms. They are

essential components of every cell and play a critical role in virtually every cellular process. Let's

delve into the properties and functions of these fascinating molecules:

Properties of Proteins:

 Structure: Complex molecules made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

The sequence and arrangement of these amino acids determine a protein's unique 3D

structure, which is crucial for its function.

 Diversity: There are twenty different types of amino acids that can be combined in various

sequences, leading to a vast array of possible protein structures and functions.

  Specificity: Each protein has a specific shape that allows it to interact with other molecules

in a precise way, ensuring its designated function.

 Denaturation: Proteins can lose their function if their 3D structure is disrupted by factors

like extreme heat, pH changes, or exposure to harsh chemicals.

Functions of Proteins:

The sheer diversity of proteins allows them to perform a wide range of functions within the cell.

Here are some key examples:

 Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the cell. Virtually every

metabolic process relies on enzymes to function efficiently.

 Transport: Proteins embedded in cell membranes act as channels or pumps to facilitate

the movement of molecules across the membrane.

 Structure and Support: Proteins like collagen provide structural support to cells, tissues,

and organs. They are also essential components of the cytoskeleton, which maintains cell

shape and aids in movement.

 Movement: Muscle contraction and other forms of cellular movement are driven by

proteins like actin and myosin.

 Signaling: Proteins can function as hormones or signaling molecules, coordinating

communication between cells.

 Defense: Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that help fight off

pathogens.

 Regulation: Certain proteins act as regulators, controlling gene expression and other

cellular processes.
4. Lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of biomolecules that play a variety of crucial roles in living organisms.

Often thought of as just fats and oils, lipids encompass a wider range of molecules with unique

properties and functions. Let's explore these fascinating biomolecules in more detail:

Properties of Lipids:

 Structure: Lipids are generally nonpolar (hydrophobic) molecules, meaning they don't

dissolve well in water. This property is due to their lack of charged groups and abundance

of hydrocarbon chains.

 Diversity: There are several major classes of lipids, each with distinct structures and

functions:

o Triglycerides (fats and oils): The main form of energy storage in animals. They

consist of a glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acids.

o Phospholipids: Essential components of cell membranes. They have a polar head

group and nonpolar tails, allowing them to form a bilayer structure in membranes.

o Steroids: A diverse group including cholesterol, which is found in cell membranes

and serves as a precursor for various hormones and vitamin D.

o Waxes: Protective coatings on plant surfaces and some animal parts.

Functions of Lipids:

 Energy Storage: Triglycerides are the most efficient form of energy storage in the body.

They pack more energy per gram compared to carbohydrates.

  Insulation: Lipids, like those in adipose tissue, help insulate the body, maintaining core

temperature and protecting organs.

 Cell Signaling: Certain lipids like cholesterol act as signaling molecules, involved in cell

communication and regulation.

 Protection: Waxes provide a waterproof coating on plant surfaces, protecting them from

water loss and pathogens.

 Hormone Production: Cholesterol is a precursor for several steroid hormones, including

testosterone and estrogen.

 Vitamin Absorption: Some vitamins, like vitamin A, D, E, and K, are fat-soluble and

require lipids for proper absorption and transport in the body.

Importance of special biomolecules

Enzymes, vitamins, and hormones are all essential biomolecules that play critical roles in

regulating and maintaining life processes within cells and throughout the body. Here's a breakdown

of their individual importance and how they work together:

5.Enzymes:

Enzymes are fascinating biomolecules that act as the workhorses within our cells. They are

essential for life and play a critical role in virtually every cellular process. Let's delve into their

properties and functions:

Properties of Enzymes:

 Catalytic Activity: The defining characteristic of enzymes is their ability to accelerate

chemical reactions. They act as biological catalysts, significantly increasing reaction rates

without being consumed themselves. Enzymes achieve this by lowering the activation

energy, the initial energy required for a reaction to proceed. They bind to specific reactant

molecules (substrates) at their active site, a region with a complementary shape and

chemical properties. This binding facilitates the reaction by bringing the substrates together

in the optimal orientation and inducing slight changes in their electronic state, making bond

breaking and formation more efficient.

 Specificity: Enzymes are incredibly selective in their function. Each enzyme is designed

to bind and act on a specific substrate or a small group of related substrates. This specificity

arises from the unique three-dimensional structure of the active site, which allows only

substrates with the correct shape and chemical fit to bind effectively. Imagine an enzyme

as a lock, and the substrate as the specific key that unlocks its catalytic potential.

 Efficiency: Enzymes are remarkably efficient catalysts, accelerating reactions by millions

of times compared to uncatalyzed reactions. This allows cells to carry out essential

processes at rapid rates under normal physiological conditions.

 Regulation: Enzyme activity is tightly regulated to ensure cellular needs are met. Various

mechanisms control enzyme activity, including:

 Environmental Sensitivity: Enzyme activity can be influenced by environmental factors

like temperature, pH, and presence of inhibitors.

Functions of Enzymes:

Enzymes have a wide range of functions within cells, playing a critical role in virtually every

biological process. Here are some key examples:

 Metabolism: Enzymes break down food molecules into smaller components for absorption

and energy production. They also build complex molecules from simpler ones, such as

protein synthesis and fatty acid synthesis.

 Cellular Respiration: Enzymes are essential for the breakdown of glucose to generate

ATP, the primary energy currency of cells.

 Digestion: Enzymes in our digestive system break down complex food molecules like

carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler forms that can be absorbed by the intestines.

 DNA Replication and Repair: Enzymes are crucial for copying DNA during cell division

and repairing damaged DNA molecules.

 Signal Transduction: Enzymes play a role in transmitting signals within cells and between

cells, coordinating various cellular responses.

 Muscle Contraction: Specific enzymes are necessary for the contraction and relaxation of

muscles, enabling movement.

Classification system of Enzyme:

 EC 1: Oxidoreductases: Enzymes that transfer electrons from one molecule (donor) to

another (acceptor). Examples include dehydrogenases (involved in respiration) and

oxidases (like peroxidase).

  EC 2: Transferases: Enzymes that transfer a functional group (e.g., methyl group,

phosphate group) from one molecule to another. Examples include kinases (transfer

phosphate groups) and transaminases (transfer amino groups).

 EC 3: Hydrolases: Enzymes that break down molecules by adding water (hydrolysis).

Examples include peptidases (digest proteins), lipases (digest fats), and glycosidases

(digest carbohydrates).

 EC 4: Lyases: Enzymes that cleave covalent bonds by mechanisms other than hydrolysis

or oxidation. Examples include decarboxylases (remove carboxyl groups) and deaminases

(remove amino groups).

 EC 5: Isomerases: Enzymes that rearrange the atoms within a single molecule to create

an isomer. Examples include epimerases (change configuration of a single hydroxyl group)

and racemases (convert L-isomers to D-isomers).

 EC 6: Ligases: Enzymes that join two molecules together with covalent bonds, often using

energy from ATP hydrolysis. Examples include synthetases (create new molecules) and

ligases (join specific molecules).

 EC 7: Translocases: Enzymes that move ions or molecules across membranes. Examples

include ATPases (transport ions using ATP energy) and flipases (move molecules across

phospholipid bilayers).

6.Vitamins:

Vitamins are essential micronutrients that our bodies cannot produce in sufficient quantities on

their own. They act as coenzymes or cofactors, working alongside enzymes to facilitate a wide
range of vital biochemical reactions. Let's explore the properties and functions of these essential

biomolecules:

Properties of Vitamins:

 Organic Compounds: Vitamins are organic molecules, meaning they contain carbon

atoms and are essential for various physiological processes.

 Micronutrients: Required in small amounts compared to macronutrients like

carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. However, their presence is critical for maintaining good

health.

 Water-Soluble vs. Fat-Soluble: There are two main categories of vitamins:

o Water-Soluble: Dissolve readily in water and are not stored in the body in large

amounts. Excess water-soluble vitamins are excreted through urine. Examples

include vitamin C and B vitamins.

o Fat-Soluble: Stored in the liver and fatty tissues. Can accumulate in the body with

excessive intake. Examples include vitamins A, D, E, and K.

 Sensitivity to Heat and Light: Some vitamins, particularly water-soluble vitamins, can be

degraded by heat and light during food storage and preparation.

Functions of Vitamins:

Vitamins play a crucial role in various bodily functions. Here are some key examples:

 Energy Metabolism: B vitamins (e.g., thiamine, riboflavin) act as coenzymes for enzymes

involved in breaking down carbohydrates and converting them into energy (ATP).
  Antioxidant Activity: Vitamin C and E function as antioxidants, protecting cells from

damage caused by free radicals.

 Immune Function: Vitamin C, A, and B vitamins like B6 and folate are essential for a

healthy immune system and help fight infections.

 Bone Health: Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption and is crucial for bone

mineralization and development.

 Vision: Vitamin A is essential for vision, particularly night vision, and maintaining a

healthy cornea.

 Skin Health: Vitamin A also plays a role in skin health and wound healing.

 Nervous System Function: B vitamins are important for maintaining a healthy nervous

system and supporting cognitive function.

 Red Blood Cell Production: Vitamin B12 and folate are necessary for the production of

red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body.

 Regulation of Gene Expression: Some vitamins, like vitamin A, can influence gene

expression and cellular differentiation.

7. Hormones:

Hormones are fascinating signaling molecules produced by glands in the endocrine system. They

act like chemical messengers, traveling through the bloodstream to target specific tissues and

organs throughout the body. Let's delve into the properties and functions of these crucial

regulators:
Properties of Hormones:

 Chemical Diversity: Hormones come in a variety of chemical forms, including:

o Peptides and Proteins: Examples include insulin and glucagon, which regulate

blood sugar levels.

o Steroids: Examples include testosterone and estrogen, which influence sexual

development and function.

o Amines: Examples include thyroid hormones and dopamine, which regulate

metabolism and mood, respectively.

 Signaling Mechanism: Hormones don't directly cause cellular actions. Instead, they bind

to specific receptors located on target cells. This binding triggers a cascade of events within

the cell, ultimately leading to a specific cellular response.

 Low Concentration, High Impact: Hormones are typically produced and circulate in very

low concentrations, yet they exert significant effects on target tissues.

 Long-Distance Communication: Unlike enzymes that work within specific cells,

hormones can travel long distances through the bloodstream to reach their target organs.

Functions of Hormones:

Hormones play a critical role in regulating a wide range of physiological processes. Here are some

key functions:

 Metabolism: Hormones like insulin and glucagon control blood sugar levels, while thyroid

hormones regulate overall metabolic rate.

 Growth and Development: Hormones like growth hormone and sex hormones

(testosterone, estrogen) are essential for growth, development, and puberty.

 Reproduction: Hormones like estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone regulate the

menstrual cycle, ovulation, sperm production, and other aspects of reproduction.

 Mood and Stress Response: Hormones like dopamine, serotonin, and cortisol influence

mood, sleep patterns, and the body's response to stress.

 Homeostasis: Hormones play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis (internal balance) by

regulating functions like body temperature, blood pressure, and fluid balance.