BFO-003

Basics of Facility Management

School of Tourism and Hospitality Services

Management (SOTHSM)
Indira Gandhi National Open University New Delhi
 COURSE CONTENTS

Units Course Title

UNIT 1 Origin of Facility Management
UNIT 2 Scope and Applications of Facility Management -I
UNIT 3 Scope and Applications of Facility Management -II
UNIT 4 Real Estate Management
UNIT 5 Financial Management
UNIT 6 Infrastructure Development-I
UNIT 7 Infrastructure Development-II
UNIT 8 Infrastructure Development-III
UNIT 9 Space Management
UNIT 10 Ergonomics
UNIT 11 Building Facilities- I
UNIT 12 Building Facilities- II
UNIT 13 Fire Safety
UNIT 14 Safety and Security
UNIT 15 Operations in Facilities Management
UNIT 16 Health and Hygiene Concerns
UNIT 17 Environment and Sustainable Practices
UNIT 18 Human Resource Management
UNIT 19 Communication
UNIT 20 Information Technology
UNIT 21 Quality Control
UNIT 22 Emergency Preparedness
UNIT 23 Project Management
UNIT 24 Facility Benchmarking
UNIT 1 ORIGIN OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Development of Facility Management in India
1.2.1 Definition and Meaning of Facility Management
1.3 Importance of Facility Management
1.3.1 Major provisions of Facility Management
1.3.2 Role of a Facility Manager
1.4 Relationship Between Facility Management and Asset Management
1.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Facility Management
1.5 Components of Facility Management
1.6 Functions of Facility Management
1.6.1 Elements of Facility Management
1.7 Glossary of Facility Management
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Clues to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 knowledge of skills related to FM
 preparing for practical solutions at the workplace
 gain insights of the various aspects within which the facility management functions
 increase awareness of safety and security compliance issues.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The Facilities Management is an amalgamation of essential services provided in a built

environment to ensure the efficiency and effectiveness in running the organization. Facility
management include all types of support to the organization which ranges from a university,
hospitals, hotels, sports complex, different labs for experimenting or developing new
medicines etc. The role of the facility management may range from limited to an expanded
form depending on the size of the organization. Initially, facility management was limited to
the immediate solution to a problem, reacting as and when the difficult situation arises.
The introduction of computers at the workplace in 1960’s was one of the reasons why
facilities management came into existence. In that time, facility management was limited to
certain cleaning and maintenance of the office furniture and big computers used at the
workplace. The term 'facility management’ was firstly coined by Ross Perot of EDS, USA. It
was primarily associated with the trends affecting the management of information technology
systems and networks. The scope of facility management very soon expected to include
system furniture and office design.
The rapid growth of the service industry viz. media, telecommunication, and banking sector
pave the way for the expansion of facilities management to almost all the small and large
organization. Earlier it was limited to maintenance and cleaning of a built premise and the
service of a few equipment and tools used at the workplace. This was the time when the
facilities management gained its own importance as a thriving profession and emerged as one
of the promising service sectors.
The energy crisis of the 1970’s made organizations to critically analyze the need for
developing more sophisticated furniture like- desk and chair which would be required in the
immediate future.
The 1980’s was a major milestone as the National Facility Management Association (NFMA)
came into existence which was later renamed as International Facility Management
Association (IFMA).
In 1981,Dave Armstrong made numerous presentations in the big cities of USA on Facility
Management, which was a very new concept then; thus, popularizing it among the masses.
Thereafter, he came to known as the father of facility management.
Hermann Miller was well known brand at that time. They were fast enough to establish the
first facility management institute, as a sister concern.
Another remarkable era was the 1900’s when there was an increasing growth of the
outsourced organization which demanded the enactment of new laws in several countries like
United Kingdom. The growth of facilities management in 2000’s; increased efficiency at the
workplace, safety and security were the focus of concerns for the organization, thus increased
the expectations from the outsourcing agencies to perform even better in each sphere of an
organization.
Slowly and gradually the facility management matured. Bigger facility management
organizations started acquiring smaller facility management concerns. This was primarily to
offer better services to the client and increased efficiency. This period also witnessed a debate
on the outsourcing service providers vis a vis the benefits to the organization which have
been availing their services. The service providers entered the domain of healthcare and
pharmaceuticals sectors to prove their might, that they can cater to other sectors as well.
Gradually, the FM moved to the care home sector.
Facilities Management is required from the smallest organization to a giant organization.
These services can be outsourced with the contracts/agreement signed through third party or
through in-house. Growth of facility management now focuses on the preventive measures
for any unseen risk which may arise in the organization.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

The Indian facilities management industry is in the middle of rapid developments. FM

services are steadily gaining popularity among commercial and residential areas. One of the
biggest challenges being faced by the facility management industry is the availability of the
qualified manpower. The FM requires semi-skilled, unskilled manpower and professionals.
There is scarcity of qualified professionals to handle large scale infrastructure in India. The
Government of India has also been laying emphasis on skilled manpower. Unskilled
manpower needs to be trained to cater to the facility management requirements. There is also
a challenge of retention of unskilled staff as they are prone to switching jobs.
The services being provided basically in India concentrates on housekeeping or pest control.
The unorganized service providers provide these services at a lower cost and compromising
on quality of services. There are reports that they also do not comply with statutory
compliances and insurance to provide services at a lower cost. However, those who are there
in the organized sector they provide quality services and meet all statutory compliances but
charge higher cost compared to the unorganized sector facility management service
providers. They provide value for the money.
Technology is already playing a very important role in the way the FM clients are serviced.
Some of the processes that are already implemented include: capturing and analysing data
through training and operations, performance rating modules, keeping a tab of equipment and
machinery performance on site with respect to condition of the equipment. FM industry is
gradually shifting to a more automated service delivery with companies offering technology
driven platforms.
The Indian facility management market attained a value of USD 16 billion in 2021, driven by
the rising population, rapid urbanization, and favorable government initiatives. Aided by the
growing demand for integrated facility management services, the market is expected to
witness a further growth in the forecast period of 2023-2028m at a CAGR of 17%.
(www.expertmarketresearch.com/reports/indian-facility-management-market).

1.2.1 Definition and Meaning of Facility Management

Facility Management can be defined as an organizational function integrating the 3Ps i.e.,
people, place and process of a built environment working towards improving the productivity
at the workplace and the quality of life.
The British Standards Institution defines facilities management as: “The integration of
processes within an organization to maintain and develop the agreed services which support
and improve the effectiveness of its primary activities”.
The International Facility Management Association (www.ifma.org) defines facility
management as “a profession that encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure functionality of
the built environment by integrating people, place, process and technology”.
Facility management is an organizational function. The main purpose of facility management
is to improve the quality of life of people and increase the productivity of the organization.
The purpose of this profession is to support people in an efficient way. As defined by ISO
and adopted by IFMA “it ensures the functionality, comfort, safety, sustainability of
efficiency of the buildings in which we live and a work as also the surroundings”.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Management of facilities in any organization is must in the competitive world. The reasons
for this are varied from safety to employee motivation and from reducing maintenance costs
to improving productivity. The following reasons will further explain why facility
management is not only necessary and important in the fast competitive world:
Increased efficiency: Properly managed facilities is a must for any organization as it helps
very little disruption of work. This ultimately exponentially increases the efficiency of the
organization. The organization can concentrate on its main business. The specialized facility
management agencies not only help in recognizing and predicting problems beforehand like
ordering stationery items or other material and helps if there are going to be any issues
regarding the malfunctioning of equipment.
Save on cost
It is always economical to outsource the services to specialized facility management agencies
as they know how to optimally utilize the resources as also reduce costs. The experience
indicates that generally when such task is handled by any organization directly it results in
high costs, including the human resource cost. Managing equipment and premises will reduce
maintenance issues and thereby helping on costs significantly. It also ensures that the
organization gets value-for-money service that meets all required standards.
Quality and Performance
Facility management helps in creating quality standards and increase in performance which
also includes benchmarking, assessment methodology, best practices. This also helps in
redundancy of services and overlapping which will be visible in efficiency.
Risk Management
It helps in analyzing the risk factors in the given organization structure and designs and
manages emergency testing and simulation to assure emergency preparedness. FM also
ensure compliance of regulatory bodies in the running and maintenance of different services
and submission of required documents to ensure that the safety and security aspects as per
SOPs are being taken care of by the organization.
1.3.1 Major provisions of Facility Management include:
 Servicing of Air-conditioners
 Servicing of RO for clean water
 
Maintenance of heating equipment

Monitoring smoke and fire detection equipment

Proper ventilation of the premise

Cleaning of the entire premise with appropriate tools and required lubricants

Maintenance of fabric e.g., replacement of worn and torn office furniture’s, carpets,
towels.
 Maintenance of uninterrupted power supply in the entire building.
 Regularly inspecting the built premise for any kind of leakage (e.g., gas) or hazardous
discharge.
1.3.2 Role of a Facility Manager includes
This may range from a small to a bigger role depending on the size and location of the
organization.
Stacking the requisite resources-An organization to work effectively largely depends on the
availability of the resources at the right time and place, which can be maintained only after
proper analysis of the daily operational requirements and planning it in advance.
Acting as an information Manager: -any shortage or a problem at the workplace to be
analyzed by a manager and disseminating the information appropriately in the workplace.
Acts as a risk taker: -Facilities Manager is the first one to face any risk arising at the
workplace which may be fire, smoke, hazardous gas, short circuit etc.
Taking care of the natural surroundings: - Acting as an environmentalist to adhere to the
norms and standards prescribed by the regulatory bodies, hence, facilitating the
organizational functions without any hindrance.
Always act as an Innovator: - Acts as a person who is open to accept the changing trends
and applying the same in their own organization. It is vital for any organization to sustain in
the rapidly changing world to be innovative in their services, upgrading the standards time to
time and sharing the knowledge with other organizations.
Managing the overall property: -The structural management (Hard) of the premise as well
as maintaining the cleaning & catering (Soft)
Operational Management: - Managing the day-to-day resources.
Overall maintenance of the built environment
Managing the human resource: Assigning right kind of people at the right task.
Managing the financial affairs: - Managing partial or complete financial affairs of the
organization.

1.4 RELATION BETWEEN FACILITIES MANAGEMENT AND ASSET

MANAGEMENT
Asset management can be defined as organization’s efforts to measure and fulfil the value
provided by both tangible and intangible assets. Equipment, buildings, and property are
tangible assets. An intangible asset is an asset that is not physical in nature like goodwill,
brand recognition, patents, trademarks. Therefore, physical asset management is the process
by which an organization seeks to commission, operate, maintain, upgrade, or dispose of their
assets in the most cost-effective manner. Life cycle of a laptop i.e., from procurement till
disposal adequate helps us in understanding the life cycle of asset management. There is
software available which helps in asset management. Monitoring asset performance helps in
timely maintenance, reduced downtime and losses in production and less repair costs.
Maintenance is what happens during the equipment’s useful life. ISO 55000:2014 sets an
international standard for asset management. Asset management is mostly associated with
industrial settings.
On the other hand, facility management goes beyond cost effectiveness. It consists of hard
services and soft services. Plumbing, HVAC, and other technical interventions are hard
services whereas cleaning or interior designing to provide more functionality, comfort and
safety to users comes under soft services. ISO 41001: 2008 lays out the requirements of
Facility Management systems. It is often associated with the service sector such as office
buildings, hotels and accommodations, shopping centers, schools, colleges, universities,
housing, hospitals, etc.

1.4.1 The Facility Management benefits the organization, however, there are some
advantages and disadvantages. Let’s sum it by listing some of them.
Advantages of Facility Management
Efficient utilization of the resources
Reduces the cost of maintenance
Ensure safe workspace and smooth functioning
Focusing on what is more important
Preventive maintenance helps to maintain the equipment and machines at the workplace
Making the organization for any uncertainty or risk termed as emergency preparedness
Some of the disadvantages of facility management
It’s an expensive affair for a small organization
May breach confidentiality
Property managers tend to lose control of the property
Security of the built premise may get compromised

1.5 COMPONENTS OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT

The components of facility management may be broadly categorized into the following:

Hard Facility Management: These services are to ensure employee welfare and safety.
These are the necessary task to be performed to maintain and enhance the life cycle of the
equipment. These standards are to be maintained as per the law. These are the physical
aspects of any organization. Some of the hard facility managements are:

 Maintenance of the building (planned or predictive)

 Maintaining the thermal temperature

 Maintenance of Air conditioners

 Measures for fire safety

 Ensuring effective lighting

 Plumbing

Soft Facility Management: All those services which are limited to the usage and
maintenance it refers to as the soft facility management.

 Cleaning of the work space e.g. table and floor, washrooms, common areas etc.

 Mail management

 Management of the waste

 Assessment of facility needs

 Decoration of the common places like the eatery etc.

 Pest Controlling

 Managing the parking facility

Specialist Facility Management: All the technical tasks are performed under the specialist
Facility management. These services are performed through Computer Aided Facility
Management (CAFM) software.

1.6 FUNCTIONS OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Managing workforce

 Making availability of the office furniture

 Efficient utilization of the space

 Planning for an emergency

Process set up

 Request for a work order

 Developing processes for the various departments.

Improvement in Facility upkeep

 Preventive and reactive maintenance of the building

 Managing the décor of the built premise

 Close monitoring of the agreements/contracts of the vendors

Technology integration

 Updating the technology

 Assessing the technical market
 Implementing the smart technologies
1.6.1 Elements of Facility Management

The below figure explains the elements of Facility Management

1.7 GLOSSARY OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT

ANSI: American National Standards Institute

ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
B2B:Business to business
B2C:Business to consumer
BIFM: British Institute of Facilities Management
BRI: Building Related Illness.
CAFM: Computer Aided Facility Management Its a automation software for solving the
functions of facilities management like the spatial and infrastructural planning for the long
run.
CBM: Condition based maintenance (also known as CBM)
CCTV: closed circuit television
EC: European Commission
EP: Emergency Preparedness is a term which indicates that in case of any man-made or
natural disaster; how an organization responds with full responsibility.
EU: European Union
FM: facilities management
GIS: geographic information system
GPS: global positioning system
HRM: human resources management
HSE: Health and Safety Executive
HVAC: heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
IAM: Institute of Asset Management
ICE: Institution of Civil Engineers
ICT: Information and Communications technology
IEMA: Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment
IET: Institute of Engineering and Technology
IFMA: International Facility Management Association
IFMA: International Facility Management Association
IPM: Integrated Pest Management
ISO: International Organization for Standardization
KPI: key performance indicator
LAN: local area network
LCC: Life cycle costing.
LEED: Leadership in energy and environmental design.
M&E: Mechanical and electrical.
Maintenance Procedures: refers to the inspection of the equipment and the services which
must comply with the set norms and standards. The combination of maintenance procedures
and program is known as the maintenance policy. This policy adheres to the recommendation
and standards established by the regulatory bodies.
MEP: Mechanical, electrical, plumbing.
NFMA: National Facility Management Association
O&M: Operations and maintenance.
PELs: Permissible Exposure Limits (standards set by the Occupational, Safety and Health
Administration—OSHA)
PEST: political, economic, social, and technological
PM: Preventive maintenance is a calendar/usage-based process of checking and assessing the
life of an equipment on a regular interval. It helps to find out the exact condition of an
equipment to foresee any possible breakdown which may hinder the routine work of an
organization.
PPE: personal protective equipment
PPM: Parts per Million
PPM: planned preventive maintenance
PPP: public–private partnership
QA: quality assurance
Radon (Rn): Radioactive gas with no odour, colour or taste produced from the decay of
uranium
RCM: Reliability centred maintenance. It is an effective task which is a preventive measure
and controls risk of failures which impact in performance slowdown.
RELs: Recommended Exposure Limits (recommendations of the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
RFID: radio frequency identification
SAME: Society of American Military Engineers
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS): This refers to the health issues faced by the occupants due to
the poor internal air quality (IAQ) and poor ventilation at the work premise which leads to
irritation in eyes, nose, and throat.
TBM: Time based maintenance
TFM: total facilities management. This maintenance depends largely on a calendar or a clock
and follows the strict timeline. It is performed on a regular interval to improve the
performance of the asset. This is performed on the asset even if they are in a good condition.
This type of methodology monitors the real condition of the assets and assist to decide
whether the maintenance I is due for that asset or not.
TVOCs: Total volatile organic compounds
VR: virtual reality
WO: Work order Document provides information about a maintenance task of premise to be
taken and completed by the assigned person in the stipulated time.

1.8 LET US SUM UP

List some of the hard and soft facility management of your university/work area

1.9 CLUES TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

List some of the hard and soft facility management of your university/work area.
UNIT 2 SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT -I

Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Hospitality and Catering Facilities
2.2.1 Evolution of Hospitality Industry
2.2.1.1 Silk Routes
2.2.1.2 Pleasure Travel
2.2.1.3 Events of traveling in ancient India
2.2.1.4 Grand Tour
2.2.1.5 19th Century: Indulgence of Luxury
2.2.1.6 20th Century: Beginning of Modern Hospitality Era
2.2.1.7 21st Century: Technological Integrations
2.2.1.8 Evolution and Growth of Hotel Industry in the India
2.2.2 Hotel Business
2.2.2.1 Important departments of Hotel
2.2.3 Catering Facilities
2.3 Tourism Facilities
2.3.1 Antecedents of Modern Tourism
2.3.2 Requirements of Tourism Industry
2.3.3 Components of Tourism Industry
2.3.4 Impact of Tourism Industry
2.4 Recreational Facilities
2.4.1 Basics of Recreation Facilities
2.4.2 Fundamentals of Recreation Facilities
2.4.3 Types of Recreation facilities
2.4.4 Management of Recreational facilities
2.4.5 Administrative Functions and Operation Management
2.5 Entertainment Facilities
2.5.1 Categories of Entertainment
2.5.2 Impacts of Entertainment
2.6 Sport Facilities
2.6.1 Types of Sport Facilities
 2.6.2 New Trends in Sport Facilities
2.7 Event Management Facilities
2.7.1 Characteristic of Event
2.7.2 Classification of Event
2.7.3 Event Management
2.7.4 Role of Event Manager
2.7.5 Role of Event Management Organizations
2.7.6 Impact of Events
2.8 Government and Public Facilities Like Library and Museum, etc
2.9 Conclusion
2.10 Key Concepts
2.11 Activities

2.0 OBJECTIVES

The objective of this unit is to highlight the key characteristic of various facilities including
hospitality and catering facilities, Tourism Facilities and identify the numerous antecedents of
tourism, Recreational Facilities, Entertainment Facilities, Sport Facilities, Event Management
Facilities and Government and Public Facilities Like Library and Museum, etc and as an
integral aspect to the understanding of the components and areas of these facilities.

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

 Understand the scope of these facilities.

 Understand the components of these facilities
 Understand the impacts of these facilities.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Over the past decade, the facility management (FM) industry has emerged as one of the
fastest-growing sectors.FM is centered in the factor of place, which is not a core business
issue. The work of FM is multidisciplinary and encompasses a wide range of activities,
responsibilities, and skills.In terms of the life cycle of each building, FM collaborates with
the organization from beginning to end. Clearly, FM works to reconcile the demand and
supply sides by acting as an intermediary and integrating agent. In order to orchestrate all of
the functions of the organization, FM provides and manages a variety of support services.
Integration of primary activities at both the strategic and operational levels is the primary
focus. It is expected of facility managers to be well-versed in a wide range of administrative
and leadership abilities.Moreover every aspect of an organisation seems to be drawn into
facility management. In order to advance FM's recognition as well as its identity and image,
FM can be regarded as a significant profession that places an emphasis on business strategy,
innovation, finances, and people (human resources).In practice, facilities management can
include wide range of services including building maintenance, domestic services (such as
cleaning and security), utilities supplies, financial management, change management, human
resources management, health and safety management, and contract management.

2.2 HOSPITALITY AND CATERING FACILITIES

2.2.1 Evolution of Hospitality Industry

The French word "Hospice," which translates to "Taking care of the travelers," is the
source of the term "Hospitality".

Prior to monasteries' decision to construct a tourist rest area, there were no place to stay,
locals used to let travelers, rest on kitchen floors or other extra spaces while they traveled in
the past, as a result, lodging services emerged. Inns were established at the end of the
1700s.Inns were nothing more than shelters along the road where travelers could rest and eat.
They would also look after the horses of travelers while they rested. The modern hospitality
facility's seeds were planted at this time. The development of the past two millennia has
resulted in what we see today. The development of lodging facilities over time is depicted
here.

The Lascaux caves in France, which were constructed in 15,000 BCE to accommodate
members of other tribes, marked the beginning of the hospitality industry's long history. We
learn about Greek and Roman spas, which were popular with people who wanted to rest and
relax in classical times. The first two hotels in Japan's history, known as Ryokans, were
established in the early 700s.Along the Silk Road, these Ryokans served as rest stops.

The United Nations World Tourism Organization designated September 27 as "World

Tourism Day" in 1980.The purpose of this celebration is to promote sustainability in the
global tourism industry. United Nations World Tourism Organization defines tourism as
“Activities of persons traveling to and staying in different places for not more than a
consecutive year for leisure, business or traveling purpose.” Our ancient civilizations traveled
great lengths in search of food and shelter. Now only travelling to various parts of the country
and outside country is itself a huge business and business market. Transportation, lodging,
food and beverage, travel agencies, entertainment, and other services make up the tourism
industry. Land and water were the only means of transportation in the past and they were
often considered risky. However, the tourism industry saw a massive increase in the number
of travelers from all over the world as the innovations resulted in more convenient and safer
modes of transportation. Today's tourism industry is the result of changes in the hospitality
industry, transportation innovations, advancements in communication technology, and other
factors.

2.2.1.1 Silk Routes:

From the second century B.C. to the 14th century A.D., China, India, Persia, Arabia, Greece,
and Italy were all part of the historic trade route known as the Silk Route. Due to the
significant amount of silk trade that occurred during that time, it was given the name "Silk
Route". The Silk Road trade played a significant role in the development of the civilizations
of China, Korea, Japan, the Indian subcontinent, Iran, Europe, Horn of Africa and Arabia, it
also opened long-distance political and economic relations between those civilizations.
Although silk was the most commonly traded item exported from China, many other goods
and ideas were also exchanged, including syncretic philosophies, scientific discoveries,
religions (particularly Buddhism), and technologies like paper and gunpowder.As a result, the
civilizations that traveled along the Silk Road exchanged cultural and economic goods as
well. Along the Silk Road, diseases like the plague also spread. Trade was the first to
encourage travelers to travel, and as more and more people traveled, they needed more
comforts like food, lodging, and health care. Private organizations emerged as a result, which
led to the subsequent developments: Development of creative activities, the local economic
expanded as a result of providing services to tourists, Interaction in Cultural and Commercial,
Exchange of ideas and thinking.

2.2.1.2 Pleasure Travel:

After the closure part of the early travel, the Rome Realm arrived at their summit of the
brilliance. As a result, the Romans are credited with developing the concept of leisure travel.
They traveled because they have plenty of time and money. In addition, Romans were the
greatest supporters of literature, learning, and art. The 12,000 kilometers-long silk route from
the Mediterranean Sea to the Pacific Ocean is one of the example. Old, prosperous cities like
Rome, Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, and China connected it. Due to their
curiosity, some intellectuals of the time continued to engage in creative pursuits. Between
400 and 500 A.D., the fall of the Roman Empire ended the era of pleasure travel.

2.2.1.3 Events of Traveling in Ancient India:

India was also a major destination for pilgrims. In his eagerness to spread Buddha's
teachings, Ashoka traveled a lot. Ashoka and his entourage began their journey in Nepal at
Patliputra, then proceeded to Lumbini Gardens, Kapilvastu, and finally Sarnath. From
Sarnath, Ashoka traveled to Gaya, where Buddha attained enlightenment. During the course
of his travels, Emperor Ashoka established rest houses and erected special memorials at each
location. Following in his footsteps, a number of other rulers established institutions and
Dharamshalas for tourists. Rest houses, monasteries and temples were also built for pilgrims.

2.2.1.4 Grand Tour:

The popularity of the "Grand Tour" provided a significant boost to the hotel industry during
the second half of the eighteenth century, prior to the French Revolution (1789–99),this
period is referred to as the "Golden Era of Travel". During that time, the education of
children from wealthy British families included a Grand Tour of the European continent.
People in prominent cities in France, Italy, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Ireland had
the opportunity to establish lodging, transportation, and recreation facilities during this tour,
which frequently lasted for several years. Entrepreneurs who saw the big picture and made
money from it embraced hospitality skills and established the modern hotel industry.
Noticeable among the lodgings that arose during this period were Dolder Grand in Zurich.
Des Bergues in Geneva, the Vir Jahreszeiten in Hamburg, and the Imperial in Vienna Thomas
Cook, a humble cabinet maker, established himself as the first tour operator in the world
when he organized a train trip from Leicester to Louthborough in 1841.

2.2.1.5 19th Century: Indulgence of Luxury

At the beginning of the 1800s, tourists only had access to "inns" as places to stay.Numerous
inns date back to the 17th century. But now, lodging was more than just a place to sleep and
rest, they began providing the travelers with food and beverages. And shortly thereafter, the
luxury component began to blend in and Hotels became more sophisticated establishments
with more luxurious rooms and dining areas. In the history of the hospitality industry in the
United States, the year 1829 is regarded as a turning point. Isaiah Rogers, an American
architect, built the first luxury hotel in Boston, Massachusetts, the "Tremont Hotel," in that
year. It was the first hotel with a lock on the doors and a private bathroom attached. The
water was lifted to the roof-mounted storage tank by a steam-powered pump. In those days,
the "Tremont Hotel" set the standard for luxury hotels. From that point on, hotels and inns
began placing a greater emphasis on services in order to differentiate themselves from other
hotels. They never stopped improving their facilities and services. Hotels started to include
bars later on. Additionally, the bars soon became a significant hotel selling point. The hotels
were also getting better in terms of design and architecture. There were more hotels with
multiple floors, and their beautiful exteriors made them stand out from other hotels. Soon,
beautiful crystal chandeliers and well-decorated ceilings became commonplace. Throughout
the 19th century, hotels continued to compete to build the best, largest, and most luxurious
hotels. The Grand Pacific, The Palmer House, and the Sherman House in Chicago, as well as
the Palace in San Francisco with its 800 rooms, were among the other hotels built.

Another landmark hotel was built in 1908, it was the first business hotel , The Statler Hotel in
Buffalo, New York was a beautiful 450 rooms magnificent multi storied property was pioneer
in many- it provided attached bathroom with hot and cold running water in each room ,
electric lamp on the desk, and radio in each room.

The year of 1930‘s again saw the great depression in the liquidity of most of the hotels in
America. The Hotel industry than continue to show a slow and steady growth in around 1940
and 1950‘s.with new properties and changes coming in the hotels.

Around 1950, an increase in automobile travel led to the rise of motor hotels or motels, a new
hotel category. In addition to providing free parking and basic lodging, these motels also
served as rest stops for tourists and travelers between two locations. In the years that
followed, there was a rapid expansion of hotels on a large scale as well as the establishment
of budget hotels that offered basic amenities at a reduced price with a focus on customers on
a tight budget. The hotel industry has developed a number of national and international
chains over time. Most recently, new concepts and luxuries that can be provided to guests are
being developed, and the possibilities are endless. Hotels can now be found underwater,
above water, on trees, and in capsules, among other locations.

2.2.1.620th Century: Beginning of Modern Hospitality Era

Hospitality, which was more or less ingrained in the culture, turned out to be a huge
opportunity for businesses. Numerous individuals are approaching architectural design firms
to incorporate more facilities into the hotel design architecture. More and more people are
able to travel as transportation systems become more innovative. Some people jumped into
the hotel industry when they saw the opportunity. This is why, from the beginning to the
middle of the 20th century, numerous enormous hotel chains began operating. There had
never been more competitors in the industry. Conard Hilton opened his first hotel in Texas in
1919.Conard purchased the Ellsworth Statler's hotel chain in 1954 as well. Marriot
(founded1927), the Sheraton (in 1937), Hyatt (establishedin 1957) also emerged as major
industry players.

2.2.1.721st Century: Technological Integrations

The traditional hospitality industry has developed into what it is today, even though it began
as merely offering a place to sleep. The customer has always been at the center, despite all
industry changes. It is always developing to become more sophisticated. The hotels literally
reached new heights in this century. The 21st century saw the construction of some of the
tallest hotels.All of this was made possible by Engineering Design Services' technological
advancements. Examples include the Burj al Arab and Hotel Fairmont Makkah.

Since its inception in 2008, Airbnb has created a brand-new sector within the hospitality
sector. It connects people who want to rent their property with people who want to rent it as a
marketplace. This provides them with a very cost-effective and convenient option as an
increasing number of people travel for business or pleasure. Like wise, there has been seen an
extraordinary climb in the quantity of independent explorers worldwide. These independent
explorers not much made a fuss over the conveniences. They are not opposed to sharing
space. They enjoy meeting and interacting with both locals and tourists. Youth hostels and
home-hospitality concepts have emerged as new trends as a result. The Web helps a great
deal to such neighborliness organizations. The availability, photos, and user reviews can all
be seen by the public. Today, we can look at all of our possible places to stay anywhere in the
world. We can learn about amenities and services. We are able to reserve our stay and pay in
advance as well. The construction of hotels with a traditional, historic feel that incorporates
modern amenities is favored by recent trends in the hospitality industry.
2.2.1.8 Evolution and Growth of Hotel Industry in the India

Medieval or ancient times: The Indian concept of "Atithi Devo Bhava"—"Guest is God"—
was the impetus behind the establishment of the hospitality industry. Even though it's not
clear when hospitality became a business in India, there are examples of lodging facilities for
travelers and guests, though they weren't as organized as they are today. In India, the idea of
a shelter was probably first put into practice by ancient Buddhist monks. There is a chaitya
(sanctuary) and a vihara (monastery) at the cave temples that can be found all over India's
south-western region. These priests, albeit living in their tranquil environmental elements,
away from towns and towns, were by the by aware of the requirements of explorers and
pioneers who tracked down sanctuary and food at these religious communities. It is
interesting to note that these monasteries are on ancient trade routes that connected
significant regional deities. According to some inscriptions, merchants generously
contributed to the construction and upkeep of these establishments. Evidently, these acts of
kindness were not motivated solely by charity. These routes were used by traders to transport
their goods and cash, and the viharas served as their lodgings. This ancient institution
gradually became more secular during the Middle Ages. The caravanserai appeared as an
exclusive traveler's lodge with a nanbai, or cook, whereas religious centers always had
musafirkhanas and dharamshalas attached to them.

Numerous lodging facilities were constructed as people moved around more frequently and
time went on.In India, lodging houses were referred to as "Dharamshala" (Religion
House/School). These homes were built in and around village chaupals and were managed by
locals. They served as a meeting place for the villagers to plan and discuss various social
welfare and development initiatives. As travelers started setting up camp there for safety
reasons, these became the lodgings. With the assistance of zamindars and other influential
individuals, Dharamshala's permanent structures were gradually constructed for tourists. As a
result, they were given a secure location in which to unwind and spend the night. After that,
kings, rajas, nawabs, wealthy businessmen, and philanthropists built sara is to make traveling
easier. As commerce grew, traveling became profitable, and with it came the business of
giving comfortable lodging and good food to the growing number of travelers.

2.2.2 Hotel Business

One of the largest segments of the service and leisure industries is the hotel industry. In a
nutshell, it is the sector of the service industry responsible for providing overnight lodging to
individuals in need. Conventional hotels and motels, short-term apartment rentals, resorts,
and hostels are all included in the definition of the "Hotel Industry."Long-term or permanent
housing is not typically associated with the hotel industry; Having said that, a number of
hotels do accommodate a select few guests staying for longer periods of time. The hotel
industry is intrinsically linked to the travel and tourism sector.

The business structure that emerged with the implementation of the laws in form of –

 Sole Proprietor
 Partnership Firm
 Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) firms
 Private Limited Company
 Public Limited Company
In addition to the above, the following types of business options are also available for foreign
investors or foreign companies desirous of doing business in India are Liaison Office,
Representative Office, Project Office, Branch Office, Wholly-owned Subsidiary Company
and Joint Venture (JV) Company. In India, the conceptualization of a limited liability
company, which is to be limited by guarantee, after its files two primary documents – The
Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association.

2.2.2.1 Important departments of Hotel

The entire procedure of a hotel's day-to-day operation is referred to as "successful hotel

operations". In order for a hotel to run smoothly, each department needs to work well
together and in harmony with the others. In order to give guests the best experience possible,
the various parts of the hotel need to work together.

The front desk department's smooth and effective check-in, the housekeeping department's
clean and inviting rooms, and the maintenance department's well-maintained facilities are all
examples of successful hotel operations. Hotel management has become even more
challenging over the past decade. The complexity of hotel operations has increased as a result
of the requirement for additional health checks, hygiene measures, and other measures. The
hotel manager is in charge of everything because he or she is in charge of all departments.
Depending on the level of complexity of their operations, different hotels will have different
departments. The majority of hotels will require the operation of the following major
departments:

Front Office Department- It is responsible for welcoming & registering the guest, assigning
rooms &and assisting guests with checkout. It is headed by Front Office Manager.

Housekeeping Department- It is responsible for keeping cleanliness & upkeep of hotel areas
and rooms clean and in good condition. This department is headed by Executive
Housekeeper.

Food & Beverage Services- It contains the Restaurants, Bars, Coffee Shop, banquets &
Room Service. The department in-charge is Manager Food & Beverages.

Food Production Department- It consist of kitchen & bakery area. This department is
headed by executive Chef.

Human Resource Department-The Human Resource Department is looking into

recruitment, orientation, training, employee welfare, compensation, labor laws, and safety
rules for the hotel. The Human Resource Manager is in charge of this department.

Maintenance Department-All engineering, maintenance, and repair work on machines,

fixtures, and equipment falls under the purview of this department.

Marketing Sales & Department-This department has five functions: sales, personal
relationships, advertising, and acquiring. Manager of Sales & Marketing is heading the
department.

Financial and Account Department-Finance, billing and monitoring of all transaction,

profit and loss, finance control procedures are the responsibility of this department. This
department is headed by financial head.

Security Department- The Hotel's assets, guests, loss and found, fire and safety, and
employees are all protected by this department. This department is headed by Chief Security
Officer.

Purchase Department- The procurement of all departmental purchase, negotiation,

inventory control, interaction with suppliers and outside contractors is the responsibility of
purchase department. This department is headed by Purchase Manager.
2.2.3 CATERING FACILITIES

One of the food and beverage industry's most dynamic business groups is catering facilities.
Catering, in contrast to restaurants, where food and beverages are typically served on
demand, is defined as the planned service of food and beverages by the industry. Catering
establishments have a much better chance of offering pre-planned meals and drinks than
restaurants do. Catering facilities, for the most part, can be provided in any public or private
location, whereas restaurants are business units that serve the general public within their
operating facilities. In addition to offering food and beverages on-demand, many restaurants
provide catering services.

There are some food service companies that only work for planned events with food and
drinks.

• In most cases, catering services for members and guests can be found in the
architectural and landscaped facilities of private and public clubs. Catering events are
held in a wide variety of indoor and outdoor settings.
• Quality-of-service and standards-training are two components of catering business
management. In today's business environment, establishing a level of service quality
and delivery is a competitive factor. The ongoing success of a food and beverage
service depends on the training strategies and programs that are implemented for a
staff that is constantly evolving.

Broad Categories of Catering Facilities

There are three broad categories in the food service industry, within each of the three
segments, catering management is carried out in a variety of distinct ways:

1. Commercial Segment: The independent caterer, the restaurant caterer, and the home-
based caterer are all included in the first, commercial segment, which is traditionally
regarded as for-profit businesses. Catering businesses for private clubs and
hotel/motel chains are also included in this category.
2. Non-commercial Segment: The following categories of catering operations are
included in the non-commercial segment, also known as not-for-profit operations
:catering for social organizations, transportation food service catering, college and
 university catering, health care facilities, recreational food service catering, and
business/industry accounts.
3. Military Segment: All catering activities associated with military or diplomatic events
fall under the military category.

Location: Establishing the catering facilities focus on social or business marketing efforts is
made easier by the restaurant's proximity to office complexes and centralized business areas.
Social catering businesses can be successfully developed by both urban and suburban
restaurants. Social catering to private homes, clubs, churches, and other facilities tends to
work better in suburban areas. Delivery to urban areas may present security and logistical
challenges, increasing transportation and service labor costs. The anticipated catering
business volume is also impacted by population density. Catering business will not
immediately surge for restaurants in rural areas with low population densities. Catering
opportunities abound in high-density areas, and their volume steadily rises as a result of
word-of-mouth and goodwill. The kind of catering services the restaurant building provides is
influenced by its location. Production of catering services is influenced by a number of
factors, including access to important transportation routes, expansion opportunities, and
storage facilities. Before placing catering facility and start offering services, these following
factors should be considered: Location where facility proposing, Customer profile in that
area, Restaurant style or concept, Staffing availability and capabilities, facility physical
layout and menu offering.

Customer Profile: The advantage of restaurants is that they already have a large customer
base from which to market both on-site and off-site catering services. The association with a
restaurant's reputation also contributes to the expansion of the potential market to include
new social and business customers. Customers should be classified according to their income
level in the market profile as business or social catering clients. Additionally, every customer
pool's needs for catering services should be investigated as thoroughly as possible. The
creation of package programs, potential menus, and pricing ideas are aided by this
information.

Operational Controls: The operational controls that management establishes for monitoring
the business's daily productivity and profitability are crucial to the success of an ongoing
catering operation. Within a foodservice operation, operational controls are performed to
ensure that food and beverage products meet established quality standards as quickly as
possible. The following areas are covered by operational controls:

 Costingand Pricing controls - Costs are all expenses required to conduct business,
including rent or mortgage, taxes, licensing fees, and contracts such as laundry, pest
control, equipment service, and trash removal, plus food, labor, supplies, telephone,
heat, electricity, water, advertising, and printing, to name a few

 Purchasing and Production controls - Develop step-by-step procedures that maximize

the product's shelf life to reduce the cost of waste caused by product loss during
receiving, storage, or distribution.

 Presentation - Presentation standards include three important elements that contribute

to the maintenance of a consistent quality in the appearance of the finished product as
it is presented to the guest: Size and type of dish, Portion size, Garnish and Service.

2.3 TOURISM FACILITIES

Tourism is considered as an Industry. The activities of a visitor who travels to a specific

geographical location outside of his or her usual environment for no more than a year for
leisure, business, or other reasons are referred to as tourism. At the destination, they are not
permitted to work for compensation. One of the world's fastest-growing industries is
considered to be tourism. However, due to its mix of formal and informal sectors, it lacks
organization. It is one of the industries with the most divisions. It provides employment
opportunities to numerous individuals worldwide. Although it is categorized as an industry,
the economy's tertiary sector includes it. A series of routes used for the commercial transfer
of goods were referred to as trade routes. It made it easier to move the goods over longer
distances. The trunk route, also known as the main transportation artery, served a larger area
by establishing supporting and connecting routes. Even in the distant past, this general
principle was in use. Two of these paths were extremely significant.

2.3.1 Antecedents of Modern Tourism

The following could be the order.

a. Nomadism :People who moved around in search of food were known as nomads.
 b. Pilgrimage :A pilgrimage is a journey to holy sites in accordance with one's faith and
beliefs. The places of the birth or death of the spiritual awakening's founders are
significant to many religions. Pilgrimage has become a major source of mass tourism
in modern times due to the expansion of transportation and other facilities and the
consequent increase in the number of visitors to these locations..
c. Travel for trade and business
d. Migration :The movement of people from one location to another is known as
migration. This has been taking place for quite some time..
e. Travel for research and education: People travel to far-flung regions in search of
quality education due to the proliferation of numerous schools and research
educational institutions.
f. Multi-destination tourism: Tourism has expanded significantly over time for a variety
of reasons. In many nations, it is a cost-effective and profitable strategy for expanding
economic activity. Everything is done to make sure that tourists have everything they
need, like transportation, lodging, local transportation, food and drinks, entertainment,
and comforts. Traveling to multiple destinations for tourism purposes is considered
multi-destination tourism. It is now a very popular tourist activity. At the point when
vacationers are voyaging, they are not bound to a solitary spot yet are visiting many
places in a steady progression. As a result, multi-destination travel is essential in
today's world.

The growth of tourism involves a large number of people. Those individuals may be from the
informal sector of society or have formal education and training. In addition to highly
qualified experts in the hotel industry, IT and communication, long- and medium-distance
transportation, guides, ticketing, hotel booking, food and drinking, etc., tourism offers
opportunities to vendors, rickshaw pullers, and auto-taxi drivers.

2.3.2 Requirements of Tourism Industry

Space for Tourism Industry: Since tourism involves moving from one location to another,
space is an essential component. Almost all of the world is available for tourism. Facilities
for tourists might include accessible transportation, hotels, clean food, attractions, etc. in that
locale. One of the most crucial aspects for the growth of tourism is security and safety.

Entrepreneurship for Tourism Industry: A lot of people want to go to different tourist

destinations; the entrepreneur assumes responsibility for providing tourist facilities.
Capital: Infrastructure Development Resource: Advancement of foundation isn't restricted
exclusively to the travel industry, yet it is for general prosperity of the area and individuals.

Workforce for Tourism Industry: Significant among them are transport, convenience,
food, diversion, cordiality, vacation spot, visit administrators, travel planners, lastly
vacationer and so on. Every one of them are not isolated substances but rather they exist in an
interlinked way. Their interaction takes the form of a web, which eventually leads to serving
tourists.

Manpower: When skilled workers are available to meet the needs of tourists, the tourism
industry thrives. The workforce can be divided into skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled
categories. All are necessary to satisfy the requirements of the tourists. For instance, booking
the tickets, arranging the hotel, providing entertainment, a guide, and high-quality food all
require highly skilled individuals. The workforce, which includes taxi drivers and other
supporting staff, provides local transportation. Making places neat and tidy for tourists.
Additionally, an untrained workforce is required and utilized. Worker collaboration of all
kinds is also linked to the development of infrastructures.

Market for Tourism Industry: Producer, operator, travel agent, and tourists are the primary
components of tourism. Travel agents and tour operators are connected to all of these. The
producer creates a variety of tourism-related resources. The public and private sectors could
both benefit from these resources.

2.3.3 Components of Tourism Industry

The tourism industry is made up of six main components, each of which has its own sub-
components:

1. Tourist boards: It is responsible for promoting tourism in a particular sector or area,

such as a city, region, or location, and is an essential part of tourism. It is typically a
public travel and tourism organization supported by the government.
2. Travel Services: It is a fundamental part of the travel industry. It provides all relevant
tourism-related information and recommendations. There is a strong connection
between transportation, tourism, and travel services. Tourism relies heavily on
transportation because people cannot reach their intended destination without it. Air,
road, train, and water are among the most common modes of transportation.
 3. Accommodation services: Services provided at a place where tourists can stay, such
as hotels, hostels, guest houses, home stays, new ways to stay, etc.
4. Food and Beverage services
5. Events and Conferences: Business and leisure varying in size e.g. football world cup,
official meeting, education conference, etc.
6. Attractions and Tourism services: Attraction that are visited by tourist, can

2.3.4 Impact of Tourism Industry

The four impacts of tourism could be classified as:

1. Economic impacts: The number of people involved and the amount of money made
could indicate how important this sector's economics. Numerous individuals are
involved in the tourism industry, either directly or indirectly. Transportation, lodging,
food, ticketing, guiding, boating, rafting, trekking, and site maintenance are all
included. The host provides the guests with all necessary amenities and services. All
of these extras are paid for by the guest. As a result, both the tourist's home town and
the destination they choose to visit benefit greatly from tourism. The host nations
benefit financially from expenditures incurred to promote tourism. This, in turn,
boosts expansion in related economic sectors.
2. Socio-cultural impacts: Changes in behavior, value systems, and even one's identity—
including the loss of one's indigenous identity—are observed as a result of interaction.
Community structure, family relationships, the collective traditional way of life,
ceremonies, and morality are all examples of deviations. In addition, there are some
positive effects that are observed. Tourism raises public awareness of the value and
significance of natural, cultural, archaeological, or historical sites. It makes people
feel proud of their country's and local heritage. This results in their consciousness.
Education is a part of tourism. Through education, tourism helps people from two or
more cultural groups get to know each other better. Cultural exchange between hosts
and guests is provided.
3. Political impacts: The tourists' primary concern is political stability. Securely and
security at any vacationer location draws in huge number of sightseers. Conflict and
political unrest in the region or country of destination prove to be a hindrance. In
point of fact, a country that has a government that is either unstable or on the verge of
being toppled has political instability. A coup-supporting faction sometimes runs the
 government. Law and order pose a significant challenge in such circumstances. As a
result, tourists steer clear of these locations.
4. Environmental impacts:More tourists mean more demand for a variety of goods and
services. The provision of supportive and other facilities results in site congestion for
tourists.

2.4 RECREATIONAL FACILITIES

Recreational activities improve effect on the mental health and physical health of an
individual. It helps in managing stress, develops personal development, boosts physical
activities, promote psychological well beings and contributes towards improving the overall
quality of life. Golfing, rock climbing, skiing, snowboarding, hunting, road cycling, mountain
biking, camping, hiking, scuba diving, and paddle sports (river rafting, stand-up paddle
boarding) are all examples of recreational activities. Spas, saunas, steam baths, swimming
pools, tennis courts, playground equipment, and other exercise, entertainment, or athletic
facilities are all considered recreational facilities. An indoor or outdoor facility is an option.

2.4.1 Basics of Recreation facilities

Significant management efforts are required to construct and maintain a recreational facility
as a space that serves a purpose. Design reflects the influence of architectural interests,
environmental considerations, core product, and legal requirements, so no two facilities are
exactly alike. Every recreation facility is constructed with the goal of delivering a specific
product that requires human initiative and creativity while effectively managing resources.
Since a single product is developed and delivered at a single facility, management and
operations may be simpler. Management of multipurpose facilities necessitates a variety of
applications and efforts, despite the fact that they incorporate two or more products.
Maximizing revenue while managing facilities with minimum expenses and diverse trained
manpower has become a demanding requirement in recreation facility management. All costs
related to all expenditures including utility, maintenance, manpower and others should be
checked and under scrutiny by the facility manager.

2.4.2 Fundamentals of Recreation Facilities

To understand the importance and management of the recreation facilities first examine the
fundamentals of facilities, including complexity, structures, extensiveness and uniqueness.
Structures recreation facilities exist in two broad categories:

1. Natural environments: Where little constructed or modified by the people including

mountains, lakes, streams and forests
2. Man-made structures: In order to deliver a recreation product, these structures are
planned, designed, conceived, constructed, and occupied by a management system.
Man-made recreation structure can be further divided into:
a. Outdoor Manmade Recreation Structure: A variety of man-made outdoor
structures can be observed like local playgrounds, tennis courts, parks, water
parks, boating, golf courses, ski/ snowboard mountain resorts, beaches and
sport stadiums.
b. Indoor Manmade Recreation Structure: An indoor man-made structure can be
gymnasiums, dance studios, museums, health club, bowling alleys, major
resort, etc. There may be a structure that has both indoor and outdoor
amenities like a swimming pool and clubhouse. Numerous designated areas
for a variety of activities can be included in multifaceted structures.

2.4.3 Types of Recreation facilities

Recreational facilities can be of different types:

1. Public Recreational Facilities – Managed by not-for-profit organisations designed for

all ages example – Play grounds, Yoga grounds, Parks , Camp grounds, etc.
2. Commercial Facilities – These are facilities managed by organisation on fee basis
examples – Fitness Gymnasium, theme parks, science parks, table tennis centre etc.
3. Corporate Recreational Facilities – Activites sponsored by companies and
organisations example – Games Team sponsors.
4. Therapeutic Recreational Facilities – These facilities managed by public and private
both organisations for the benefits of specific categories of people example –
Rehabilitations centers, exercise centers and Physical therapy centers, etc.

2.4.4 Management of Recreational facilities

Indoor Recreation Facilities:

The importance placed on product delivery is influenced by the location and site of all
facilities, which must be in a specific location. Natural barriers like rock formations, drainage
areas, weather conditions, and prevailing winds are typical problems with a site. The
proximity of reads, utilities, and natural energy sources are all part of site coordination. The
space, or main area, that is required for creating and delivering the core product. When
designing the primary product, specific sizes, dimensions, and technical specifications should
be taken into consideration. For instance, courts or sports fields have standard dimensions
that must be adhered to in order to produce the core product. Climate control (Heating,
Ventilation and air-conditioning) system, surfaces, illumination, electrical systems, plumbing,
finishings and acoustics play a vital role while managing facilities. The exterior or structural
appearances of any indoor facility are one of the most noticeable aspects. Crafted structural
appearance that aids in product marketing, administration, and attractiveness, as well as
makes a statement to potential customers.

Outdoor Recreation Facilities:

Outdoor facilities areas can be simple or complex. Management of these facilities require
consideration of size of space, topography, land available, surrounding vegetation, water and
storm water and climate. Support services need to managed are accessibility, Utilities,
lighting, irrigation, conveniences and seating arrangement. Design and Development of any
facility required assessment, planning, designing and learning basics of recreation facilities.
Circulation, safety, coordination, and scheduling, maintenance, emergencies, and risk
management are all necessary for recreation facility use.

Following points are required for management of recreation facilities:

 Assign specific responsibilities to staff and allocating resources.

 Flexible and Functional Space: Facility design and layout should promote safe and
optimal flexibility and functionality to accommodate concurrent use of the facility for
different activities and events. Facilities should be designed to accommodate
everyone regardless of age, gender, ability and cultural background. This includes
participants, officials, administrators, spectators and visitors. This also includes the
design of secondary areas such as carpark, spectator viewing areas, reception/foyer
areas, toilets, cafe, kitchen, crèche, operational plant and equipment/storage rooms.
 Designing area – brief description of the surrounding area, capacity of the facility,
level and products available. Photos should also show problem or hazardous areas.
 Designing areas and time assignments that related to the product.
 Scheduling: Scheduling is efficiently allocating human and physical resources.
Number of users expected and allowed at one time to use the site. Length of stay for
 user – a few hours, overnight, few days, etc. Season of use. Types of equipment’s the
users are allowed to bring and the physical site requirements to accommodate that
equipment.
 Utility services: Utilities requirement of the user (water, toilet facilities, sewer,
electricity). Feasibility and expenses of applying solar collector or generating power
onsite with solar or wind. Source of existing potable and non-potable water. Location
of potential or existing wells, water treatment facilities and water distribution routes.
 Accessibility: Entry and exits shall be planned in such a way that the public does not
have to cross through secure recreational amenity space for exiting. Zoning can be
done by division of an area into different landscaping units for the maximum
enjoyment of different categories of users e.g. establishing zones for walking, cycling,
picnicking and boating.
 Signage: Facilities Signs that indicate where things are and give information. Make
sure the following areas have signs:
o To identify the establishment.
o To indicate the Facility's entrance.
o In specialized parking spaces.
o For all necessary navigational aids.
o At the entries
o In the service areas.
o Fire and life safety evacuation plans.
o Any other signage required for each facility.
 Developing policies and procedures

2.4.5 Administrative Functions and Operation Management of Recreation Facilities

 Reception: Methods for collecting fees and requirements for the location for facility
security. Provide equal access to all functions and control from a central location.
Views of all major function spaces or access points ought to be provided by it.
 Achieve Safety and security: Requirements for separating one section of a facility
from another. There are requirements for fire safety, like the need for ambulances and
fire trucks to move around the site. Requirement that emergency vehicles be able to
access facilities as well as acceptable access restrictions.
 Parking: The provided parking for automobiles and bicycles must meet the minimum
requirements. The location of the parking for automobiles and bicycles ought to be
within easy reach of the Facility's entrance. Lighting that is sufficient for personal
safety and security should be provided. The location and capacity for vehicles of the
existing parking lot and access route to the site.
 Fire and Safety: Fire control devices like fire extinguishers, sprinkler system, fire
detectors should be placed as per the law.
 Environmental sustainability: Facilities operating and maintenance life-cycle costs
face increased pressure as a result of rising utility costs like electricity and water. As a
consequence of this, it is essential to take into account the utilization of energy- and
water-efficient products as well as design elements in order to assist in reducing
energy and water consumption and saving money. Consider LED lighting, rainwater
storage, and photovoltaic cell systems, as well as passive design principles like
indirect natural lighting through highlight windows and ventilation through louver
windows, to reduce energy use. Garbage recycling is an option.
 In kitchens, restrooms, laundry rooms, janitorial closets, and other locations as
required by each Facility, resilient (smooth, non-absorbent, non-slip, and washable)
flooring is required.
 Climate control: The HVAC system will be made to fit rooms with windows that can
be opened. To eliminate odours, all rooms must be adequately ventilated, particularly
the laundry, kitchen, and bathroom areas. The temperature of the hot water must be
adjustable. All apparatuses and fittings ought to be water saver low utilization.
 Trained manpower required as per the product for recreation facilities. Manpower can
be outsourced and staffing includes recruiting, hiring and training employees.
 Leading, training, delegating, communicating, coordinating, and motivating are all
aspects of directorial work.
 Managing resources: Resources play a significant role in both delivery operations and
administrative functions. The recreation setting's most obvious management resources
by managing:
o Employees: The ability to influence employees to fulfil their responsibilities in
the production or delivery of a product is a crucial management function.
Staffing is the process of finding, hiring, and training the right people to fulfil
the requirements of a successful product.
 o Money: Any management system cannot function without money. Budgeting,
the process of managing money, needs to be planned out in advance. Expenses
should be met or exceeded by revenue.
o Equipment: Purchasing, inventorying, receiving, storing, distributing, and
maintaining equipment are just a few of the many responsibilities associated
with this extensive resource.
o Facilities: Recreation facilities, which can be indoor or outdoor structures,
vary greatly.
o Marketing -Marketing by Product, Promotion, Price and Placement, and
Partnership are all methods of attempting to reach a target audience and
deliver a product.

2.5 ENTERTAINMENT FACILITIES

A theater, cinema, auditorium, music hall, concert hall, dance hall, amusement center, or
other similar establishment is an entertainment facility. To bring a top-in-line customer
experience entertainment venues facilities leaders should prioritize sustainable infrastructure,
technologies, solutions and practices. Energy, building automation, security, safety,
communication, and climate are some of the most stringent requirements that must be met by
all entertainment facilities.

2.5.1 Categories of Entertainment

Six categories of entertainment are literature, the after or cinema, music hall or dance hall,
games, comedy and sport.

With advanced technologies, facility manager can drive sustainability while enhancing
customers experience, improve building operations and reducing operational costs. Few
advanced technologies for entertainment facilities are:

 Grandstand lifting system

 Energy and building solutions – The unique nature of entertainment facilities is that
they fluctuate between “Live” and “dark” days and energy usage naturally spikes and
falls accordingly. Facility managers need real-time, deep insights into their facility in
order to strike a balance and optimize energy usage.
  Facility management systems: a web-based platform that controls all safety, security,
communication, and building management.
 HVAC Systems: The planning and provision of heating, ventilation and cooling and
hot-water solutions particular challenges to all involved.
 Fire alarm and voice evacuation system: It is essential to quickly detect, locate, verify,
and contain fires in entertainment facilities in order to safeguard lives and property.
 Access control, video surveillance and intrusion alarm systems: Technology prevents
access to private areas like locker rooms and equipment. As a result, only authorized
individuals will be permitted entry. Any attempts at unauthorized entry are monitored
by nearby video cameras.

Major challenge faced by facility manager is non-availability of date or soiled data,

integration of all facilities system from energy, lightning, HVAC, Fire and safety systems and
Access controls, operating team will have greater insight into venue day-to-day operations,
all while managing from one central location. When preforming from one central location
facility manager become better equipped to maintain efficient building and provide safe,
secure and healthy environment to the customer.

Following are the customer expectation’s from any good entertainment facilities:

 Good environment
 Helpful staff – Staff should be helpful and approachable and properly trained, know
customer expectation and providing best experience for the guests.
 Variety – means several things like games, rides, food, offers and events.

2.5.2 Impacts of Entertainment

Each type of event, festival, or attraction will have an impact either positive or negative on
the host community and guests. Given below is the lists some of the positive and negative
impacts that can be built upon and celebrated.

Type of Positive Impacts Negative Impacts

Impact
Social and  Shared experience  Community alienation
Cultural  Revitalizing traditions  Negative community image
 Building community pride  Bad behaviour
  Assisting community groups  Substance abuse or
 Expanding cultural addiction
perspectives  Social dislocation
Physical and  Increasing environmental  Environmental damage
Environmental awareness  Pollution
 Ensuring infrastructure  Destruction of heritage
legacy  Noise disturbance
 Improved  Traffic congestion
transport/communications
 Urban transformation and
renewal
Political  International prestige  Risk of event failure
 Improved profile  Misallocation of funds
 Promotion of investment in  Lack of accountability
the host community  Propaganda purposes
 Social cohesion  Loss of ownership and
 Development of control
event/administrative skills  Legitimization of political
ideology
Tourist and  Destination promotion  Community resistance to
Economic  Increased tourist visits tourism
 Extended length of visitor  Loss of authenticity
stay  Damage to reputation
 Higher economic yield  Exploitation
 Increased tax revenue  Inflated prices
 Permanent and temporary  Opportunity costs
job creation

2.6 SPORT FACILITIES

The global culture of sport management is deeply ingrained in the use of sporting facilities of
all sizes. A persistent theme is sports' status as "big business". There are a lot of different
sports out there today, but we can group them by the number of players: individual sports,
dual sports, and team sports are the three main categories. Several events, tournaments,
physical education classes, and training sessions can be held in sports facilities. The majority
of sports facilities are permanent and non-movable, and they last a long time. Sports Complex
is a typical illustration of a facility for sports. Sports facilities can be either indoor or outdoor,
one of two types.

2.6.1 Types of Sport Facilities

Indoor Sport facilities: are those materials and structures that can conveniently be
constructed or enclosed in the four-wall of a building called gymnasium to facilitate learning
programme. These are some: the physical structure that is capable of enclosing a typical
swimming pool, gymnasium, locker, shower, and drying rooms, teaching stations,
classrooms, corridors, and foyers, offices, and research or laboratory spaces.

Outdoor Sport facilities: Are constructed outdoor or left in the open in order to serve
physical education and sporting programme as we have in most of our primary and secondary
school fields and other open fields. Some of these will be: arenas, courts, and sports fields for
football, basketball, handball, hockey, badminton, tennis, and volleyball, as well as track and
field.

Sports Equipment: The terms "sports equipment" and "disposables" are used
interchangeably. This could be in the form of clothing and materials that athletes, managers,
and coaches need to be productive and safe. Sports equipment is divided into the following
categories:

 Games equipment: This includes sports equipment like balls, rackets, and goal posts
that enable you to play a sport.
 Player equipment: This is gear worn for player safety like footwear, training essentials
and helmets.
 Vehicles: These are used for specialized sports activities like engine sports. These are
also used for transportation during sporting events, such as items like golf carts, cart
to transport injured players off the field of play in football.

Equipment and facilities are related to the program. There is every chance of having a
successful sports program if they are available, adequate, and well-maintained. As a result,
the kind of sports program that can be offered is greatly influenced by the standard facilities
and equipment that are available in a school or state for the purpose of running a sports
program. Facilities and equipment are different for different kinds of activities.

Trends in Sport Facilities: New trends in facilities and materials for physical education
programs include improved landscapes, new construction materials, new swimming pool
shapes, partial shelters, synthetic grass, and new playing materials. Other new developments
include pools that can be used both indoors and outdoors, outdoor fitness equipment, all-
weather tennis courts, and multi-colored lines for a variety of games and activities.

2.6.2 New Trends in Sport Facilities

Other new trends in sport facilities, equipment, supplies and materials for sport programme
are including:

 New surface materials like rubberized all-weather running tracks, rubber-cushioned

tennis courts, Roll-out floor systems (portable football field the turf can be rolled up),
Personal storage units (lockers) and Air-supported structures
 Improved landscapes: New ceiling, Partial shelters, Synthetic grass, Synthetic walls,
Combination indoor-outdoor pools, Water slides, New physical fitness equipment,
All-weather tennis courts/games area and New climbing walls.
 Modern gymnasium construction: features include using modern engineering
techniques and materials which have resulted in welded steel, Domes that provide
area completely free from internal supports, laminated wood modular frames, arched
roofs, gabled roofs
 Exterior surfaces: like aluminium, steel, fiber glass and plastics
 Floors: hydraulic floors surfaces like my rial floors surfaces, nonslip floors surfaces
 New windows patterns and styles
 Prefabricated wall surfaces
 Better lighting systems with improved quality and quantity and reduced glare.
 Facilities are moving from using regular glass to using either a plastic and fiber glass
 panel or an overhead sky dome and they are

Advantages of modern facilities: When compared to conventional facilities, the modern

ones have the following advantages: they are lighter, do not require painting, are simple to
maintain, require less labour, cost less in materials, do not require shades, curtains, or blinds
to eliminate glare, the problem of breakage is reduced or eliminated, and it helps to solve the
problem of a lack of money and land.

2.7 EVENT MANAGEMENT FACILITIES

An event is something that happens at a specific location and time, usually to celebrate or
remember a special occasion. It can be sporting, entertainment arts and culture, conferences,
Trade shows, Seminars, awards ceremony, fundraising, festivals and parties, networking
events, miscellaneous event like teddy bear day, etc.

2.7.1 Characteristic of Event

These following given below are the characteristic of event:

 Events are often “once in a lifetime” experience for the participants.

 They required long and careful planning.
 They are generally expensive to stage.
 They usually take place over a short span of time.
 They can take place once only, however many are held annually, usually at certain
frequency)
 They carry high level of financial risk and safety risk.
 There is often requirement of lot of stake holders involvement including the event
management team to success any event.

2.7.2 Classification of Event

Depend upon the size and type the events can be classified. There can be different types of
events:

1. Mega Event - Those that yield high levels of tourism, media coverage, prestige, or
economic impact for the host community or destination. These events are so large that
it affects economies, highly prestigious and gains global media coverage. Problems of
developed infrastructure, facilities, transport are some of the limitations in organising
these events. Examples are common wealth games, economic summits, world cup,
Kumbh mela and international or national fairs, etc.
2. Special Event-Outside the normal activities of the sponsoring or organizing body.
These events are one-time or in frequent, Specific ritual, presentation, performance, or
 celebration. These are planned and created to mark a special occasion. Examples are
National days, festivals, parades and celebrations, Royal weddings, Unique cultural
performances, etc.
3. Minor Events-Most of the events are fall in this category.
4. Private Events -One common illustration of private events is weddings. Even though
"private events" are held for individuals, families, and social groups, they frequently
necessitate the use of specialized venues and professional event managers. These
might be referred to as "functions" by catering facilities, restaurants, private clubs,
hotels, and resorts.

2.7.3 Event Management

Meetings and conventions, exhibitions, festivals and other cultural celebrations, sporting
competitions, entertainment spectaculars, private functions, and numerous other special
events are all included in the category of "Event Management."

2.7.4Role of Event Manager

Event managers are responsible for organizing and administer the organizations that produce
or govern events. Skills in event management will also be useful for careers in related fields
such as tour-ism, hospitality, arts, culture, sports, recreation and leisure. For a specific event,
the team must address functional level responsibilities. A gaming event like an athletic
competition, for instance, will require a completely different staffing structure to support it
than a grand traditional wedding, which will require more catering staff, lighting technicians,
etc.

2.7.5 Role of Event Management Organizations

Event planning is a fine art. It is important for every event organization to interact and have
direct relationship with the organization or client for which organizing event. The success or
failure of an event will be primarily established by the effectiveness of the interaction.

The event management organization need to performs various tasks while planning any event
that include:

 Planning –First is to discuss what the client wants.

 Conceptualizing or theming - Coming up with original ideas for events
  Budgeting and finance management -The event relies heavily on budgeting and
financial planning. It depends on how big the event is and how many people are there.
The cost of each event is different. Pricing is very important because inexperienced
organizers often overestimate costs. The event's budget and timeline must be agreed
upon through negotiation.
 Contract management - The more complex and more unique an event is, the more
likely it is to be labour intensive, both in terms of organisation and operation. The
skills of the event team are very important for concept development. There is
requirement of researching, negotiating and contracting.
 Logistics –Key characteristic for event management is network with the vendors and
supply chain management. Need to do venues finalisation, contact and suppliers
management.
 Security and safety - Ensuring the health, safety and insurance regulations are
followed
 Manpower management -Managing team and smooth event logistics for planning to
post events. The staff working at most of the events have limited experience and less
time for training, hence job breakdowns and task sheet become essential aspects.

Because so much of the planning and programming of special events is dependent on

technological solutions, technology today plays a crucial role. Technology is an effective
marketing tool and opens up new communication and information resource options.
Remaining current with innovation is significant for occasion supervisors as purchasers
anticipate fast criticism from the coordinators of occasions. The event manager typically
collaborates with a variety of contactors, such as employment agencies, rental contractors,
public relations and marketing consultants, security and catering companies, cleaning and
ticketing operations, stage managers, lighting and audio-visual companies, decoration and
florist companies, entertainers, and others. Events types can be separate into types of
organisations like corporate, private or charity. Corporate events mostly focus on business
and customers, private events are mostly recreational and charity events are mostly
philanthropy.

Event managers no longer plan for hotel meeting rooms or convention centers; instead, they
plan for architectural spaces like rooftops, airport hangers, sea beaches, and experiential
venues like aquariums, museums, and galleries. This is because delegates are becoming more
demanding and event planners are becoming more creative.
2.7.6 Impact of Events
All events have a wide range of impacts, both positive and negative on people, communities
and stakeholders. Major events have potential to have positive effects and might be creation
of an opportunity that act as a catalyst for long term behaviour.

2.8 GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC FACILITIES

Public offices are the administrations that are accessible to the overall population and not to a
particular person. The government provides these facilities with the intention of facilitating
the public's access to resources and the development of society. Since welfare is their primary
objective, they provide low-cost services. There are numerous government and public facility
like library, museums, botanical gardens, schools, colleges, healthcare, banks, electricity,
public transport and historical monuments, etc.

2.8.1 Characteristics of Government and Public Facilities

Important characteristics of these facilities are:

 These facilities provided to public to ensure the quality of life.

 These facilities are either without a charge or at a charge which is affordable to the
masses.
 Its benefits can be shared by many people, for example is a school in a village will
provide education to all children in the village.

2.8.2 Major Government and Public Facilities

Few major facilities under government and public facilities are as follows -

Educational Facilities: These are the structures that house educational institutions like
schools and colleges that are affiliated with and recognized by a relevant board, university, or
other affiliation authority of a similar nature. The structure ought to encourage the collection
of recreational, educational, and instructional activities for educational purposes. In addition,
the building must have adequate housing facilities for essential staff members who must live
on campus.
Healthcare Facilities: Basic health government facilities provides in primary health centres,
community health centres, district hospitals, dispensaries, vaccine programmes to maintain
the basic quality of life.

Law and Order Facilities: Courts, police, municipalities and security are the example and
they are to provide secure and safety to people.

Provide for Public Distribution System(PDS):The government provides basic food items
like rice, wheat, and pulses through PDS shops or ration shops, at a very low price and
subsidized rate for those with lower incomes or who are poor. However, the community's
awareness and the public's cooperation are necessary for these facilities to function. Different
offices are foundation offices like street, water system projects drinking water supplies.

Banking Facilities: To help and keep money safe and to provide loans and subsidies to
people.

Institutional Facilities:Buildings built by the government, semi-government organizations,

or registered trusts for specific purposes are included in this category.These specific uses
include hospitals for children, old-age homes, centers for the care of orphans and abandoned
women, auditoriums or complexes for cultural or related activities, and religious
accommodations. Other uses include medical treatment for physical or mental illness.

Public or Government Library:Maharaja Sayajirao III Gaekwad of Baroda, American

library administrator William Alanson Borden, and mathematician and librarian S R
Ranganathan were some of the pioneers of India's public library movement in the late 19th
century. State governments pay for the operation of public libraries by collecting taxes from
local administrative bodies like city corporations and village councils.Additionally, well-
funded public libraries were intended; in order to keep up with the changing times, their
facilities must be continuously upgraded and improved. As a center for the dissemination of
culture, knowledge, and information, the library has been expanding its services. The library
should become more than just a place to lend books; it should also become a strong
organization that encourages intellectual pursuits and builds community among its
readers.The books in these libraries cover a wide range of topics in English, Hindi, Urdu and
other Indian languages.There is a huge selection of books, manuscripts, journals,
documentaries, and thesis.
Museum:The term museum covers a wide range of institutions from wax museums to sports
halls of fame. Many people are now pondering the question of whether museums are still
relevant in the high-tech world of today. Museums are responding by utilizing cutting-edge
technology to enhance the visitor experience.

Private, public, or commercial art museums and galleries are all possibilities. Art museums
collect and preserve works of art from the past and the present for educational purposes. On
the other hand, works of art are rarely collected or preserved by public galleries. Instead, they
concentrate on programs of lectures, publications, and other events as well as exhibitions of
contemporary art. The Vancouver Art Gallery, the Art Gallery of Greater Victoria, the Two
Rivers Gallery in Prince George, and the Kelowna Art Gallery are just a few examples of art
museums and public galleries in British Columbia.

Botanical Gardens: A greenhouse is a nursery that shows local and non-local plants and
trees.It runs educational, research, and public information programs to help people learn more
about and appreciate gardening, trees, and plants.

Historical Monuments: Maintenance of historical monuments and archaeological sites is

responsibility of The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). These are managed by collecting,
generating funds by monument fees and other related funds from citizens and tourists.

2.9 CONCLUSION

It is important that need to provide a friendly, welcoming experience is a key component of

customer satisfaction in any of the facility. Due to its function that generate demand and
growth for numerous other industries, facilities of hospitality, tourism, sports, entertainment
and event management is significant for the advantages they provides, in addition to
expanding economic activities, also increase employment and generate more revenue.

2.10 KEY CONCEPTS

Recreation- “The pleasurable and constructive use of spare time is known as recreation.” Or
activities undertaken for leisure and enjoyment.
Outdoor Recreation -Outdoor recreation can be defined as “outdoor activities that take place
in a natural setting, as opposed to a highly cultivated or managed landscape such as a playing
field or golf course”.

Entertainment Facility -Entertainment Facility means premises at a fixed address at which

artistic, cultural, sporting, or other shows, productions, demonstrations, events or games take
place, and in respect of which the public is invited to watch or participate for a fee.

Event -A happening at a given place and time, usually of some importance, celebrating or
commemorating a special occasion; can include mega-events, special events, hallmark
events, festivals, and local community events

Event Management -Event management is the applied field of study and area of
professional practice devoted to the design, production and management of planned events,
encompassing festivals and other celebrations, entertainment, recreation, political and state,
scientific, sport and arts events, those in the domain of business and corporate affairs
(including meetings, conventions, fairs, and exhibitions), and those in the private domain
(including rites of passage such as weddings and parties, and social events for affinity
groups).

Conventions -Business events that generally have very large attendance, are held annually in
different locations each year, and usually require a bidding process

Botanical Garden- A Garden that displays native and/or non-native plants and trees, often
running educational programming

2.11 ACTIVITIES

1. Explain evolution of Hospitality Industry.

2. What are silk routes and grand tour.
3. Compare and contrast the terms recreation, outdoor recreation, and adventure tourism.
How can we differentiate between each of these terms?
4. Review the categories of events. What types of events have you ever attended in
person? What types of events are held in your community? Try to list at least one for
each category.
5. Aside from convention centres, where else can meetings, conventions, and
conferences be held? Use your own creative ideas to list at least five other venues.
6. What are public and government facilities? Identify the characteristic of public
facilities?
UNIT 3 SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT - II

Structure

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Residential Facilities
3.2.1 Residential Facilities Management
3.3 Commercial Facilities
3.3.1 Commercial Facilities Sectors
3.3.2 Commercial Buildings
3.3.3 Office Space
3.3.4 Assembly Buildings
3.3.5 Mercantile Buildings
3.3.6 Industrial Buildings
3.3.7 Storage Buildings
3.3.8 Wholesale Establishments
3.4 Retail Facilities
3.4.1 Types of Retail Facilities
3.5 Hypermarket, Supermarkets and Malls
3.6 Research Laboratories
3.6.1 Types of Research Laboratories
3.7 Hospital and Healthcare Facilities
3.7.1 Healthcare Facilities Departments
3.7.2 Clinical Services Departments
3.7.3 Support Services Departments
3.7.4 Utility Services Departments
3.8 Health and Wellness facilities
3.8.1 Mental Health and Addiction Treatment Centres
3.8.2 Long-Term Care Centres
3.8.3 Orthopaedic Rehabilitation Centres
3.8.4 Hospice Care Facilities
3.9 Conclusion
3.10 Key Concepts
3.11 References and Further Reading
3.12 Activities

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

 To learn scope of residential, commercial, healthcare facilities.

 To train the students with the new trends and rapidly changing field of residential,
commercial, healthcare facilities.

On successful completion of this course, the students will

 Able to apply theoretical and practical aspects of residential, commercial, healthcare

facilities.
 Apply knowledge and skill on management of residential, commercial, healthcare
facilities.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Rapid urbanization and industrialization raised the need to protect property assets, given an
opportunity to the global facility management market. Over the past few years, future of
residential, commercial, retail and healthcare facilities has undergone a sea change as
emphasis on managing customer experiences as much as space efficiency, health and safety.
It is most important to pay attention to how facilities are managed, and services are delivered.
Adopting new technologies in buildings, enabling a more innovative facility management
workforce, results in a decrease in maintenance, cost saving, equipment failure, lifespan of
equipment and structure, space flow and capacity and value addition to customer. For growth
of facility management requires demand in focused services like engineering, innovation,
energy efficiency audits and concepts like green building, artificial intelligence and internet
of things.

3.2 RESIDENTIAL FACILITIES

These are buildings which are used for normal residential purposes and should facilitate
activities such as sleeping, living and cooking. The building must include one or more family
residencies, apartments, flats and private garages.Residential facilities cover a wide range of
property types and construction styles, like high rise apartments with units stacked
horizontally and vertically to low rise villa style, independent house, complexes with
clustered of units around central features. Each type of residential facilities has its own
challenges and opportunities. A single villa owner sharing in the decision-making regarding
management, maintenance and operation of the building while high rise apartments have
common maintenance, decisions and shared services which introduce the different element of
complexity to manage facility. There are number of factors make muti-unit residential
different from other type of buildings such as commercial facilities 1) it is someone home
(every hour of every day) 2) different types of emotions involved 3) Different priorities.

Now trend for adding more and more new amenities in residential facilities like power
backup, Lifts and escalators, waste disposal, vastu-compliant designs,swimming pool, tennis
courts, club house, community garden, spa, gymnasium, high speed Wi-Fi, rooftop deck, etc.

3.2.1 Residential Facilities Management

Integrated facility management (IFM) of residential facilities has owing to its growth and
specialization over the past few decades. Technically, a residential property is defined as a
single-family unit with one to four residential units, whereas a commercial property is a
building with five or more units. A residential property is used for residential purposes, while
commercial properties are strictly put for commercial or business use. If any type of business
is run from a residential property, it will be considered illegal and the involved parties can be
fined or face punishment according to the law. The residential sector has multiple
requirements for facility to manage on regular basis. It includes the basics like housekeeping,
pest control, landscaping, painting, moving or shifting house support, propertysecurity,
property maintenance include electrical and plumbing, carpentry, general maintenance and
many other services. Especially where residentials are built to be idioms of ultra-luxury,
panache and exuberance so to maintain in proper condition there is need for professional
facility management team.

There is trend of outsourcing the management to property management companies as per the
requirement and needs of the consumer. The following are the benefits for outsourcing
management to property management companies:

Building management team – Most of the residential facilities required regular electric,
plumbing and other civil work and management. This team can be point of contact for
solving all building related requests and escalations of any problem. The size or manpower of
this team varies based on the size of the residential complex and number of amenities
available in the residential building.

Technology – Established property management companies use new technologies that lead to
efficiencies in operations, billing, club house management and manpower performance
management.

Enhance service levels – These companies can improve processes, efficiency, productivity
and service levels of each team including security, housekeeping, electric and plumbing
working at the property.

Energy Management and water conservation –Energy and water conservation is a part of
sustainability and it is increasingly becoming an integral part of the facilities management
(FM) role.In residential buildings lighting in common areas is where significant cost saving
can be done. Lighting energy consumption is approximately 20-45% of total energy
consumption of any typical building (Muthukumar Ramaswamy, 2019). The most overlooked
way aspect of reducing energy consumption through lighting is the lack of planning while
designing the building. It is common that most of the homes and offices have unnecessarily
increased the number of lights that are actually needed to illuminate a space. Few ways to
ensure effective light usage are:

 replace CFL’s with LED

 reduce lighting levels to meet actual requirements,
 automatic controls/manual timers can be used for turnoff switches
 photovoltaic panels incorporate into the new building as source of primary or
secondary electrical power source. One of the best ways can also be by installing
solar panels and solar heaters.

Consuming less water means spending less on water and energy and in larger residential
buildings, property owners and building mangers have much to work on limited use of water.
Few ways to ensure water conservation are:

 all residential building should have rainwater harvesting system in place, it is

collection of water from building roof.
 Sewerage treatment plant for larger residential buildings where there is high demand
for waterby treating gray water to filter and disinfect it and after treatment water can
be used for toilet flushing, gardening, cooling towers and the like.
  Saving water for use of landscape by showering water to plants.
 Automatic water level controller and indicator for underground and overhead tanks
help in switch off motor as soon as water is full in tank.
 Control on toilet flushing as toilets can contribute to water consumption with every
flush, toilet flushes account for 31% of overall household consumption of water.
Toilets made before 1980 use 19 liters of water in each flush, while newer toilets use
only 6 liters or less.
 Regular inspection and repair can save water.

Safety and Security – Safety and security plays a vital role in high rise societies.
Maintaining the security for gated colonies and large residential building involves a series of
actions includes premises security, internal security, system security. For safety of all needs
to ensure for risk management and emergency management. To maintain safer and secure
environment in premises and internal these following points to ensure by the facility
manager:

 There should be minimum number of entry and exits except emergency exits. All
entry and exits should be manned. There should be proper lightning and CCTV
camera on all entry and exit points.
 All CCTV should have static, pan, tilt, zoom and record effects and with viewing
system which should be monitored by a security 24/7.
 Management of visitors by visitors entering and exiting the building.
 Residential buildings are typically more secure than solo houses, the areas of
exposure that need to be secured and monitored in buildings are - balconies,
rooftops, parking lots, entries and exits, fire escapes, gardens and basements.
 Evacuation plans, clear signage and procedures for building.
 Installation of fire detecting and exit systems.
 Regular training for all security staff.

Compliances – it is important for facility management company to adhere to all statutory

obligations and obtains the necessary licenses for the contractual staff that it employs
e.g.labour licenses, provident fund, ESI, etc.

3.3 COMMERCIAL FACILITIES

The Commercial facilities sector includes a diverse range of sites that attract large crowds of
people for business, shopping, lodging and entertainment. Facilities within this sector operate
on the principle of open public access, meaning that the general public can move freely
without the deterrent of highly visible security barriers. The majority of these facilities are
privately owned and operated, with minimal interaction with government and other
regulatory entities.

3.3.1 Commercial Facilities Sectors

The Commercial Facilities Sector consists of eight subsectors:

 Entertainment and Media (e.g.Movie Theaters, motion picture studios, broadcast

media).
 Lodging (e.g., hotels, motels, conference centers, RV parks and campgrounds).
 Outdoor Events (e.g., theme and amusement parks, fairs, parades, exhibitions, parks,
marathons).
 Public Assembly (e.g., arenas, stadiums, aquariums, zoos, museums, convention
centers).
 Real Estate (e.g., office and apartment buildings, condominiums, mixed use facilities,
self-storage).
 Retail (e.g., retail centers and districts, shopping malls).
 Sports Leagues (e.g., professional sports leagues and federations) and Gaming (e.g.,
casinos).
 Offices

3.3.2 Commercial Buildings

A commercial building usually houses businesses and is brought or rented to carry out
business activities. A commercial facility can contain one or more of many types of business.
There are four categories attributes to the commercial facilities:

1. Office Space – Office buildings are a common type of commercial building that can
of any size, depending upon the needs of the business. An office building might be
only one story or it might be multistoried, depend upon the investor wish to invest.
The owner of building might have office or rent out the entire building. The tenants
might have just one company or might be many companies even on the same floors.
 2. Industrial – Industrial buildings are actually a broad range of building includes
manufacturing facilities, workshop facilities and warehouses are also considered as
industrial facilities. These facilities are usually located outside city areas and are
larger in space or size. There can be several sub-segments like factories, unit for
assembling machinery, any kind of warehouses, a research and development facility.
An industrial building might have hazardous chemicals in it, it might have heavy
machinery or it might serve customers as with an auto shop. Even though industrial
buildings can contain such a wide range of business types, many times they are all
grouped together because of potential noise or hazard issues. This keeps these types of
buildings from being too close to residential neighborhoods, although of course the
distance can vary depending on the city or town.
3. Multi-Use - A multi-use commercial building is one that has a variety of tenants.
These tenants might include restaurants, retailers, offices and even health care
facilities. It can also include residential rentals, and would still be considered
commercial as long as 51% of the tenants were commercial tenants and not
residential.
4. Retail – Retail spaces are a type of commercial building. Retail facilities can be quite
complex with elements of formal and informal structure. Retail can be any type of
store or shop, ranging from store that fill and entire warehouse to small retailers in a
building with other businesses. A retail building might have only shop for one
business or it might have multiple retail space like a supermarket or mall. These
facilities are mostly found in urban and sub-urban locations. Retail buildings almost
always have a store front so that customers can walk in directly, in some businesses
like supermarket and mall the access can be inside the building. These facilities will
have basic safety features like firefighting equipment’s and evacuation systems on
place.

3.3.1Office Space

Office buildings are a common type of commercial building that can of any size, depending
upon the needs of the business. An office building might be only one story or it might be
multistoried, depend upon the investor wish to invest. The owner of building might have
office or rent out the entire building. The tenants might have just one company or might be
many companies even on the same floors.
The offices can be different types :

 Private office- private offices can be in all sizes, from one person up to 100 and is a
lockable room that is located within shared office facility. Private offices provide a
quiet, confidential and secure space to work and even you can leave your belongings.
Private offices are a cost-effective ay of renting commercial space for access to
communal meetings, breakout spaces.
 Coworking desk – Allow to alongside with other business or department. Dedicated
desk means to keep your workstation setup for the duration of tenancy. Coworking
concept for those who require a space for working day or number of hours in a week.
 Virtual office - A virtual office gives you all the services of a managed office without
the physical space. Ideal for companies who work out in the field, meet with clients or
work from home, a virtual office gives you a business address, call-handling and
reception services and somewhere to deliver your mail when you don’t need the
physical office space, but they can include discounted desk hire or meeting room hire.
Virtual offices are the most affordable office type because you’re not renting actual
desk space.
 Enterprise office - An enterprise space is a type of managed office space that is
customizable to suit the needs of larger teams. Sure, it’s a type of coworking or
serviced office, but whilst many of us associate coworking spaces as a concept
suitable for start-ups, freelancers and individual creatives, times are changing.

Criteria typically used for rating building includes age of the building, location , accessibility,
infrastructure, technology availability, rental rate of area, market perception, quality of
building including HVAC system, exterior and interior of the building. These all can
determine whether property are grades as Grade A, Grade B and Grade C.Grade A buildings
are the best kept buildings at prime places, newly built, competing for premier office users
with rent above average for the area, these buildings have first class finishing, high tech
security, dining options, valet services, in other word building built to impress. Grade B
buildings are slightly older, offer fewer facilities and have more affordable rents. These are
well located in solid market, maintenance and upkeep are solid. These building offers HVAC,
elevator systems that are functional, security and on-site parking. Grade C buildings are the
oldest buildings in any city and have very few facilities and upkeep. They have the lowest
rentals. These buildings occupied by small businesses that are industrial or service-oriented
like engineering, landscaping, security, construction, etc.
3.3.4 Assembly Building

These are defined as buildings or parts of them which houses public gatherings congregated
with the intent of amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel or other
similar purposes. Buildings such as movie houses, drama theatres, drive-in theatres, assembly
halls, clubhouses, town halls, auditoriums, exhibition halls, museums, mangal karyalayas,
gymnasiums, sports complexes, restaurants, boarding houses, dance clubs, gymkhanas,
places.

3.3.5 Mercantile Buildings

In these types of buildings, either the entire building or a part of it is used for housing shops,
stores or showrooms where display and sale of wholesale goods, retail goods or merchandise
is carried out. Such buildings should also accommodate office, storage and service facilities
essential for the business which should be located in the same building.

3.3.6 Industrial Buildings

Buildings used to manufacture, assemble or process products or materials are termed as

industrial buildings. They include manufacturing units, assembly plants, factories, mills,
power plants, oil refineries, gas plants, dairy plants, laboratories, etc.

3.3.7 Storage Buildings

If a building or a part of it is used for the storage of commodities, goods, merchandise, etc.
then it is categorised as a storage building. They comprise buildings such as warehouses, cold
storages, grain storage units, barns, stables, freight depot, transit shed, hangars, truck
terminals, public garages, etc.
3.3.8 Wholesale Establishments
Buildings under this category include establishments being fully or partially utilized for
wholesale trade and manufacture, wholesale shops having required storage facilities or
warehouses and establishments providing truck transportation services and/or truck
transportation booking services.

3.4 RETAIL FACILITIES

The retail sector is very competitive and rapidly changing, it also plays a key role in the
economy of any country, not only because of customer demand is an indication of a vibrant
financial system but also because of retailers are larger employers. Retailing also proves
opportunity for people who wish to start their own business. Retailing activities have their
own challenges and opportunities, for example villages that are not connected with adequate
roads, demand combined with the high cost of transporting goods to and from remote villages
results in higher costs and prices for consumer goods. From a consumer’s perspectives,
retailers are local businesses. In today’s worlds consumer collect information, compare and
then make decision to purchases using the online or visiting store. To exploit these new
technologies and systems and gain advantage in a highly competitive and challenging
environment, facility management plays a vital role in retail sector. Managers need to be
comfortable with the new technologies, information and supply chain management systems,
international business as well as managing a diverse workforce and buying merchandise.
(Michael levy, Retailing Management, 2019)

3.4.1 Types of Retail Facilities

Retail buildings are of five basic types:

1. Shopping centres
2. Single storey supermarkets
3. Warehouses – type distribution centres
4. Mixed use retails
5. Commercial and residential buildings

3.5 HYPERMARKET, SUPERMARKETS AND MALLS

The distribution of goods and services and transactions in the modern era developed modern
marketing institutions and exchange methods that have tremendously growth. Maintenance
within the commercial sector is an expensive and especially asset management and properly
functioning equipment as if breakdown occur can have an impact on comfort conditions,
trade and financial loss.

Urbanization normally contributes to the development of land for the use in commercial
properties, social and economic support, healthcare, institutions, transportation and
residential buildings. Rapid growth in urbanization, there are needs for quick to plan for
growth and provide the basic services, infrastructure, affordable housing and commercial
facilities to fulfill the demand. The concept of hypermarket, supermarket and mall are very
common in major cities.
3.5.1 Hypermarket: Hypermarkets are large retail establishments that are a culmination of
departmental stores and supermarkets. They are known as a one-stop-shop for all your daily
requirements, such as groceries, medicines, clothes, etc. The main objective of the
hypermarket is to allow you to buy all the goods you need in one place. Instead of visiting
several different stores, you can purchase everything from hardware to cosmetics from
hypermarkets at discounted rates. A hypermarket is a retail store divided into a shopping or
departmental store and is usually larger than a typical supermarket. These markets offer an
array of products comprising appliances, clothing, and groceries. From food to electronics
and toys to merchandise, hypermarkets fulfill all requirements under one roof.Products sold
at moderately lower prices in a hyper market motivate several people to buy goods in these
stores.

3.5.2 Supermarkets:Supermarkets are large self-service grocery stores that offer customers a
variety of foods and household supplies. The merchandise is organized into an organized
aisle format, where each aisle is numbered or labeled and has only similar goods placed
together. Supermarkets are quite larger compared to traditional grocery stores, where people
are available behind the counter to provide the consumer with goods and the consumer stands
in front of the counter asking for the goods. However, supermarkets are smaller than
hypermarkets or big-box markets, which are basically supermarkets combined with
departmental stores. On the other hand, supermarkets are not only limited to malls, they can
be set up anywhere with a medium to a large space.

Supermarkets have a special format where it allows consumers to pass through aisles using
shopping carts or baskets and pick up whatever they require. Although, the early
supermarkets did not house fresh grocery or meat, modern supermarkets have meats, poultry,
bread, dairy products and fresh fruits and vegetables. In addition to fresh and canned food,
supermarkets also keep household products such as cleaning supplies, baby goods, pet needs,
medicine, kitchen appliances, crockery, etc. Supermarkets usually receive goods and
merchandise in bulk from either manufacturers or large distributors in order to avail
economies of scale. The profit margin is usually very small and the discounts are forwarded
to the customers. Supermarkets may also be part of a huge chain system and may be closer to
other supermarkets.

3.5.3 Malls:Malls the place where people go to hang out, shop, eat and just have fun, while
supermarkets have their importance as the place the provides food and goods. These two
places are related and not related. Malls are huge places that house many stores and activities
for people, which can include supermarkets. Malls are traditionally one place where huge
supermarkets are also found. Malls can be medium to large in size, depending on the
construction and the number of stores that it wants to hold. Shopping malls or malls are large
enclosed spaces that are often characterized with many stores that sell merchandise to the
public. The malls are enclosed and have centralized cooling or heating, depending on the
weather and the area where the mall is located. Malls are also car-friendly and are associated
with having large parking spaces in an underground parking lot or an adjoining building.
They have elevators, escalators, stairs and walkways to help the public get around from one
place to another.The malls have a variety of branded and local based stores. Malls are also
associated with having food courts, movie theatres, play area and many other attractions to
draw in the public. The malls also have many different stores that sell many different kinds of
merchandise, including food, jewelry, clothes, specialized stores, watches, etc.

3.5.4 Difference between Malls, Hypermarket and Supermarket

Malls Hypermarket Supermarket

Size Large enclosed Bigger like warehouses Larger shopping
space, medium to shelves contains varieties outlets selling a wide
large in size. of specific products and variety of good under
stock several products. one roof.
Area and Where get proper Mostly apart from busy Situated in a busy
location space. and urban regions. urban area.
Prices, Prices can be higher Sold at moderately lower Products at higher
discounts and depended upon price. Offer products at process than
deals season, demand and discounted prices in hypermarket.
supply. comparison to other stores
Variety of Many varieties of Number of similar Large number of
goods products. products and different similar products.
varieties.
Interior Very attractive and Fairly attractive, not much Attractive with
Decoration prefer marketing appealing, resemble more distinguishing
and advertisement of a warehouses. graphics and colors,
of products represent a method of
 marketing.
Customer Very warm services, Do not offer warm service Great executive
experience customer oriented. and the personal touch, services and offer a
does not tempt a large personal touch,
number of customers, look facilitate a warm and
and feel of a warehouse do pleasing outlook that
not offer a customer draws a wide range of
service experience to the customers
buyers

3.6 RESEARCH LABORATORIES

The research laboratories may be varying from diagnostic laboratories to university

laboratories. In many laboratories where hazards are present, safety precautions are vitally
important. All types of laboratories have their own standards and operating procedures which
need to follow to work.

3.6.1 Types of Research Laboratories

Different types of research laboratories are:

1. Diagnostic Laboratories- run tests on clinical specimens such as blood, urine, etc.
Healthcare professionals complete such tests to get patient health information regaring
any disease diagnosis and treatment. These labs are run by private organizations or
individual health professional.
2. Hospital Laboratories – similar to diagnostic laboratories primarily run by the
healthcare professional inside private or government hospital. The salary of
employees will be paid by the organization who runs the laboratory.
3. National Laboratories – The research laboratories conducting research focuses on the
humanities, science either quantitative or qualitative. Responsibilities of such
laboratories include energy, disease, health related or othernational projects. Many
labs are working on topics like environmental impacts, recycling of plastic waste, etc.
These laboratories receive funding from national or international organizations.
 4. Clinical Laboratories – such lab will analyze and test on subjects like microbiology,
genetics, hematology, virology and others. These projects are funded by the national
or international organizations.
5. University Laboratories – focus on either scientific research or research on subject
areas student studying. These laboratories will include research as well as teaching
where students demonstrate and practice their work. A compute lab is also a
laboratory for libraries and academic institutions for studying and research.

3.7 HOSPITAL AND HEALTHCARE FACILITIES

Hospitals play an important role in the delivery of healthcare services. With advance in the
field of medicine and technology, hospitals are able to offer a wide variety of health services.
Traditionally, aging population are the largest user of healthcare services. There is
significance increased cost for medical care, the ageing population and declining levels of
service, which may cause decline in quality of service delivered, so there is a greater need for
an efficient and effective healthcare system.

Healthcare facilities may be owned and operated by governments, private organizations, not-
for-profit organizations and also by individuals. The larger the healthcare facility, the greater
the patient load.

There are two types of healthcare facilities one public healthcare services which is a chain of
healthcare centers and hospitals run by the government covers all populations living in rural
and urban areas. The another is private healthcare services which is run by individual, private
organizations and by not-for profit organizations.

The different types of public healthcare facilities are divided into three levels(M.Chokshi
Dec2016):

1. Primary healthcare facilities – includes Sub Centers and Primary Health Centers.
A sub-center (SC) is established in a plain area with a population of 5000 people and
in hilly/difficult to reach/tribal areas with a population of 3000, and it is the most
peripheral and first contact point between the primary health-care system and the
community.
2. Secondary healthcare facilities – includes Community Health Centers and smaller
District or General Hospitals.
 Community health centers (CHCs) are established and maintained by the State
Government under the MNP/BMS program in an area with a population of 120 000
people and in hilly/difficult to reach/tribal areas with a population of 80 000. As per
minimum norms, a CHC is required to be staffed by four medical specialists, that is,
surgeon, physician, gynecologist/obstetrician and pediatrician supported by 21
paramedical and other staff. It has 30 beds with an operating theater, X-ray, labor
room and laboratory facilities. It serves as a referral center for PHCs within the block
and also provides facilities for obstetric care and specialist consultations.
An existing facility (district hospital, sub-divisional hospital, CHC) can be declared a
fully operational first referral unit (FRU) only if it is equipped to provide round-the-
clock services for emergency obstetric and newborn care, in addition to all
emergencies that any hospital is required to provide. It should be noted that there are
three critical determinants of a facility being declared as a FRU: (i) emergency
obstetric care including surgical interventions such as caesarean sections; (ii) care for
small and sick newborns; and (iii) blood storage facility on a 24-h basis.
3. Tertiary healthcare facilities – includes Medical Colleges and Research Institutions
and bigger General /District Hospitals.
Tertiary level hospitals refers to a departmentalized hospital with teaching, training
and research capabilities and which have accredited residency training programs,
expert medical staff, expensive, latest equipment’s and infrastructure and
sophisticated diagnostic and therapeutic facilities and departments in the fields of
advanced medical surgery, pediatrics, medicine, obs-gyne, ENT, orthopedics,
cardiology, anesthesia, dental and other ancillary disciplines. Examples are AIIMS,
Others

The Private healthcare facilities are:

Hospitals: Hospitals are multispecialty where they offer wide range of medical, surgical and
psychiatric service for all specialties i.e. medicine, orthopedic, cardiac, nephron and neuro,
etc. Specialty hospital which provides services for one particular illness or disease or health
medical care need. These hospitals offer diagnostic, medical, surgical only for a specialized
care like eye, general surgery, cardiology, nephrology, oncology, other speciality hospital.
The medical care rendered by medical experts using highly specialized equipment for a
specific medical problem.
The hospital services further can be divided under these major areas or departments:

1. Clinical Services –Clinical services in a hospital are the care which is directly related
to the in-patient treatment. Departments comes under clinical services are Emergency
services, Out-patient services, Nursing department, In-patient department (Wards,
ICUs, other areas), operation theater and various medical specialties in the hospital.
2. Support Services – Support services are which are directly related to patient care but
indirectly contribute in patient care management. Departments includes Admission
and Discharges, Diagnostic, Laboratory and Blood bank services, Radio-Diagnostic
services, central supply department and Pharmacy department,Medical records, etc.
3. Utility Services – These department provide additional support to other departments.
Services include Engineering and Maintenance services, Housekeeping, Security
services, Dietary services, Laundry and Linen, Transportation, Mortuary, Waste
management.
4. Administrative Services – These department manage and provide additional support
to other departments. Services include material management, human resources,
finance, marketing, quality, Information technology,legal and ethical, public relation
management

3.7.1 Healthcare Facility Departments

Healthcare facilities whether its public or private need these following departments to provide
care for ill patients. These departments can be divided into three broad categories : Clinical
services Department, Support services departments and Utility Services departments

3.7.2 Clinical Services Departments

Clinical department in hospital includes Outpatient department, In-patient Services,

Operation Rooms, Nursing department, Paramedical department, Pharmacy and Other
specialties in the hospital like Medicine, cardiology, Nephrology, Neurology and others.

Outpatient Department (OPD):Most of the hospital have an OPD, where curative and
investigative work can be done without admitting the person. The OPD is the show window
of the hospital. The scope of OPD includes – Consultation, investigation, minor procedures,
rehabilitation, health education, counseling and speciality services. Preferred location of OPD
at the entrance of the hospital, it should be separate from inpatient area and easily accessible
to pharmacy, medical record, radiology, laboratory and billing counters.
Inpatient Department: The inpatient services is the heart of the hospital; it is the areas of
the hospital where patients are accommodated after doctor prescribed to get admitted either
from the OPD or from the emergency and ambulatory care. In-patient care begins with
admission in a hospital for intensive monitoring, evaluation and medical treatment that
require the patient to stay at least one night in a care-related facility. Patient will be shifted to
Inpatient area where services of lodging, diet and medical care is provided by the
professional healthcare staff like nurses, technician, etc. The patient can decide on the basis
of his financial capacity to select any type of ward or decided by the doctor depend upon the
medical condition of the patient.

Several types inpatient wards facilities in a hospital are

 Casualty: Hospital have a separate accident & emergency unit function round the
clock to deal with different types of medical and surgical emergencies.
 Intensive care unit (ICU): These are ideally more than 6 number of beds units suitable
to manage critical and highly critical patient bring from emergency, after surgery and
medical ill patients. In ICU unit, people received one to one care by specialized
trained nurses. To manage ICU facility there are standard requirements to maintain
high quality equipment’s like emergency resuscitation, ventilator, suction, other
equipment’s. The ICU should be fully air-conditioned which allows control of
temperature, humidity and air changes.
 General ward: Hospital general ward mean a room shared by three or more people.
 Semi Private Room and Private Room: Hospital semi private room has either 2 or 3
beds while private rooms have only single bed. A single room helps prevent direct
and indirect contact transmission. These rooms have bed, freeze, tv and separate toilet
and wash basin.

3.7.3 Support Services Departments

Diagnostic, interventional and Therapy department :Diagnostic department play a critical

role at every step of disease management i.e. diagnosis, monitoring, screening and prognosis.
The diagnostic department covers everything from radiology to laboratory that help doctor to
find out the symptoms and determine their next course of treatment.

Diagnostic: department perform ECG, Echo, Ultrasound , EEG or other procedures.

Radiology: radiological department perform procedures like X-Ray, Ultrasound, CT and
MRI.

It uses diagnostic imaging tools (e.g., CT, ultrasound, MRI and fluoroscopy) to guide their
procedures.Some advantages to this type of radiology procedures includes less expenses, less
risky, greater comfort and faster recovery time. In most of the procedure admission in
hospital is not required.

Pathology and Laboratories: the following laboratories are usually found in the pathology
department : Bacteriology laboratories, Biochemistry, Hematology, Histopathology and
Blood bank.

Public activities are commonly located at the main entrance. Administrative departments are
typically grouped together to support operational efficiency and cross utilization of
manpower.

Admission and discharge: This department is typically located near the main lobby and
emergency department. From this department information to patient, admission of patient and
discharge procedure, which include personal information, medical history, insurance data and
other information required by the hospital collected and forwarded to respective ward where
patient got admitted.

Financial services: This department required to establish patient account as patient may pay
by cash, credit from the company, or from insurance company. Finance department also
processes all insurance and third-party payment requests.

Dietary Department:The dietary department has the responsibility for the food service to the
client according to their needs and doctor’s prescription. This department is responsible for
the health teaching in regard to proper diet of the client upon their discharge from the
hospital.

3.7.4 Utility Services Departments

PurchaseDepartment: The purchasing department has the responsibility for purchasing all
supplies and equipment’s for the hospital.

Housekeeping:Housekeeping services in a hospital is delegate to maintain a hygienic and

clean hospital environment conductive to patient care. It has a direct effect on the health,
comfort and morale of the patient, staff and visitors, hence is also an important public
relations variable. Control and preventions of hospital infection is one of the most vital
functions of hospital housekeeping whereas in a hotel the aesthetics' receive the maximum
emphasis. Key responsibilities and functions of the housekeeping services are to clean room
floors, furniture, fixtures, wall, ceilings, curtains, windows and bathrooms, Disposal of
hospital waste, Replace supplies in utility rooms, Odour control, Clean and maintain
housekeeping equipment and bugs and pests control. The housekeeping services can be
carried out in healthcare institutions either In-house and outsourcing of services.

Linen and Laundry: The laundry takes care of the entire team linen of the hospital. A good
laundry facility ensure the following functions- controlling cross infection, washing the dirty
linen, careful handling of linen articles while laundering, use of suitable cleaning agents,
proper counting and record maintained to avoid shortage of linen, repairing the torn linen,
maintain laundry equipment’s, replacing the condemned linen and patient’s comfort and
satisfaction.

The organisation can choose type of laundry services to be placed in the facility will depend
upon the availability of space, water and manpower.

Different types of Laundry Services in healthcare institutions

1. In-plant System - Here a hospital runs its own laundry. The system can only be justified
for very large hospitals and teaching institution as it is very expensive. In this system the
hospital has its own linen and laundry and all the activities of the hospital laundry service
like washing mending and replacement are done in the hospital premises.
2. Rental System - In the system hospitals hire laundered linens from the contractor. The
contractor is also responsible for the replacement as well as laundering of patients and
staff linen. The main advantage of Rental Linen Supply System is that the hospital does
not have to spend much for this vital service.
3. Contract System - Here, hospitals own their linen but have no means of laundering.
Washing conditioning and pressing are carried out on contract basis from outside. In
some cases, however. a subsidized contract type is prevalent and in such case the
hospitals provide water and washing area within the hospital premises.
4. Co-operative System - A single laundry is run on co-operative system to cater for a
number of hospitals. This system is very economical. It can ideally be adopted for
government hospitals/a group of smaller hospitals.
Maintenance Department: Mechanical and electrical department act as vital organs to a
hospital, providing power, water, fresh air, heat, air-conditioning and other important
elements that keep the hospital running efficiently and safely. The maintenance department
keeps the hospital in a good state of repair. Carpenters, painters, welders, gardeners etc., are
included in the personnel of this department. Hospitals systems are required to have a
minimum of two independent sources of electrical power – a normal source that generally
supplies the entire facility and one or more alternate sources that supply power when the
normal source is interrupted. Regular maintenance and testing of the electrical and water
distribution system in a healthcare facility is necessary to ensure proper operation in the
facility. The department can be managed by the in house or by the outsourced company. The
primary objectives of the engineering department in healthcare facilities are to maintain
HVAC plant, uninterrupted power supply, providing water and reverse osmosis water for
drinking and carrying procedures and run proper equipment’s, maintaining civil asset,
plumbing and fitting, piped medical gases, CCTV, painting, sewerage treatment plant and any
type repair and maintenance. The engineering department in hospital plays a vital role in
energy efficiency and energy conservation.

3.8 HEALTH & WELLNESS FACILITIES

The pandemic has reinforced the importance of mental health and wellness facilities business.
Organizations across all sectors are paying more focus to the employee health and wellness.

3.8.1 Mental Health and Addiction Treatment Centres

Mental health treatment facilities can either be general institutions that offer psychiatric and
psychological care to their patients or specialize in one specific area of mental health. These
facilities can offer both inpatient and outpatient care, depending on the severity and stage of
their patients' mental health rehabilitation process.

3.8.2 Long-Term Care Centres

These medical facilities specialize in providing medical care for patients who suffer from
serious conditions and require constant treatment. Most patients who arrive at such a facility
are transferred from hospital intensive care units after their conditions have been stabilized.
The ultimate goal of long-term care facilities is to improve their patients' condition so they
can return home.

3.8.3 Orthopaedic Rehabilitation Centres

These centres are specialized in offering rehabilitation to patients with issues related to
muscles and bones. They typically employ physical therapists that specialize in various parts
of the body and are able to adapt their procedure based on the patient's physical condition and
the severity of their issue. Orthopaedic rehabilitation centres deal with a wide range of
potential issues, from athletic injuries to providing therapeutic support to patients with
various physical disabilities. Aside from diagnosing and treating orthopaedic issues,
rehabilitation specialists also provide patients with preventative care.

3.8.4 Hospice Care Facilities

Hospice care facilities aim to improve the quality of life for people with advanced and end-
stage illnesses, as well as their families and caregivers. Unlike most health care institutions,
which only provide medical care services to patients, hospice care facilities often employ a
diverse group of health care providers that also take care of the patients' emotional, spiritual
and social needs.

There are various programs and centres run by the government for benefits of population and
ensure principles of equity, universality and no financial hardship. These are provided
through outreach services, mobile medical units, camps, home and community-based acre.

3.9 CONCLUSION

Facility management services play a strategic role in efficiently use of resources, space and
manpower to improve customer satisfaction, hygiene, safety, security and vigilance. FM
ensure the comfort, safety and efficiency of facilities. With change in technology facility
management services companies adopting latest technologies in management of entire estate
efficiently. Commercial buildings play a crucial role in 21st century. Health facilities play a
significant role in disaster mitigation by providing immediate care and treating injured and
also handling outbreaks of the disease.

3.1 KEY CONCEPTS

Commercial Facilities: Commercial facilities means and includes, but is not limited to,
wholesale, retail and other mercantile facilities, warehouse and distribution facilities, service
facilities, office facilities, hotel or motel facilities, shopping centres, department stores and
international, national and regional headquarters facilities, health care facilities, education
facilities, facilities for persons requiring special care, research and development facilities and
tourism, recreational and sports facilities.
Retail: The term ‘retail’ refers to the sale of goods to the public for use or consumption
rather than for resale. This is as opposed to wholesale, which refers to the selling of goods in
larger quantities to be sold on by retailers at a profit.

Urbanization: Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to
urban areas, the decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in
which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and
cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas.

Research Facilities: Research facilities are defined as any institution, organization, or person
that uses live animals in research, testing, or experiments

3.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

 Michael levy, Barton A. Weitz, Dhruv Grewal. Retailing Management. 10th Edition.
McGraw Hill Education, 2019.
 Stephen a. Kliment. Building type basics for Healthcare facilities. John Wiley & Sons,
2000.
 M.Chokshi, B.Patil, R. Khanna. Health systems in India. Journal of Perinatology.
Dec-2016 ; 36(Suppl 3): S9–S12

3.12 ACTIVITIES

1. What are different types of residential buildings.

2. Write down different types of commercial buildings.
3. Explain different types of offices.
4. Explain the difference between Hypermarket, supermarket and Malls.
5. Write down different types of Research Laboratories
6. Explain three broad categories of hospital departments.
7. Write down in-patient services in hospital.
8. Write down various types of Health & Wellness facilities.
UNIT 4 REAL ESTATE MANAGEMENT
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Meaning and Definition
4.2.1 Understanding Real Estate Management
4.3 Types of Real Estate Management
4.3.1 Residential Property Management
4.3.2 Commercial Property Management
4.3.3 Industrial Property Management
4.3.4 Special-Purpose Property Management
4.4 Environment Protection
4.4.1 Environment Protection Act, 1986
4.4.2 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
4.4.3 Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
4.4.4 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
4.4.5 Hazardous waste (management and handling) Rules
4.4.6 Coastal Regulation Zone Notification
4.4.7 Forest Conservation Act 1980
4.5 Regulatory Authorities
4.6 Lease
4.6.1 Definitions
4.6.2 Types of Leases
4.6.2.1 Full Service Lease or Gross Lease
4.6.2.2 Net Lease
4.6.2.2.1 Single Net Lease:
4.6.2.2.2 Double Net Lease:
4.6.2.2.3 Triple Net Lease
4.6.2.2.4 Absolute Triple Net Lease
4.6.2.3 Modified Gross Lease/Modified Net Lease
4.7 Ownership
4.7.1 Individual Property Ownership
4.7.2 Joint Property Ownership
 4.7.2.1 Tenancy in Common
4.7.2.2 Joint Tenancy
4.7.2.3 Tenancy in Entirety
4.7.2.4 Coparcenary
4.7.3 Ownership based on Nomination
4.7.4 Fractional Ownership
4.8 Real Estate Portfolio Management
4.8.1 Clarify your Business Objectives
4.8.2 Regular Assessment of Portfolio
4.8.3 Allocation of budget
4.8.4 Asset Allocation and Diversification
4.8.5 Consulting the Professionals
4.9 Laws
4.9.1 The Indian Contract, 1872
4.9.2 Transfer of Property Act of 1882:
4.9.3 The Indian Stamp Act, 1989
4.9.4 Indian Registration Act, 1908
4.9.5 Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016
4.9.6 Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA) and Foreign Direct
Investment Policy (FDI)
4.10 Permits/Licenses/Approvals
4.10.1 Encumbrance certificate
4.10.2 Land use change permit
4.10.3 Zoning permits
4.10.4 Building sanctions and approvals
4.10.5 RERA certificate
4.10.6 EIA and Environment Clearance
4.10.7 Ground Water Boring Permission
4.10.8 Fire NOC
4.10.9 Certificates from Pollution Control Boards
4.11 Let’s Sum Up
4.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit the students will be able to:

  Understand the meaning of real estate sector
 Understand the types of real estate businesses and various environment protection
laws in India related to the sector
 Define different types of lease and ownership in the real estate
 Learn how to manage portfolios in real estate sector
 Have an idea about the laws applicable, permits and licenses required for real estate
business in India
4.1 INTRODUCTION

To answer what is real estate management we can say it is the routine supervision of
residential, commercial, or industrial real estate infrastructure. Usually responsibilities of
real estate management include routine upkeep, maintenance and security of properties. Real
estate management involves working for the owners of real estate assets such as residential
and commercial buildings/complexes, housing societies, business and shopping centres and
industrial parks etc. Today, the utilization of Real estate management is aimed at various
types of rental properties, including residential and commercial properties. The Real estate
management involve oversight of all rental operations as well as the preservation of the
properties and also encompasses the buying and selling of the properties. A professional real
estate management firm looks after all areas of their clients’ properties, be it negotiating and
selecting the tenants or collection of rent from them. Their work also includes evictions when
needed and processing related paperwork as required by local laws. In short we can say that
real estate management is a one-stop shop for all the needs of prospective landlords.

4.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION

Real estate is a form of actual property and can be defined as infrastructure which comprises
land and its solid attachments means it’s something one owns and is a part of a set of a land.
It can be used for various purposes such as – residential, commercial and industrial purposes
and normally contains the water and mineral resources on the land.
Real estate is included among the most valuable assets of the people and acquires more value
with the passage of time. Appreciation in real estate is an indicator of sound economic health.
Today real estate market directly impacts a huge number of jobs worldwide.
In its most basic principle the real estate comprises a piece of land with some permanent
infrastructure affixed to it. Land and building is an indicator of any nation’s wealth in the
world economy and has been among the most sought after form of investment.
India has become a real home of real estate business. The true boom in real estate sector in
India came in March 2005 when government of India allowed for 100% FDI in the sector.
Real estate is playing an important role in our developing country in terms of shaping the
future of nation. This industry has evolved in India into divergent fields. The growing
 economy plays a significant role to the development of real estate industry which includes
investors-realtors, developers or builders, agents or middlemen, purchasers and sellers.
Acquiring real estate requires significant amount of capital. Real estate is very unpredictable
and irregular in nature in terms of value and price. Most of the time real estate players need to
value the business and assist the progress of transactions. There are many forms of real estate
business.

Professional Appraisal: Brokerages: Guiding purchasers

valuation services and sellers in dealings.

Property management: Development: Improving

Managing properties for Real Estate Business land by adding new or
their owners
replacing old buildings

Move management: Moving

people or business to different
locations.

Management in real estate sector involves setting a pricing policy, forecasting demand and
managing supply for housing and commercial properties.

4.2.1 Understanding Real Estate Management

The real estate industry contributes in economic growth and wealth generation in a huge way.
Beyond the definition, this business also encompasses the development of assets,
management of assets, owning, and selling of assets.

The following are the typical works of a real estate management firms:

 Managing day to day activities assigned by owners

 Preserving the worth of property while generating income
 Screening of tenants and filling the property with them
 Arrangement of necessary repairs and maintenance
 Preparing the lease documents and getting it signed by both the parties
 Collection of rent
 Renewal of lease agreements
 Drafting the budget for property maintenance and adhering to its provisions
 Having a thorough knowledge of state and national laws and regulations
pertaining to laws of tenancy
  Marketing properties
 Supervising other employees
 Handling taxes
 Buying and selling properties with the help of brokers, appraisers and other
external parties.

4.3 TYPES OF REAL ESTATE MANAGEMENT

Range of types of property is huge in this sector. Few real estate management companies
have different fields of specialization to offer management services for different types of
properties while others can provide a complete range of services to a range of property types.
The types of real estate management are discussed below.

4.3.1 Residential Property Management

Any property used for residential purposes. It includes the management of rental properties
and the rental process. It usually covers:

 Single-family residences
 Holiday rentals
 Multi-family residences
 Villas and bungalows
 Condominiums
 Housing complexes
 Duplexes
 Cooperative societies

4.3.2 Commercial Property Management

Any property used exclusively for business purposes. Commercial property management can
apply to:

 Lodging properties
 Retail sector - malls, restaurants, and gas stations etc.
 Offices - real estate brokerages or doctors’ cabins
 Shared-office spaces
 Hospitals
 Shopping centres, stores, theatres, grocery stores
 Offices, parking facilities

4.3.3 Industrial Property Management

Any property used for manufacturing, production, distribution, storage, and research and
development. It includes:
  Heavy manufacturing plants like - automotive facilities
 Medium and small manufacturing plants like - foodstuff packaging factories
 Warehouses
 Logistic facilities

4.3.4 Special-Purpose Property Management

This category covers various types of properties those are not covered into the categories
above fall under this category, such as:

 Theatres
 Sports stadiums
 Resorts
 Old age homes
 Educational institutions
 Temples and other places of worship

4.4 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

According to article 48A of Indian Constitution “the State shall endeavor to protect and
improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country”.
Government has imposed a number of legislations to control the pollution and for
environmental protection. In our country real estate significantly contributes to environmental
pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The development of construction sites creates huge
amount of water, land and air pollution. Data of World Economic Forum reveals that, apart
from contributing 40% of global CO2 emissions the built environment is responsible for a
massive amount of energy usage. Despite of a huge contribution to economy and
employability there is a need to promote sustainability and stricter compliances. Though
owing to growing awareness for environmental degradation the sector is coming forward to
tackle the threat of climate change yet a lot needs to be done to achieve the desired level of
compliance.

Let’s discuss the key legislations in India related to environment protection.

4.4.1 Environment Protection Act, 1986

This act was created and implemented by Indian government after adopting the principles of
conference on Human Environment by United Nations in June 1972 in Stockhholm. This
paved the way to implement India’s promises for conservation and protection of
environment. Overnight death of a huge number of people due to Bhopal Gas Tragedy in
1984 provided the real impetus to the process. Due to lack of legislation covering such
tragedies the people of the concerned company could escape which agitated the public
ultimately spurring the government into action.
The act is aimed at
 Ensuring the environment protection
 Controlling environmental pollution
 Enabling the govt. agencies/authorities to take strict action against the
violators.
 Raising awareness among the public for the deteriorating effects of
environmental pollution.

Provisions of this act allow it to take precedence over other acts. Which means that the EPA
1986 will be given the highest priority in case of multiple legislation, including this act, are
applicable for a committed offence?

Salient Features of the Environment Protection Act, 1986

EPA allows the Centre to take following measures for the protection of environment:-

 Coordination and execution of nationwide programmes and plans.

 Providing the mandate on environmental quality standards, especially related to the
production or release of environmental pollutants.
 Imposing restrictions on the location of industries.
 Examine and test the equipments and analyze the sample of water, soil and air or any
other material from any place.
 Set the regulatory standards for the limit for discharging environmental pollutants.
 Prior permission is required from the authorized government officials for handling
prohibited hazardous substances.
 The EPA Act empowers any person, along with concerned government officers, to
file a petition in a court of law regarding any contravention of the guidelines given in
the act.

4.4.2 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

To control air pollution there is a prescribed level for releasing particulate matter, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, lead, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or other
poisonous material and sources of air pollution like industries and power plants etc. have to
honour this limit. The quality of air is severely affected by the exploitation of natural
resources for manufacturing raw materials for construction. Construction sector is a
contributor to global warming and climate change through huge emission of green house
gases. The Act was put out to conserve the quality of air and to ensure that the level of air
pollution is under a controlled level.

Objectives of the Act:

  Avoidance, Control and reduction of air pollution.
 Formation of boards for the implementation of the Act at State as well as Central
level.
 To empower the boards to implement the statutes of the Act.

4.4.3 Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

This act prescribes strict regulations for protecting all wildlife, including both flora and fauna
and prescribes guidelines for declaration and notification of National Parks & Wildlife
Sanctuaries. It provides necessary guidelines to formulate wildlife advisory boards. There is a
ban on hunting of wildlife specified in Schedules I to IV of this Act. Protected plants are
included in schedule VI.

The act was amended in the year 2002 which lays strict guidelines for commercial use of
resources by local people. No infringement and construction of both commercial/residential
constructions is allowed on the places notified under Protected Areas. Forest produce are also
redefined just to ensure better protection of ecosystems. This legislation strives to limit the
encroachment into natural forest areas.

4.4.4 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

This act aims to avoid, control and abatement of water pollution through preservation and
restoration of freshwater and to prevent the contamination of water from domestic,
agricultural and industrial wastewater. The act is framed to evaluate the levels of pollution
and make suitable provisions to punish the polluters. For effective monitoring of water
pollution, ‘Pollution Control Boards’ have been setup by both the Central Government and
the State Governments. These Boards are empowered to screen and remove the impediments
to the conservation and protection of country’s national water resources. Consequently all the
sectors which are highly water-intensive including real estate need clearance from these
boards to operate. These PCBs are empowered and have been delegated necessary powers, by
the government, to handle the problems related to water pollution. There is provision of
penalties for the violators of the act.

4.4.5 Hazardous waste (management and handling) Rules

As estimated by The World Economic Forum, out of total waste, in Europe, around 30%
comes from the real estate sector. The figure is quite similar to India. Hazardous waste is a
threat to the overall health of the population and it has explicit ramifications on the value of
the properties. This legislation provides ways for sustainable waste management practices,
safe handling, treatment and disposal of hazardous waste thereby creating green living
spaces. These rules were first notified in 1989. They were then amended in 2000, 2003 and
final notification was issued in 2008. Now these rules cover all aspects of discharge, handling
and destruction of hazardous wastes.

4.4.6 Coastal Regulation Zone Notification

India has 7500 km of coastal line. Government of India regulates construction of tourism
infrastructure, buildings and other developments in coastal areas through Coastal Regulation
Zones Notification. Notification issues guidelines on the types of developmental activities
allowed based o their distance from shore.

Government issued this notification in 1991, under Environment Protection act, 1986 for
protection and conservation of environment and ecosystem on Indian coastline. The
Notification was revised in 2011 and is amended from time to time on the basis of
representations received from various stakeholders.
Government formed a committee, in June 2014, to look into issues of Coastal States and to
recommend required changes in the notification revised in 2011. The committee conducted a
series of discussions with various stakeholders and in 2015 the chairman Dr. Shailesh Nayak
submitted the report of the committee recommending appropriate changes in the notification.
In December 2018, the Union Cabinet accorded approval to that draft notification. The
Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) then notified new CRZ
norms in January 2019.
The act is administered by the ministry of Environment and Forests & Climate Change
(MoEFCC).

4.4.7 Forest Conservation Act 1980

The Forest Conservation Act came into force in 1980 to control deforestation, which was
further amended in 1988. It protected forestlands from being de-reserved without the
permission of the Central Government. Act places the restrictions on States to de-reserve the
reserved forests for development activities or for the use of non-forest purposes. The Act
provides suitable provisions to penalize the people involved in deforestation activities.

4.5 REGULATORY AUTHORITIES

Following are the regulatory authorities related to real estate sector in India

 Real Estate Regulatory Authority (RERA)

 The Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC)
 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)
 National Green Tribunal (NGT)
 Pollution Control Boards
 Forest Settlement Officer and
 Coastal Regulation Zone Management Authority

Companies in real estate sector need due clearances from these authorities for any
development plan. Environment Clearance (EC) is essential to start a new project or
expansion of any existing projects. The Projects following the ‘green building rating’
considerations are given due priority for environment clearances.
4.6 LEASE

4.6.1 Definitions

In a simple term, we can understand that Lease is a written agreement made between a tenant
and landlord providing the tenant the legal right to either possess or make a specific use of
the landlord's real estate and provide the legal right to the landlord to obtain an agreed upon
rent from the tenant at the decided frequencies. Leases summarize the legal rights and
obligations of both landlord and tenant. Most leases contain standard terms and provisions;
however they can vary depending on the nature of the property and the type of tenant.

A lease can be defined as the relationship between the landlord or landlady and his or her
tenants. Lease is a contract between landlord and tenant for a fixed period of time. This
relationship between both parties arises when the proprietor of an immovable property
handover his property to a second party for a fixed period of time after furnishing a written
agreement.

A lease is a contract laying the guidelines where a lessor (landlord) transfers the usage rights
of his property to a lessee (tenant). The contract allows the lessee to use the property for a
mutually agreed period of time and make him bound to pay the rent to the owner for the
agreed period.

The landlord and the tenant have to follow the terms & conditions of the contract, and face
the legal consequences if they fail to meet the contractual obligations.

In real estate there are various expenses in a lease which may occur either on the tenant’s side
or landlord’s side. Typical lease expenses include:-

 Insurance and taxes of property

 Repairs and maintenance
 Lighting, landscaping, parking lot etc.
 HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning)
 Electrical plumbing, Carpet cleaning
 Gas, water, electricity telephone, internet and other utilities
 Structural maintenance and roof
 Calculating a cost to rent a property needs understanding of different expenses on
both the landlord’s and tenant’s side.

Following are few of the salient features of the leases:-

(a) The tenant or lessee can’t make any additional construction or dismantle any existing
features in the building/premises without informing and taking prior permission of the lessor.
(b) The lessee can’t use the premises for any unlawful purposes. Even if the tenant wants to
use the property for a different purpose than that specified in the lease deed the tenant has to
take prior permission from the lessor.
(c) The lessee can’t sublet the lease to a third party or sub-divide the leased property without
intimation and prior permission of the lessor.
(d) In case of any breach of the contract by the lessee, the lessor can cancel the lease deed
before the expiry of lease term. However such breaches may be condoned after making
payment for misuse charges acceptable to the lessor.

4.6.2 Types of Leases

Different types of leases are used in different types of properties but there are some
commonly found leases in real estate sector. The important thing to understand for both the
parties is the expenses covered or excluded in the lease as every lease has different structure.

Structure of lease usually depends on prevalent practices in the market and preference of
landlord. Leases may be favourable to landlord or to the tenant depending on the distribution
of expenses on both sides however a balanced lease is most preferred one. However there is
a similarity among all types of leases that there is a provision of basic rent and
variable operational expenses to be paid.

Some common lease structures are discussed below:-

4.6.2.1 Full Service Lease or Gross Lease

A full service lease or gross lease covers most of the operating expenses. These expenses are
covered from tenant’s rent. These expenses include property taxes & insurances, utilities,
exterior and interior maintenance, maintenance of common areas and janitorial
etc. Telephone and data expenses are few exceptions. Consequently, the base rent is on a
higher side but the tenant doesn’t have to pay any other cost.

Tenants prefer this form of lease for a variety of reasons like:

 No involvement in day to day operations

  Fixed rental payment without any operating risk however the expenses aren’t
fixed such as – air conditioning bill in summers.

Some landlords include a premium charge in the rent to take on these expenses and risks,
which is a potential disadvantage.

Since this lease structure provides the landlords with proper control over property’s
appearance and maintenance, they appreciate it.

“Escalation Clauses” that account for variable cost such as an increase of insurance or
taxes are added by some landlords to include some flexibility in the lease.

This type of lease structure is usually found in industrial, retail, office, freestanding
properties or multi-tenant office buildings where the tenants use the shared utilities.

4.6.2.2 Net Lease

The type of lease is very adjustable. In this type the base rent is lower than that of a gross
lease, but some fixed operating expenses such as insurance & taxes, items covered under
common area maintenance (CAM), are paid by the tenant. Net Leases have four sub-types:

4.6.2.2.1 Single Net Lease:

In this type of net lease, tenants pay a fixed rent and share the property tax as decided with
the owner. Building expenses are paid by the landlord but the charges of utilities and other
services are directly paid by the tenant.

4.6.2.2.2 Double Net Lease:

It has many similarities with the single net lease but under this structure the tenant is
responsible to share a part of property insurance along with the property tax. Maintenance of
the common area is paid by the landlord but paying for own utilities and garbage services is
still the responsibility of the tenant.

4.6.2.2.3 Triple Net Lease

It is one of the most accepted structures of lease. This type of lease encompasses
usually three types of expenses: - 1) Actual property taxes, 2) Insurance and 3) Common
area maintenance. These expenses are passed- through to the tenant as an additional rent
above the base rental rate. The tenants pay these expenses either in full or a part of them
in addition to their base rent.

A triple net lease or a “NNN Lease” is used both in a single-tenant and in a multi-tenant
premise. In case of former one, the tenant controls the property’s appearance by taking care
of the landscaping and upkeep of the exteriors. In multi-tenant setup, any one tenant can’t
damage the property’s structure face/ appearance for other tenants as exterior upkeep is
controlled by the landlord. Tenants in such a setup pay for their part of operating expenses,
however they are free to audit the operating expenses paid by landlord. Tenants typically pay
for their utilities. A pro-rata share for utilities is decided for all the tenants if they are not
metered separately. Landlords are responsible for the maintenance and upkeep of structural
elements including roof of building.

Triple net lease favours the landlords as it safeguard their interests against rising operating
expenses as the tenants also pay their shares. This is a favorable lease structure for
tenants also as they are provided the facility to review the oper ating expenses paid by
landlords, and any savings are given back to them.

4.6.2.2.4 Absolute Triple Net Lease

It’s a magnified version of triple net lease. The tenant has sole responsibility of the
building as he/she takes on all costs.

This type of lease structure is usually found in case of buildings with single-tenant on a long-
term lease. Buildings are usually built considering the requirement or specifications given by
the tenants. The tenant is generally a large corporation which is capable of and prepared to
take on all the expenses. The benefit in this lease for large corporation is that they
virtually own the building without purchasing it.

4.6.2.3 Modified Gross Lease/Modified Net Lease

Modified grease lease is a middle way for both the parties. In this structure the
landlord pays the insurance, actual property taxes and maintenance for common areas
whereas the tenant pays for his/her utilities, janitorial and maintenance of internal areas. It
allows free negotiations for setting operating expenses so the base rent is mutually agreed
upon by both the parties. Like triple net lease roof and structural components are usually the
responsibility of landlord.

Like in a triple net lease the landlords are responsible for the maintenance and upkeep of
structural elements including roof of building. Base rental is also comparatively higher as the
landlord is sharing more operating expenses. Lease rate remains fixed irrespective of any
changes in cost. Lease rent is usually higher than a net lease structure as the owner is
taking on more expenses.

It’s a favourable lease structure for both the parties as the landlord is responsible for
managing and sharing the risk of many components of operating expenses. On the other hand
tenant has to pay a relatively fixed rental. However the landlord may charge an extra
premium to cover the risk of potential rise in operating expenses.
 Check Your Progress 1

1) Write a detailed note on types of real estate management.

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2) Discuss the functions of a real estate management firm.
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3) Write about different legislations related to environment protection.
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4.7 OWNERSHIP

In this section we will discuss some common types of ownership structures in real estate.

Individual

Joint Ownership Nomination

Venture Structures

Fractional
4.7.1 Individual Property Ownership

Individual or Sole property ownership refers to a property which is purchased and enrolled in
the name of one person who alone holds the proprietorship title of it. The sole proprietor may
have taken help from others in orchestrating assets for the purchase but they have no right in
the property if the deal deed is enrolled in his name.

Advantages of individual ownership:-

 The proprietor has full authority to sell the property.

 The purchaser doesn’t require any consent from anyone else.

 In the event of death of the owner, it’s easy to distribute the property according to the
terms of his will. If there is no will, explicit legacy laws will apply, and the property
will be divided among the legitimate beneficiaries of the late proprietor.

4.7.2 Joint Property Ownership

According to property rights in India, a joint proprietorship refers to acquired property which
is enlisted in the name of more than one individual. The possessors of such title of properties
are known as joint owners or co-owners of the acquired resource. The law doesn’
differentiate between joint control and co-responsibility.

It is appropriate to note that there is no difference between joint control and co-responsibility
under
any law; the two terms can be treated as equivalent. There are a few different ways to possess
a property mutually.

Joint property ownership has four major forms:

4.7.2.1 Tenancy in Common

Under this type of property ownership, there is no specific mention of shares of co-owners at
the time of purchase or we can say that they do not have equal rights. These co-owners are
tenant-in-common. They all enjoy equal rights in the joint property throughout their life. In
the event of death of any co-owner his/her rights doesn’t automatically transfer to the
surviving co-owner. The property is divided as per the terms of the will of the deceased co-
owner.

4.7.2.2 Joint Tenancy

The ownership is referred to as joint tenancy when each joint owner is given an equal portion
of the property through the title deed of that property. Right of survivorship is the base of this
form of ownership. In the event of death of any co-owner his/her rights automatically passes
on to the surviving tenant.
Here a specific mention has to be included in the legal documents of joint property that the
concerned property is owned as joint tenants by co-owners otherwise legally the property will
be treated as the tenancy in common.

4.7.2.3 Tenancy in Entirety

This form of ownership between legally married couple is the simplest kind of joint
ownership. In this type of ownership the spouse co-held the title to a property. No change in
share or sale of property is allowed without the permission of each other. In the event of death
of a partner, total ownership of the property passes on to the surviving partner provided that
he/ she or the tenant in entirety also occupy the property at that time through a legal
agreement and have same rights in the property. Tenancy in entirety comes to the end in case
of divorcement.

4.7.2.4 Coparcenary
This concept of coparcenary form of ownership is provided by The Hindu Succession Act,
1956, for the members of a Hindu Undivided Family (HUF).

Every coparcener obtains an interest in a coparcenary property at birth. This form of

ownership, which is pretty similar to joint tenancy, permits even an unborn child, to have an
equal stake in a HUF property.

This concept, which is comparable to joint tenancy, permits an equal stake in an HUF
property even to an unborn child. After birth, every coparcener obtains a share of the
coparcenary property. In the event of death, his/her undivided share in the total property
transfers to his legal heirs only, and not to the other shareholders/coparcencers.

4.7.3 Ownership based on Nomination

Nomination is a process, where the specified asset is transferred in the name of the nominee
after the death of the owner. Under this form of ownership a legal owner of the property can
give somebody the inheritance of his immovable property and other assets in case of his
passing. Property nomination ensures the landlord that the property will not stay unclaimed or
get subjected to litigation after he passes away.
Nomination based ownership is usually found in cooperative housing societies, where
application for membership requires recommendation of members when someone applies for
membership. In the event of owner's death, the property’s title is transferred to the nominee by
these housing societies.
Once the title of property is transferred in the name of the nominee or handed over to him the
nominee becomes a trustee to hold the property on behalf of the legal heirs of the late owner
and doesn’t become the owner of the property.

4.7.4 Fractional Ownership

Fractional ownership is the latest trend of investment in commercial real estate. Fractional
ownership refers to an arrangement wherein groups of investors purchase a property from
pooled funds. In this the overall cost of a property is shared by a group of owners. Through
this approach the investors reduce their individual financial burden while purchasing a
property and earn returns on their investment. The purchased asset can be either residential or
commercial.

It can be defined as a percentage ownership in an asset. Individual shareholders purchase the

fractional ownership shares in any asset and enjoy usage rights share in income etc.
Fractional ownership is used for high value properties such as a vacation property where the
owner can make personal use of the space and receives revenue when it is not used
personally and is rented out.

Usually a real estate management company arranges the fractional ownership and takes the
responsibility of maintenance and upkeep of the vacation homes.

4.8 REAL ESTATE PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

A real estate portfolio can be described as the collection of investment properties that are
owned by an individual or a corporation. It's a list of diverse investment properties that are
owned and managed in view of a monetary objective. These portfolios act as a detailed
summary of all investments and financial transactions which help the real estate players to
make calculative decisions.
Real estate portfolio management is the centralized practice of managing assets owned by the
client or an organization to achieve long term financial goals.
Real estate portfolio management is a necessary requirement for real estate investors and
involves a steady review of individual property and its role in the long-term objectives and
maximizing value to the organization. Managing the real estate portfolio require following
steps/strategies:

4.8.1 Clarify your Business Objectives

Different investments produce different results at different time so before choosing an

investment the investors must first determine their end goal or objective for building an active
real estate portfolio. The mix of investments in the portfolio and risk factors associated with
them directly affects the overall income. The investors have to decide whether they want a
long term passive income or short term profits. Setting the business objective helps the
investors to choose the right type of investment and to formulate working strategies to
achieve their target, right from the start.

4.8.2 Regular Assessment of Portfolio

A routine assessment of portfolio allows you to evaluate and assess the performance of all
your assets and take suitable measures for the required improvements and make financial
provisions for real estate investments. It allows you to take proactive decisions on over
performing and underperforming assets as whether to hold onto it or sell it as per the market
conditions.

A regular portfolio assessment can help you to:

 Have a clear picture of the strength of your real estate investments

 Allocate your finances for the acquisition of new assets
 Reduce the operational cost
 Achieve optimum rental income
 Track the performance of assets

4.8.3 Allocation of budget

It’s important to allocate a budget for operational expenses, property maintenance, property
management fees, insurance and gives you a fair idea about the funds available for investing
purposes. Allocating a sufficient amount for unexpected emergencies is essential to handle
last minute problems. There should be proper allocations of funds for your expenses and for
investments. Regular updation of budget helps to plan long term wealth accumulation and
protects your interests in uncertain or unexpected situations.

4.8.4 Asset Allocation and Diversification

This involves deciding the best strategy for asset allocation. Diversity in portfolio of assets
gives you the best chance to reach the business goals and minimize the risk. The
diversification of real estate investments will help you to achieve your targets.

 Rental Properties: if you are looking for a steady source of passive income that
appreciates over a long term. Investors receive income in the form of rent collected
from these properties.

 Commercial Real Estate: Commercial properties include the office building,

industrial spaces, retail, etc. owners can lease these spaces and earn a steady income.

 Raw or fresh Land: it’s a good option for long term investments as it appreciates
over a period of time. The land can be resold, given on rent or be used for other
commercial constructions.

4.8.5 Consulting the Professionals

The final thing to decide a real estate portfolio is to determine how it will be handled. Owners
can manage their properties themselves but a real estate portfolio professional can help them
to realize the value of the asset and the selection of assets to set a profitable real estate
portfolio. Seeking guidance from a professional will help you to:
 Build a portfolio as per your needs and business objectives
 Streamline your property search
 Decide investments based on short-term and long-term financial needs
 Take effective budgetary decisions to maintain a positive cash flow

4.9 LAWS

Under this chapter we are going to discuss various laws, permits/licenses/approvals

applicable to the real estate industry in India.
the following laws are related to the Indian real estate sector:

4.9.1 The Indian Contract, 1872

This law makes provisions related to the contract such as:
 Power to enter into contract
 Execution of contract
 Implementation of contract
 Rights of parties in a contract and
 Remedies in case of breach of contract

4.9.2 Transfer of Property Act of 1882:

This legislation provides regulations for the transfer of properties in India. It encompasses
provisions related to sale, lease, exchange, mortgage and the gift of both movable and
immovable property, as well as part performance. The law was enacted on 1 July 1882.
Transfer of property has been defined as an act of conveying a property to a person or a group
of persons by an individual or a group of individuals and a company.

4.9.3 The Indian Stamp Act, 1989

The purpose of this act was the consolidation and amendment of the laws relating to Stamps
and to make provisions to stamp duty payment.

4.9.4 Indian Registration Act, 1908

This act was enacted for the consolidation of enactments related to the registration of
documents related to all immovable properties. Under the act registration is mandatory for
some specific documents in order to avoid forgery of these documents. All properties
purchased in India should be registered to safeguard evidence, decide ownership and prevent
fraud.
4.9.5 Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act, 2016
The act was enacted in 2016 to establish RERA (Real Estate Regulatory Authority) to govern
the real estate industry, to secure the interests of buyers, and speedy redressal of disputes in
real estate industry. This act regulates and addresses issues pertaining to delays in delivery of
projects, pricing in real estate, quality of construction, title and other changes; in a transparent
and effective manner.
Objectives of the Real Estate Act:
 To ensure accountability towards buyers and protect their interest
 Maintain transparency and fair-play thereby reducing frauds & delays
 Pan India standardization
 Ensure correct information from promoter to buyer
 prescribing responsibilities for both promoter and buyer;
 Quick dispute resolution mechanism;
 foster confidence among investors by establishing good governance

4.9.6 Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA) and Foreign Direct
Investment Policy (FDI)

FEMA was established to facilitate external trade and payments in India. Another purpose
of act is to help organized growth and systematic maintenance of foreign exchange market in
India. This act sets the mechanism for the sale and purchase of any immovable property in
India by foreign corporations and NRIs. The unified FDI Policy establish the mechanism for
foreign investment in rapidly growing real estate sector of India, as well as compliance and
exit criteria for such investors.

4.10 PERMITS/LICENSES/APPROVALS

For the construction of all the buildings the developer needs to have few permissions or
approvals from various competent authorities. Some important approvals and sanctions for
building construction are listed below:

4.10.1 Encumbrance certificate

It’s a crucial document serves as an evidence of free title/ possession of a property and
required while purchasing or selling a property. Sub registrar’s office can be approached for
this certificate.

4.10.2 Land use change permit

A land use conversion certificate from agricultural to non-agricultural land is required for
constructing a building for residential and commercial purposes on an agricultural land.
In India, any kind of construction on an agricultural land is otherwise not permitted. However
a pan India uniform law in this regard is not available but each state has formulated its own
rules with minute changes.
The competent revenue authority i. e. Collector/SDM/Tehsildar grants the approval for
change of land use after ensuring the fulfillment of prescribed conditions.

4.10.3 Zoning permits

Zoning laws govern the development of structures and use of land and are framed by local
authorities in India. Land is segregated into various zones to ensure proper use of land for
development purposes such as zoning regulations framed to prevent the construction of
commercial buildings in residential zone. There are different land use patterns in different
zones. These regulations may also frame guidelines related to the limit of height of building,
green spaces and type of commercial activities allowed in a specific region.

4.10.4 Building sanctions and approvals

Approval for building plan and layout is required from authorities under the provisions of
master plan, local body acts and building byelaws.
 Building plan: a building plan has to be approved before the commencement
of construction of building and the construction should start within two years
of sanction. No deviation is allowed from the sanctioned plan.
 Layout Approval: It is as per Floor Area Ratio (FAR) of Floor Space Index
(FSI) and has to be obtained before commencement of construction of
residential and commercial buildings.
 IOD: intimation of disapproval also known as a building permit and states
compliance guidelines during different phases of an under construction
project.
 Completion certificate: it’s an important document which states that the
building has been built, according to standards and proves the legitimacy of a
residential or commercial building. Without this certificate the building can’t
be sold by the developers.

4.10.5 RERA certificate

A certificate from Real Estate Regulatory Authority is a legal document and serves as
evidence that a property, project, or property agent has been registered under state-level
RERA authority or tribunal.
The certificate contains information about the real estate developer, property or building, and
the real estate agent along with the unique registration number. The registration number is
mandatory for the real estate agents to practice legally. No developer, builder, prompter, or
real estate agent can advertise, book to sell properties without this registration certificate.

4.10.6 EIA and Environment Clearance

Environmental Impact Assessment is a tool to assess the impacts of a new industry or
expansion of industry. The purpose of an EIA is to determine the effects of a proposed
development on the society, health and environment.

Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification addresses the environmental impacts of

real estate projects. The purpose of EIA report is to restrict the negative impacts of the
upcoming project with alternatives and preventive measures. Environmental Clearance
monitors and minimizes environmental damages that may be caused due to real estate
projects.

4.10.7 Ground Water Boring Permission

Permission for ground water boring is required for commercial and domestic activities if a
bore well for water extraction is being used. Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) and
State Ground Water Management Authority are granting permission to extract ground water
for commercial uses.

4.10.8 Fire NOC

All commercial real estate projects require to mandatorily obtain a NOC from local fire
department of the respective state. It is issued after examining the fire assistance of building
and the installed machineries for fire safety or fire handling.

4.10.9 Certificates from Pollution Control Boards

The commercial complexes require installation of sewage treatment plants as they generate a
huge quantity of waste water. For their energy needs they also install large DG sets for power
backup. All this is required to be tested thoroughly by the laboratories accredited by pollution
control boards.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Define lease. Write about types of lease in real estate sector.

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2) Write brief notes on fractional ownership and joint ownership.
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3) Discuss real estate portfolio management.
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4.11 LET SUM UP

Real estate industry is one of the largest industries not only in India but throughout the world.
It is one of the major economic drivers of the country. It is second largest in terms of
generating employment in the country after the agriculture sector. Millions of jobs are
generated by real estate industry both directly and indirectly through its allied sectors. With
the growing needs of a huge population on India this sector is expected to rise in leaps and
bounds. Real estate management requires thorough understanding of different types of
markets in industry and their distinctive needs. Knowledge of day to day operational
activities and a great sense of anticipation of the clients are keys to the success of any real
estate management firm. These firms need to have a clear understanding of various statutory
and legal requirements to operate the business in the most befitting manner. These firms are
supposed to provide able guidance to the investors to manage their property portfolios in
order to sustain in the market.
UNIT 5 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Finance
5.1.2 Finance function

5.1.2 Financial management

5.1.3 Importance of financial management

5.1.4 Objectives of financial management

5.1.5 Role and functions of financial management
5.2 Cost of development and construction

5.3 Cost of operations and renovation

5.4 Budgeting and planning

5.5 Sources and procurement of funds

5.6 Finance division

5.7 Recent developments in financial management

5.8 Let Us Sum Up

5.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you should be able to

 Define and understand financial management.
 To develop an understanding of the basics of financial management.
 Understand the role of financial management in facilities management

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Financial management is one of the crucial business activities. In simple language, it is

management of finance. So, let us understand finance and then financial management. We
will also try to correlate financial management with facility management.

5.1.1 Finance
Finance is money or funds in the business. Any project or business is an economic activity
where the purpose is to earn profit. Whatever may be your business or economic activity,
resources are required in the form of manpower, material, machinery, and money. For smooth
operations, sufficient and timely availability of these resources, money, or finance is required
throughout the business process. Finance acts as blood for the business. But the timely
arrangement and utilization of the funds are also required. Finance is the management of
money and all money-related activities in business. It includes

 Searching the sources of funds

 Procurement of funds from the best source
 Optimal utilization, and
 Returning the funds if the same has been arranged from outside.
According to Khan and Jain, “Finance is the art and science of managing money”

Let us understand the various functions of finance.

5.1.2 Finance function

The finance function is like other functions in business- production, marketing, sales, etc.
Finance is needed for all functions and any function cannot exist without finance. No
function can start, continue, or complete without it. All decisions have financial aspects and
therefore, financial management is very important. The functions of finance can be divided
into the following groups. The first three are the functions that can be considered long-term
finance decisions whereas the last one is a short-term finance decision.

 Investment Decision or Long-term Asset-related decision – Investment decisions

must be rational. The resources are scarce and should be carefully used. Investment
options are numerous. Investment decisions are related to the allocation of resources
among the available investment opportunities. The purpose is to find out the projects,
which are most appropriate. Investment decisions affect the total amount of assets in
the organization. Funds have to be invested in various opportunities or investments.
These opportunities can be as investments in fixed assets or in current assets. The
decision-related fixed assets are capital budgeting decisions. These decisions create
earnings and affect future profitability. These decisions are irreversible. Once taken,
they cannot be taken back. For example, when an asset has been purchased it cannot
be returned to the seller. Even if it is sold in the market on the second day also it is
considered second-hand. Every investment decision has to be evaluated for
profitability.
 Finance Decision or a Capital-related decision –This decision is related to
choosing the most suitable composition of various sources of funds for investment
decisions taken. For example, the company decides to build a new factory. The
decision has already been taken to make the investment. Now the decision has to be
taken for the sources or mix of sources from where finance can be procured for the
factory. The finance manager takes the decision on the capital structure of the
business. Capital structure is the proportion of equity capital and debt. Equity capital
 is the capital acquired from the shareholders and debt is the borrowed funds that have
fixed interest. For borrowed funds, interest is fixed. Interest is the liability to be paid
whether there is profit or loss. There is no such obligation when the funds are raised
from the shareholders but they carry a risk known as financial risk. The manager tries
to employ both borrowed funds and shareholders’ funds. The finance manager should
have good knowledge of the sources, costs, and risks and should maintain a balance
between equity capital and debt. Arranging the funds at right time is expected from
the finance manager.
 Dividend Decision or Profit distribution decision - Dividend decisions are related
to the distribution of after-tax profits. The decisions relate to deciding how much and
when the shareholders can be paid out of the profits. The shareholders expect a
reward for their investment as capital. The reward can be the growth of money
invested and the cash paid called dividends. The decision has to be made whether to
distribute all profits, distribute a portion and retain the balance or retain all. The
dividend to be distributed should be decided after analyzing its impact. The dividend
policy should maximizes the market value of the firm’s shares. This is called as
dividend payout ratio. The finance manager has to decide what portion of the profit is
to be retained and what proportion is to be paid to the shareholders as dividends.
While taking this decision the expectations of the equity shareholders and available
investment opportunities are considered.
 Liquidity Decision or Short-term asset-related decision-
Liquidity decisions related to the decisions with the current assets are also called working
capital management. It is concerned with meeting the day-to-day expenses of the
business. When there are more current assets, it means more liquidity. The business will
not have a problem meeting its day-to-day expenses. But excessive current assets do not
earn anything, more liquidity costs profitability. Profitability, liquidity, and risk are
affected by current asset management. Therefore, the balance must be maintained
between liquidity and profitability. A finance manager has to ensure adequate working
capital to trade-off between liquidity and profitability.

Check Your Progress-1

1. What are the four basic financial decisions?

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2. What is finance? How can we relate finance function with facility management?
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5.1.3 Financial management
Financial management is the management of the finance of the company through proper
planning, monitoring, and control. As already said that without funds operating the business
is not possible. Businesses have short-term and long-termgoals. To achieve these goals
finances should be managed and a control mechanism should be in place. Even facilities
management requires the application of financial management so that quality resources are
made available in the right quantity at right time. Financial management applies the
principles of management in managing the funds of the business.

According to Joshep and Massie “Financial management “is the operational activity of a
business that is responsible for obtaining and effectively utilizing the funds necessary for
efficient operations.”
According to Solomon Ezra & J. John Pringle, “Financial management is concerned with
the efficient use of an important economic resource, namely capital funds.”
The manager should understand the finance, financial systems, processes, cost, expenditures,
and financial statements are they are responsible for budgets, cost, and financial decisions.

5.1.4 Importance of financial management

Finance is needed to meet the operating as well as long-term finance requirements of the
business. Therefore, it is required to maintain sufficient finance for the smooth running and
achieving goals. For the management of finance, an understanding of financial systems and
processes is required. The relevance or the importance of financial management can be put as
under:

 Planning-Financial management assesses the financial need of the business

organization for different activities. It can be for buying assets, constructing a
building, paying salaries, or payments to suppliers. For any activity where funds are
involved, it is required to forecast such requirements in advance.
 Acquiring the requisite funds-Financial management deals with the arrangement of
the funds from the best possible source. The best source from the available should be
selected. Every source of financing has a cost and risk. So, the source with the
minimum cost and risk should be selected for arranging the funds.
 Best utilization of the funds-Only arranging the funds is not going to solve the
purpose. Arranging and then best utilization for the purpose for which funds were
acquired is also important. The finance department or the division is also responsible
to ensure that there is no misutilization of the funds.
 Better decision-making-Understanding the financial management concepts helps the
manager including the facility manager to take sound financial decisions. Forecasting
the risk and the returns of the projects and improving the organization’s productivity
and efficiency are facilitated by financial management.
 Value of firm and reduced- Financial concepts helps cost- managers to reduce cost.
It also helps to improve the overall value of the firm.
  Profitability and savings- Better decision-making leads to more value for the money
spent. It increases profitability and cost savings.

The above points highlight the importance of financial management to all types of
business organizations. Understanding and application of financial concepts is a
requirement of all managers.

5.1.5- Objectives/ Goals of Financial Management

Effective financial management leads to proper utilization of finance. The financial manager
must understand the objectives. The basic objective of financial management is to increase
the profits and the wealth of the shareholders. Basically, the objective of financial
management is divided into two such as:

1. Profit maximization
2. Wealth maximization
Profit maximization- It is always supported that profit earning is the main objective of any
business. Therefore, one of the main objectives is profit maximization. The finance manager
should try to maximize the profits. All decisions are taken by making sure whether or not it
gives maximum profit. But it cannot be the only objective. Profit maximization has been
criticized on the following grounds.
 i) Profit is a vague term-Different people understand it differently. Profits can be
short-term or long-term. It is also to be understood whether we refer to total profit or
rate of profit.
 (ii) Profit maximization and risk-More risk, more profit is the relationship between
risk and profit. If this objective is considered then the risk will increase as the
decisions are taken only based on profits. The risk must be considered well before the
decisions are taken. Many risky proposals yield high profits.
 (iii) Ignores time factor -Profit maximization ignores the timings of returns. Some
projects may give higher profits as compared to other projects. For example, project A
may give higher returns after 5 years, still, the other project may be considered with
lower overall profit, but the flow of profit is earlier and quicker.
 (iv) Narrow objective-This objective does not consider the responsibilities towards
the society. The interest of the stakeholders has also to be considered. The business
cannot survive in the long run if they are ignored. Profits cannot be earned at their
cost.
Considering these points profit maximization cannot be the only basis for taking
decisions.
Wealth maximization
Wealth maximization is considered a better way to taking decisions. Wealth is the result of
the cost and the time value of money. A financial proposal with a positive net present value
creates wealth and should be selected. A proposal or decision with a negative net present
value should be rejected. Net present value is the difference between the present value of the
benefits and the present value of the cost associated with the proposal. The present value of
benefits and the present value of cost are adjusted to time and risk which is called as time
value of money. Net wealth maximization considers cash flow and not the accounting profit
as in the case of profit maximization. The concept considers the time value of money.

5.1.6 Role or functions of finance manager

The finance manager should be well aware of the sources and uses of funds in the
organization.
The very first purpose of any business is to earn profit. Responsible for the finances, the role
can be explained as:

1. Acquiring the required funds- Funds are mostly needed for purchasing fixed assets,
construction, meeting the day-to-day finance requirement (working capital
requirement), modernization, expansion, and renovation. The finance manager should
have an understanding of the present as well as the future financial requirements of
the business so that timely acquiring of the same can be done.
2. Capital structure decision: Capital structure is one of the most important decisions
to be taken by the manager. After estimating the funds required, the mix of various
sources of finance must be decided considering the cost and the risk involved in each
source. The combination of short-term and long-term funds with the best combination
of equity and debts (loans) is to be decided. The objective is always to increase the
value of the business and the wealth of shareholders.
3. Selecting the best sources of funds: A finance manager has many choices from
where the funds can be raised. The decision has to be taken to choose the best one
according to the need and purpose of raising the funds.
4. Procurement of funds- Procurement of funds requires negotiations with creditors or
financial institutions. There are many formalities and procedures that have to be
completed to procure the funds. Market conditions, choice of investors, and
regulation policy are to be considered by the finance manager.
5. Utilisation of funds: The funds must be invested to maximize the return on funds
invested (return on investment).
6. Use of profits or surplus: The financial manager has to decide the use and
distribution of the profits. How much to distribute as dividends? (share of profit given
to shareholders) and how much to retain as retained earnings also called ploughing
back of profits. The investment opportunity and the trend in the share market are to be
considered.
7. Current assets management: Management of current assets is an important task.
Cash is a part of current assets. The function involves forecasting inflows and
outflows of cash. Current asset management requires maintaining optimum cash. An
optimum balance means -neither less nor too much cash. A sufficient balance of funds
is needed for the purchase of supplies, salary and wages, and other day-to-day
expenses.
8. Financial control: Financial management affects the performance of the business.
There are different techniques of control and evaluation. Return on Investment (ROI),
budgetary control, cost control, internal audit, break-even analysis, and financial
 analysis are some of the techniques of financial control and evaluation and the finance
manager should be well versed in these.
9. Understanding the financial statement- Finance manager deals with forecasting and
managing, keeping track of funds, income, and expenses, managing long-term funds,
maintaining the records of financial information along with preparing the financial
statements. The manager especially the facility manager should understand the
financial statements. The costs of facilities may affect the profits. Facilities costs in
many businesses are the major cost that impacts profits. Facility managers should
have a good understanding of and relations with finance departments.

Check Your Progress-1

1. Define financial management.

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2. Discuss the role and the importance of a financial manager.

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3. Differentiate between the wealth maximization and profit maximization objectives of

financial management.
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5.2 COST OF DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCTION

Management of the cost of development and construction planning is the basic and
challenging task of a manager, especially a facility manager. It is basically related to the
investment decision, one of the finance functions. The cost of construction or development is
related to the cost committed over a longer period with the results also spread over a longer
period. Projects involving construction have to take decisions related to the choice of
technology, the deciding the work tasks, the required resources, the duration of each task,
along with the coordination among the different tasks.

Project planning requires planning for all the activities involved in the project. The estimation
of the time to complete the project requires a realistic interrelationship between activities.
The performance of finance and facilities management very much depends on delivering the
project on time, cost within the budgets along with satisfaction of the stakeholders or the
clients. Facilities management has the highest importance or scope in construction,
maintenance, and property management. The competencies in facilities management in cost
of development and construction planning require a focus on the management and delivery of
the performance of the business aligned with the overall corporate strategy. Understanding
the standards, environmental and sustainable development, and optimizing the use of
resources.
The coordination of its resources, services, knowledge, and managerial skills requires
management to function as an integrated process. Therefore, to add value, the processes
should reduce operating costs and fixed costs. Effective financial management reduces the
overall cost of the business.

5.2.1- Life-cycle costing

We know that the life cycle of a project involves a series of processes. These processes are
the division of the project into parts. These parts are small manageable parts that are easy to
coordinate and monitor. The project life cycle has Initiation, Planning, Execution,
monitoring, and closing as its phases of the life cycle.
There are various costs incurred during the life cycle. Understanding the life cycle and the
cost involved help in estimating the life cycle costs aligning with the goals of the business.
The acquisition and the use of various assets throughout the life cycle should be planned.
Identifying all costs throughout all the phases of the life cycle is the life cycle cost.
The costs are estimated and budgets are prepared before the start of any project. During the
execution, it is essential that all the expenditures on all the heads are calculated and compared
with the budgets so that they do not exceed pre-determined costs. Understanding the life
cycle cost is also important to achieve high monetary values from construction or
development. The ultimate objective of knowing the costs is to lower these costs.

5.2.2 Budget and Budgetary control

Budgets
Budgets are the estimates or accounting plans in quantitative terms made for all the heads of
the cost before the start of construction. Budgets are prepared according to the policies and
strategies of the organization. These budgets are realistic estimates considering the future.
They are the standards that put a limit on the expenditure on various heads. For efficient
planning, various activities should be synchronized by the preparation of plans of action for
future periods. For the cost of construction or development capital budgeting techniques can
be used which analyze the various projects or proposals.

Budgetary control
Budgetary Control is managing costs. Control is done through the preparation of budgets.
Budgetary control means preparing the budgets and the continuous comparison of the actual
results with the budgeted ones. The cost has to be kept within the budget limit and it has to be
compared with the actuals, the purpose is to provide a basis for correction or revision.
Budgetary control assures that the plan is executed and achieved. Control is effected through
monitoring. Budgetary control prevents over or under-expenditure. Budgetary control
includes:
 Planning
 Coordination
 Measurement of results
 Motivation
 Communication
 Reporting
 Reconciliation
 Evaluation.

5.3 COST OF OPERATIONS AND RENOVATION

Financial management necessarily takes care of the day-to-day requirements of funds. There
are many facilities in the business that are associated with several types of costs. The
facilities must be developed and constructed. After being constructed, they need to be
operated, maintained, and renovated. It requires expenses throughout the life cycle. The
development and construction of a facility represent a commitment of capital with the
expectation of a return in the form of profits and the value creation for the future. The assets
or the facilities must be maintained or modernized for the future. A facility when is
constructed the cost of operation, maintenance, and renovation is always predicted. Good
quality control and budgetary control are ensured. If a facility is constructed with poor
planning, budget and management, there can be many challenges in operations.

The purpose of the operations and renovation is to provide a quality service. The cost should
be minimum or optimal. The services for such operations can be in-house or outsourcing
services can be taken. For outsourcing, a plan and structure should be decided. The contracts
can be separate, independent, or collective. The operating cost over its lifetime may exceed
the initial cost. When planning, designing, or funding for the new project or renovation it is
desirable to consider not only the initial costs but the estimated operating costs throughout its
life. This is called a life-cycle cost or life-cycle cost analysis.

5.3.1 Responsibilities for the cost of operation and renovation

 To ensure control of maintenance and renovation costs

 To protect the owner's investment
 Creating efficiency for all operations
 Ensuring customer satisfaction in operations
 To ensure well maintained and operated facility for the efficient operation of all
departments
 Implement the methods for enhancing the service role of all the departments with
regard to both staff and customers
 To ensure that the services are properly funded and well-run. The department is of
significant value to the property
Operation and renovation costs are important. Its effective management ensures managerial
decisions related to the investment.

5.4 BUDGETING AND PLANNING

Budget and budgetary control have already been discussed in section 5.2.2. When the budgets
are planned the following points are considered.

 Objectives or the purpose of the budgets should be clear.

 Forecasting the future expenditure or targets
 Budgets are the acceptable standard expenses
 Managers’ desired skills in forecasting and planning budgets.
 Information from all departments
 Information on the organization’s future strategy
 The declaration of assumptions made in budgets
 Capital and revenue planning
 Depreciation

Budget planning needs to be done in advance. Budgets can be prepared for a month, quarter,
half-yearly, or for a longer period depending on the purpose of making the budgets. In
established organizations, budgets are prepared on a routine basis. The budgets are based on
proper reasoning and forecast for the future. Once the budgets are prepared, they need to be
reviewed, controlled, and changed if required to meet the objectives of the budgets.

The budget planning process depends on the manager’s competency in forecasting along with
the quality of information available. The manager should control the quality of information in
an efficient management information system. During the process of budget planning, the
following are important issues:

Cost centres
A cost centre is a group of activities where the cost is incurred. Each facility or project can be
a cost centre. Budgets are prepared according to the income and expenditure for each cost
centre. This way the financial viability can be checked for each cost centre by recording the
income and expenditure of each cost centre separately. Cost centres are separate heads of
expenditure. These are expenditures where the quality has to be maintained and budgets have
to be allotted. The management should decide on appropriate cost centres for forecasting
expenditure and quality. Examples of cost centres in facility management can be cleaning,
security, maintenance, catering etc.

Zero-based budgeting
Zero base budgeting is a budgeting technique that does not use the previous year’s data or
previous budget for forecasting. In zero-base budgeting, the budgets are prepared from
scratch. No previous data or budgets are used as the base for further plans. The traditional
way of budgeting uses previous budgets and marks a percentage to balance the changes in
current settings. Zero-base budgeting is preparing the new budget for each activity or facility
on the concept of no base of previous years is called as Zero-Base Budgeting.

According to the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) , “a method of

budgeting whereby all activities are re-evaluated each time a budget is set. Discrete levels of
each activity are valued and a combination chosen to match funds available.”

Zero base budgeting focuses on issues such as wastage, buying or leasing, etc. It challenges
the methods which as already in practice by asking the question, “why do we do it this way?”
Or “why it is done like this? “. The budgets have to be justified.

 Why is the activity or facility important?

 Why do we need to spend the money on the said activity or facility?
 What is the basis for asking for the said budget amount? Justification for the amount
asked for.
 What will be the benefits?

Zero-based budgeting is a method of forecasting for the future based on current situations
along with the understanding of organizational goals. This technique gives a better
understanding of the various types of costs involved and the planning for the future.

Check Your Progress-2

1. What cost-related aspects should be considered when planning for the cost of
construction?
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2. What is budget and Budgetary control?

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3. What are cost centres and how they are important for budgeting?
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4. What is Zero Base Budgeting?
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5.5 SOURCES AND PROCUREMENT OF FUNDS

As already discussed, finance is an important aspect of any business organization. All the
activities- production, purchase, sales, marketing, etc revolve around finance. Forecasting the
finance requirement and the availability of the same at the right time is the efficiency of
financial management. There are various heads of expenses where finance (funds) is required.
Estimating present and future financial requirements for each department/ head/
project/activity is a complicated job. The decision-making involves understanding the fund
requirement (cash outflow), the profits or benefits (cash inflows), the risk involved, and the
cost related to the financing. The financing decision depends on understanding these aspects
and finding the various sources for raising the necessary funds. The funds may be needed for
buying or construction, meeting the day-to-day expenditure, renovation, and facility
development and maintenance. Every business is different from other businesses and
therefore, the need of funds will also differ based on purpose and time. The financial
requirements can be long-term financial requirements or short-term financial requirements.

Long-term finance is also called long capital requirement or capital expenditure requirement.
Such finance is needed for the construction of assets or facilities, may be to start a business,
acquire land or building, purchase plants and machinery, and other assets. The funds remain
invested for a long period.
Apart from long-term financial needs, the firms also require funds for day-to-day activities
like payment of wages and salaries, procurement of raw materials, and payment of expenses.
These are called are operating expenses. This kind of finance requirement is a short-term
financial requirement known as a working capital requirement. The amount of working
capital also depends on various factors – type of goods and services, credit facility, sales
turnover, etc. turnover.
The requirement for fixed and short-term finance changes with operations and expansion of
the business. There are various sources of finance available. There cannot be the best source
of finance that can fit all businesses. Every time whenever finance is required the unique
characteristics of the available sources should be understood so that the best-suited sources
can be selected. The sources of finance can be divided into different categories depending on
the time, ownership, mode of finance etc. A broader classification can be done on the basis
of the time period. A brief description is given below:

Type of finance Period of finance Purpose

Short-term finance Less than one year Purchase payment of wages,
purchase of raw materials, rent,
insurance etc.
Medium-term More than one year but less Expenditure on renovation, heavy
finance than five years advertising etc.
Long-term finance For than five years Construction, Purchase of land and
building, plant, and machinery, etc.

Long-term sources: Long-term finance is required for a longer period and for a large
amount. The time to repay is more than five years. The long-term sources of finance are:

Issue of capital
When the capital is raised by the issue of shares it is known as share capital. Funds raised
through the issue of shares is a long-term source of finance. Shares are small units of capital.
The capital is divided into denominations or units. Such a unit is called a share and each share
has a value. Persons holding or buying shares are called shareholders. If a company issues
10000 shares of Rs. 10 each. The value of each share is Rs. 10 and the total value of capital is
Rs. 100000.

There can be two types of shares. A brief description of both types are:
Equity Share Capital- As the name suggests, equity shares are the shares that represent
ownership. Finance raised by the issue of equity share capital is owners’ capital or
shareholders’ fund. The dividend is the return on capital invested by the shareholders. The
dividend is the share of profit given to the shareholders after meeting all expenses, claims,
and taxes. The dividend is not fixed and it depends on the earnings of the company. If there is
no profit left after the expenses and taxes, they will get nothing. Therefore, it is said the
equity shareholders are first in risk and last in profits. The risk of equity shareholders is
limited to the capital invested. The features of the equity share capital are:
 Equity shareholders have voting rights.
 They participate in decision-making.
 Equity shares have high risk as they get a share in the profit after meeting all the
other expenses, claims and taxes.
 There is no surety of dividends.
 Equity capital is permanent, it remains in the business till the liquidation or winding
up.
 The equity capital is returned to the shareholders only on liquidation.
 The equity shareholders are last in the list of claims, other creditors are paid first in
case of winding up.

Preference share capital-When the share capital is raised by the issue of preference shares it
is called preference share capital. They enjoy a preferential position over equity shares. The
rate of dividend is fixed for them at the time of the issue itself. Although they will receive
this rate of the dividend after paying all expenses, claims, and taxes, they get the dividends
before the declaration of dividends to equity shareholders. Even when the company is
liquidated, they get the capital after the creditor’s claims but before the equity shareholders.
Preference shareholders do not have voting rights and they cannot participate in decision-
making. These shares are a good option for those who do not want to take more risk and look
for a minimum steady income.
Retained Earnings-Profit or earnings which are not given as dividends, but held back or
retained in the company is called retained earnings or ploughing back of profits. As a practice
all the profits or earnings after the expenses, claims, and taxes are not distributed as dividends
to shareholders. Earnings are retained to meet future financial requirements. Retained
earnings are a part of the profit that belongs to the shareholders. When not distributed, it
becomes a liability for the company to use this money for better investment opportunities or
to meet financing needs. Retained earnings are a permanent and readily available source of
funds. This source does not have any explicit cost. Explicit cost may be the interest or cost
incurred if such financing is done from another source. This source gives freedom to the
company and impacts the market price of the shares positively. When the profits are not
distributed, they can cause dissatisfaction among the shareholders, as they expect the share of
profits as dividends. Therefore it must be used carefully.

Debentures- Debentures are the acknowledgment of creditorship. Debentures are promises

by the issuer to pay a fixed rate of interest to the debenture holder. Debenture holders are the
creditors without any voting rights; therefore, debentures do not dilute ownership. Debentures
have fixed incomes at lesser risk. It is beneficial to the company also as debentures are fixed
charge funds and do not participate in the profits, and is useful when the sales and earnings
are stable. This source of financing is costly when compared to equity and preference share
capital.
The limitation is that the interest has to be paid irrespective of the earnings. Even when there
are no profits, the interest has to be paid. It is a fixed charge on the profits.

Long-term loans from financial institutions-After independence, many financial

institutions were established at the national as well as at the state level. The purpose of such
institutions was to give long-term loans to industries and businesses. Financial institutions
like the Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), Industrial Credit and Investment
Corporation of India (ICICI), Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI),State Finance
Corporation (SFC),Export-Import Bank (EXIM Bank) are very active in providing long-term
finance in the country.

Short-term sources:

Short-term finance is required to meet day-to-day expenses. These expenses are operating
expenses such as payments to suppliers, wages, and others. Such capital requirement is also
called a working capital requirement.

Trade Credit- The extension of credit from one to another trader is called trade credit. The
buying and selling of goods and services are done without immediate payment. A trader who
is a buyer does not make immediate payment to the seller trader. Such credit transactions for
the buyer of goods are shown as ‘creditors’ or ‘trade payable’. This credit facility is given
only to those traders who have a good reputation and credibility in the market. The amount of
trade credit and the period and terms of credit depend on many factors such reputation of the
buyer trader, his financial position, quantity of the purchases, past record, or experience. This
is a convenient credit facility.

Commercial papers
Commercial Paper (CP) is a freely transferable, short-term money market instrument. It is an
unsecured promissory note. Liquidity is very high in commercial papers as they are easily
tradeable. The commercial paper provides a continuous source of funds.

Short-term Loans
Short-term loans are required to meet operational or working capital needs. Commercial
banks provide short-term loans in the form of:
(a) Cash credit: In the cash credit bank allows borrowing money. The borrowing is up to a
certain limit against security.
(b) Overdraft: In overdraft, a bank allows a customer having a current account to withdraw
more than credit or overdraw his account. This facility is available up to a limit without any
security.

Commercial Banks
Commercial Banks also give short-term finance to the business repayable in a year. Such
loans by commercial banks can be provided with or without securities. Commercial bank
loans area common and cheap source of short-term finance.

5.6 FINANCE DIVISION

The Finance division is one of the important divisions or departments in any organization.
Profit and wealth maximization objectives are evaluated and justified by the finance division.
The division is responsible for managing the funds along with creating and evaluating the
financial records. They play a very important role in all financial planning, forecasting, risk
analysis, and decision-making. It manages the funds, and maintains transparency and
accountability in financial matters. The main functions are:

 Forecasting the need for funds, profits, risk, and cost.

 Control of credit, debt collection, and track of income and expenses.
 Managing cash to ensure sufficient cash to pay for expenses.
 Arranging long-term funds for new projects, construction, or assets.
 Financial control and monitoring the finances by recording financial information.
 Preparing financial statements and interpreting financial statements.
 Preparing management accounts to help in decision-making. Monitoring variance
against the standards or against budget predictions.
 Investigating the credibility and financial stability of the suppliers/vendors.
 Managing assets in the organization.
5.7 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Technological advancement-Due to the ever-increase in digitalization and the advent of new

technologies, operational efficiencies are increasing. These advancements have enhanced the
customer experience and expectations. Big data, artificial intelligence, and machine learning
have made decision-making more accurate and faster. The latest technologies and tools are
added more value and give more hands-on knowledge to the workforce.
Digital products- The introduction of digital finance opened a new market for financial
products. Fintech companies are the new business challenging traditional businesses.

Regulations – Due to the invention of new financial products and technologies, there is a
new set of regulations and legal complications. New rules made by the regulatory bodies put
a challenge for the companies to meet the expectations, fill the skill gap and compile the
laws.
More risk and challenges-Technology has opened a new set of challenges for finance
professionals. Security risks are a major issue for companies.

Check Your Progress-3

1. Discuss the relevance of any two sources of finance for facility management.
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2. What is the importance of the finance division in any organization?

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5.8 LET US SUM UP

Financial management is one of the disciplines of management. None of business can be

successful or profitable without efficient management of funds. Understanding the various
aspects of finance and the application of the concepts and techniques is the key to successful
financial management. The finance manager must develop an understanding of cost,
revenues, and budgets. The finance manager should be aware of the needs of the finance. The
efficiency of the finance manager lies in forecasting the financial needs and procuring the
funds along with estimating the risk and cost involved in funds.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Go through the relevant sections in the unit and frame your answers.
UNIT 6 INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT- I
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Architectural Design
6.3 Building Types
6.4 Impact of Facilities on the Building Design
6.5 Building & Exterior Facilities
6.6 Parking Areas
6.6.1 Different Types of Parking Facilities
6.6.2 Types of Parking
6.6.3 Multiple Level Car Parking
6.6.4 Necessity of MLCPS (Multiple Level Car Parking)
6.7. Landscaping & Grounds
6.7.1 Importance of Landscaping
6.7.2 Principles of Landscaping
6.7.3 Key Elements of Landscape Design
6.7.4 Landscape &Grounds Maintenance
6.8 Laws, Permits & Licenses
6.9 Let Us Sum Up
6.10 Further Readings
6.11 Key Words
11.12 Clues to Answers
11.13 Activities
6.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 understand the fundamental concepts of Infrastructure Development like Architectural
Design, Building Types, and Impact of Facilities on the Building Design.
 know the Building & Exterior Facilities, Parking Areas, Landscaping & Grounds.
 know about the various Laws, Permits & Licenses for Building Construction

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Architecture requires involvement of client, financial institutions, consultants/experts/

architects.
 The profession requires highest level of conceptual & managerial skills to achieve the
success. To be a successful building designer or facility manager one has to have basic
knowledge & skills such as legal requirements for a building, different layout plans for
commercial, residential, welfare, institutional & basic understanding of building & exterior
facilities, parking areas, landscaping &grounds.Various experts have different opinions about
the word architect:

 “Architecture is frozen music, it’s the art of what is possible”. – Paul Rudolph
 “Architecture is a strange field where we are constantly asked to demonstrate over &
over why design matters, to everyone, all the time” – AmaleAndraos
 “Architecture is 90% Business & 10% Art” – Albert Kahn
 “Architecture is shelter, it’s like life”- Shavez

6.2 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Architectural design is a technological and artistic concept of designing or fabricating

structures and understanding various building materials and forms. Generally, the architect
works in coordination with the internal and external environment of the structure.
Architecture design begins with designing and planning buildings. The aspects of architecture
differ from engineer to engineer who basically focus on the functionality, feasibility, and
design. Architecture designs are the incorporationof creative imagination and then moving it
on the piece of paper. This profession demands excellence in computer operation, legal
knowledge, engineering, building codes.

The Importance of Architectural Design:

Architecture has a great impact on its surroundings. When it comes to raising a new structure,
not only the safety measures and durability issues are important, but also the design and
aesthetic appeal, which has the ability to leave a sense of wonder behind. The architectural
design of the highest quality will impress and amaze its audience with its distinctiveness and
style. People always live in homes and cities that energize and give them hope. It is
depressing to live in a grey world, which would only further kill your creativity and
imagination.
Application areas of Architectural Designs:

 2D Drafting Architecture: It is used to refer floor plans, wall sections, elevations, lighting,
furniture layouts, foundation plans and roof sections.
 3D architectural Modeling Services: It is used to generate 3D Exterior Models, 3D Interior
Models, Cross Section Models and Fixture Assemblies. It is also used in landscaping
drawings.
 3D Architectural Rendering: 3D Exterior Rendering Views, 3D Interior Rendering Views,
Furniture 3D Rendering and 3D Product Rendering can be achieved by it.
 3D Animation and Walkthrough: It Includes services like Exterior Walkthrough, Interior
Walkthrough, Conceptual Walkthrough and Industrial Walkthrough.

An architectural design is nothing but the idea to shoot the higher quality construction work.
This kind of ideas come from various sources like; proper analysis of a site, society or culture
of the area you are going to construct, space and place connect with the emotions, different
technologies, and methods, a variety of functional requirements etc.

The Phases of Project Designing & Building :

Designing and building or planning and constructing a space for a new or growing business is
a complex task. One way to make a complex task seem more manageable is to break it up
into smaller tasks, and architects apply a similar strategy to the design and construction
process. The American Institute of Architects (AIA) defines Five Phases of Architecture
that are commonly referred to throughout the industry:
1. Schematic Design
2. Design Development
3. Contract Documents
4. Bidding
5. Contract Administration.
Being familiar with each phase’s milestones and deliverables is also important because
architects typically organize contracts and project schedules around them.
PRE- DES IG N
Pre-design is an information gathering phase that will be the foundation for the design phases
to follow. The main goal during this phase is to ensure to gather the information about the
requirements from a facility such as : Total area, total covered area total plinth area, space for
parking, space for landscaping, space for office administrations, space for manufacturing
units, space for storage space, total number of expected visitors, employees, vendors ( to
estimate the carrying capacity of the facility), profile and life styles lifestyle, and needs as
well as determine how much space you need now and likely to need in the future, and how
that space should be used, organized, and arranged. This information is organized into a
document called the program, which describes all the rooms and spaces for the project, their
approximate sizes and any specific qualities or unique features you are looking for. The other
part of Pre-design phase is observing and documenting the existing conditions at the project
site. This usually entails a survey of the land to determine the property line locations and/or
measurements of any existing structures. We also do background research to better
understand how the site relates to the surrounding area, climate, people, and the regulations
that affect the project. Being a facility manager you have to track these regulations in a
Zoning Summary document and talk to city planning staff if questions arise.
S CH EM ATIC DES IG N
This is the start of exploring design concepts; it is the time for testing options and getting a
general idea of the look and feel. The floor plans and shape of the project will begin to take
form, but the specifics about materials and details will come later. The Schematic Design
phase includes several meetings where ideas are presented to the clients using images of other
projects, hand sketches, and models to help visualize the size, shape, and relationship of
spaces to each other. All the ideas are listened and reactions are observed, then ideas are
refined according to the feedback until reachedto an agreement upon design direction to
develop further in the following phases. It is always possible to make changes later, but it is
easiest during this phase when the design is most fluid.
DES IG N DEVELO PM ENT
During Design Development is based on the floor plan and exterior concept approved in the
schematic design . The first priority of this phase is to define and develop all the important
aspects of the project and produce a set of drawings and outline specification to show
potential contractors for preliminary cost estimating. If adjustments are necessary to bring the
project scope in line with the construction budget, it is most efficient to do this sooner than
later. Once we know we are on track, we will talk more specifically about the interior and
exterior materials and functionality. By the end of the Design Development phase, the
building exterior will be more fully designed, the interior layout completed, dimensions of all
spaces finalized, and most materials selected. A structural engineer will be added to the team,
and consultants for HVAC, plumbing, and electrical systems may be needed depending on
the complexity of the project. The deliverable will be a more detailed set of drawings that
communicates the overall layout and volume of the building or space, all significant
equipment, and the type of material or finish for every surface of the project.

CO NS TRUCTIO N DO CUM EN TS
In this phase we develop the Design Drawings into a thorough and precise set of Construction
Documents. These drawings and specifications have all of the details, dimensions, and notes
necessary to communicate the entire design intent to the builder. We show how the building
components should be connected, specify all of the materials, finishes, fixtures, equipment,
and appliances to be installed, and coordinate our drawings with the structural engineers and
any other consultant drawings. The Construction Documents phase often requires the most
time, which can surprise clients because the design seems complete after Design
Development. However, this is a critical step in the process of successfully and accurately
executing the design.

B UILDING PERM IT TING

During this phase of Building Permitting, necessary construction documents are developed
and any additional information required to get a building permit. This is the information
needed to show the project complies with the applicable land use, building, and energy codes,
and any other applicable guidelines and regulations required by the city or jurisdiction issuing
the permit. During this step , drawings are submitted to various approval agencies for their
approval and no objection certificate and monitor the progress during the review period, also
give additional information or clarifications as requested.

B IDDING & NEG O TIATIO N

In this phase, vendors are identified on the basis of value analysis and selections of vendors
are done on the basis of their qualifications, experiences, ware house capabilities, rate,
quality, quantity and delivery performances.

CO NS TRUCTIO N ADM INIS TR ATIO N

While most of the architect’s work is done before any building begins, but consistent
presence during the construction phase is equally important. During this phase, visit the
jobsite at regular intervals to answer questions from the builder and proactively address
potential issues. The frequency of site visits could be weekly or monthly depending on the
project needs, but it is vital to keep an eye on things to ensure that they finished project on
time & meets the expectations. Inevitably, some decisions must be made or modified in the
field, involvement and ability to work quickly with contractor to solve problems is essential
for helping &avoid costly delays and change orders. At site visits take photos and write field
reports to document the progress, confirm the materials and workmanship are of the quality
you agreed to, and verification of contractor’s billings accurately which reflects the amount
of work completed.

Source: https://wc-studio.com/journal/2019/7/5/working-with-an-architect-
understanding-phases-of-design-construction; retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4 PM.

6.3 BUILDING TYPES

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) explains a building to be a structure

constructed using any type of material (s) and for whatever purpose, be it for residential,
commercial, industrial or other. The structures that fall under the definition of a building are
as follows:
 Foundations, plinths or pedestals, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing/drainage
structures, fixed structures, etc.
 Verandas or atriums, balconies, cornices, projections in the building which extend beyond its
exterior walls, etc.
 All the various components that comprise the building or any structure attached to it.
 Fences or boundary walls enclosing an area, land or building, signboards or display structures
outside the boundary walls or above the structure, etc.
 Tanks constructed for the purpose of storing fluids or other materials such as chemicals,
water, effluents and swimming pools, ponds, etc.
 Temporary structures such as tents, shamianas and tarpaulin shelters which are built to serve
a particular purpose for a short duration of time have been exempted and are not to be
considered buildings.

Building Types
The government has categorized various types of buildings on the basis of different criteria
depending on their usage, design and height, safety standards and other features as follows:
 Residential Buildings
 Educational Buildings
 Institutional Buildings
 Assembly Buildings
 Business Buildings
 Mercantile Buildings
 Industrial Buildings
 Storage Buildings
 Wholesale Establishments
 Mixed Land Use Buildings
 Hazardous Buildings
 Detached Buildings
 Semi-Detached Buildings
 Multi-Storey or High Rise Buildings
 Slums
 Unsafe Buildings
 Special Buildings
 Multi-Level Car Parking

Categorization of Buildings as per their usage

Residential Buildings
These are buildings which are used for normal residential purposes and should facilitate
activities such as sleeping, living and cooking. The building must include one or more family
residencies, apartments, flats and private garages.

Educational Buildings
These are buildings housing educational institutions such as schools or colleges which are
affiliated and recognized by an appropriate board, university or any similar affiliation
authority. The building should promote the aggregation of instructional, educational and
recreational activities pertaining to educational purposes. Further, it is obligatory for the
building to have proper residential facilities for essential staff who need to reside within the
campus. Apart from this, the institution should also have a hostel exclusive to the institute
either within its premises or outside.

Institutional Buildings
These types of buildings consist of buildings that are constructed by the government, semi-
government organizations or registered trusts for specific purposes. Those specific purposes
include medical treatment purposes such as treatment of physical or mental illness, children’s
hospitals, old age homes, centers for the care of orphans or abandoned women, auditoriums
or complexes meant to be used for cultural or allied activities, religious accommodation
facilities such as dharamshalas, jails, correctional facilities, detention centres, juvenile
reformatories, etc.

Assembly Buildings
These are defined as buildings or parts of them which houses public gatherings congregated
with the intent of amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel or other
similar purposes. Buildings such as movie houses, drama theatres, drive-in theatres, assembly
halls, clubhouses, town halls, auditoriums, exhibition halls, museums, regional offices,
gymnasiums, sports complexes, restaurants, boarding houses, dance clubs, gymkhanas, places
of worship, bus stops, taxi stands, railway stations, airports, piers, etc. are categorized as
assembly buildings.

Business Buildings
These buildings are primarily used for keeping records of business transactions, maintaining
accounts, bookkeeping purposes or managing other types of records then it can be classified
as a business building. Buildings under this category include offices, banks, courthouses and
other professional establishments serving the aforementioned purposes.

Mercantile Buildings
In these types of buildings, either the entire building or a part of it is used for housing shops,
stores or showrooms where display and sale of wholesale goods, retail goods or merchandise
is carried out. Such buildings should also accommodate office, storage and service facilities
essential for the business which should be located in the same building.

Industrial Buildings
Industrial Buildings are used to manufacture, assemble or process products or materials are
termed as industrial buildings. They include manufacturing units, assembly plants, factories,
mills, power plants, oil refineries, gas plants, dairy plants, laboratories, etc.

Storage Buildings
These buildings are used for the storage of commodities, goods, merchandise, etc. then it is
categorised as a storage building. They comprise buildings such as warehouses, cold storages,
grain storage units, barns, stables, freight depot, transit shed, hangars, truck terminals, public
garages, etc.

Wholesale Establishments
Buildings under this category include establishments being fully or partially utilized for
wholesale trade and manufacture, wholesale shops having required storage facilities or
warehouses and establishments providing truck transportation services and/or truck
transportation booking services.

Mixed Land Use Buildings

These are buildings which are used for both residential purposes as well as for carrying out
non-residential activities.

Hazardous Buildings
These types of buildings have been further divided into two sub-categories by the
government. They are:

 Buildings used for the manufacture, processing, handling or storage of substances

which are radioactive, highly combustible/explosive or capable of burning rapidly
with/without the potential to produce poisonous fumes or emissions that are explosive
in nature

 Buildings used for the manufacture, processing, handling or storage of substances

which are highly corrosive, toxic or noxious alkalis, acids or other chemicals
producing explosive or poisonous fumes, explosive mixtures or substances capable of
disintegrating matter into fine particles causing spontaneous ignition.

Categorization on their Design & Height

Detached Buildings
A building comprising roofs and walls which is detached from any other building and has
open spaces within its boundaries is termed as a detached building.

Semi-Detached Buildings
These are buildings which are detached from any other building on three sides and have
open spaces on all those sides.
Multi-Storey or High Rise Buildings
All buildings comprising more than 2 stories and/or buildings with height more than 07
meters (without stilt) or 8.5 meters (with stilt) above the average level of the front road
have been categorized as high rise buildings.

Categorization on the Basis of Safety Standards

Slums
Buildings under this category have a low level of maintenance and bad habitability
conditions which are caused due to inadequate sanitation, ventilation and other
detrimental factors. Slums are tagged according to the concerned legislation by a
competent authority.

Unsafe Buildings
Buildings that are structurally weak and thus unsafe, unsanitary or contaminated, do not
have proper entry and/or exit facilities, prone to fire hazards, poses dangers to human life
or according to its existing use, may pose a danger to safety, health or public welfare are
deemed to be unsafe. As per government regulations, these buildings must undergo
restoration, demolition or undertake necessary measures as per the instructions of the
concerned authority.

Special Buildings
This is an all-encompassing category which includes assembly buildings, industrial
buildings, wholesale establishments, hazardous buildings, hotels, hostels and buildings
with central air conditioning which are more than 15 meters in height and have a built-up
area of more than 600 square meters.

Check Your Progress 1

1. What is Architectural Design & highlight its importance?

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2. Enlist the different phases/ Steps of Project Designing?
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3. List down the various Building types?
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6.4 IMPACT OF FACILITIES ON THE BUILDING DESIGN

One of the most famous buildings in the New York skyline, The Empire State Building,
underwent a $550m environmental upgrade in 2011. Improving insulation, implementing
energy saving technologies and refurbishing 6,500 windows cut the building’s annual energy
usage by a substantial $4.4m. When renovating or designing any facility, efficiency can be
improved by careful design and planning.
The design and layout of a facility has a powerful impact on manufacturing operations. An
efficient layout can facilitate an increased flow of work, information and material around the
site. If a factory is not designed with efficiency in mind, it can limit production, slow
processes and impact overall profitability.
Considerations
When designing or renovating a production facility, space, production, safety and
convenience are all of the utmost importance. For the majority of plant managers, it is
imperative that the factory design allows for the facility to have efficient production and
storage capabilities, in order to maximize productivity. There are a number of ways that a
facility can be designed to achieve this goal.
Software
Software tools such as Building Information Modeling (BIM), 3Dmodeling software for
building design, can be used to understand how the design or construction of a facility will
impact how it operates and minimize design errors. It can also be used to analyze how
complex variables work together, including water, airflow and ventilation.
The building as a whole can be optimized during the design stage, but the production line
should also be optimized for efficiency. In an efficient production line, there is a smooth
process flow from raw material to finished product, to avoid paperwork or parts being
misplaced. This can be done using design and planning software applications such as
AutoCAD, which allows the designer to view and analyze a digital factory model.
Space
When planning movement around a production/ manufacturing unit, it is important to
optimize the space so that it fits production needs, whilst making the best use of the available
area. This can be achieved by reorganizing the warehouse or even by constructing a
mezzanine floor above the production facility. Though it is important to consider the best
layout of machines and equipment, in factories where humans work alongside robots, the
space should be designed with people in mind.
The Human Touch/ Engineering
Improving the working environment for staff can increase productivity. A facility that is
light, well ventilated and temperature regulated will encourage worker productivity and
increase staff satisfaction. Once the facility is up and running, the plant manager can take
advantage of smart factory technology, using real time information to make intelligent
decisions.
From concept to construction to operation, steps can be taken to make a production line more
efficient, productive and cost effective. If a facility is designed with efficiency in mind, the
manufacturer can stay ahead of its competition for the long term, cementing its place in the
marketplace, just as the Empire State Building has in the New York skyline.

6.5 BUILDING & EXTERIOR FACILITIES

When you think about your business, you often consider your daily operations, employees,
finances and marketing tactics. What may not come to mind, however, is your building’s
exterior. This small factor can have a significant impact on your company’s success.
Advantages of Exterior Facilities
a. It Can Draw in More Customers
If your building offers an appealing design, it will catch people’s interest — more so than a
bland and outdated space. You can use this interest to your advantage by inviting people
inside or hanging up signage that denotes what you do. According to one survey, 76%
customers have entered a new store merely based on its signs.
If you’re thinking about upgrading your exterior, research what your current customers want.
For instance, you could send out a survey and ask them about which improvements they’d
like to see you make. You can also check out what your competitors are doing.

b. It Can Show That You Care

No matter the type of organization you run, a polished exterior will make your business look
more professional. It helps build a professional reputation for your company and sends a
message to passersby. If you care about your appearance, it tells customers you will care
about them, too.
On the other hand, a sloppy appearance — such as overgrown landscaping, discolored siding
and an ill-maintained roof — point out that you might not care. If you don’t have time to
make your business look good, will you have time to meet your customers’ needs?
c. It Can Improve Safety and Security
A building exterior that’s in tip-top shape is less likely to cause safety issues, such as rotting
materials that can fall off and injure someone. Maintained sidewalks can prevent trips and
falls, which could lead to a lawsuit.
A well-maintained building will also deter many would-be criminals. For instance,
since more than 10% of the building crimes occur in parking lots or garages, adequate
lighting can scare off offenders and keep your employees and customers safe.
d. It Can Protect Against Complaints
If you have a lacklustre commercial building, you may find that clients often voice their
concerns. For example, they may not like that you have an uncovered entrance or that your
stonework needs a good power washing. In turn, these annoyances may cause them to take
their business elsewhere.
With a stunning exterior, you can avoid these complaints and ensure your customers are
happy. Some ways you can enhance your exterior include putting in a ramp for wheelchair
access, adding a display window to show off your products or paving your parking lot and
walkways. Adapting your building for accessibility is often a resourceful and helpful way to
get more customers in, as they will have greater ease of access.
e. It Can Prevent Degradation
When you regularly maintain your building’s exterior and keep it in pristine condition, this
prevents degradation and adverse impacts on the building’s performance. The result is instant
savings. For instance, with no maintenance plan, moisture can get into the exterior wall
assembly, a problem that will cause cracks, dry rot, mold and peeling paint.
Your roof will also see wear and tear. While a roof’s insulation typically lasts 25 years, you
will still need to repair and replace sections over time, which can enhance your building’s
appearance and increase its lifespan.

Check Your Progress 2

1. What is the impact of facilities on the building design?

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2. Explain in detail about the building & exterior facilities?
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6.6 PARKING AREAS

A parking area/space is a location that is designated for parking, either paved or unpaved.
Parking spaces can be in a parking garage, in a parking lot or on a city street. It is usually
designated by a white-paint-on-tar rectangle indicated by three lines at the top, left and right
of the designated area. The automobile fits inside the space, either by parallel parking,
perpendicular parking or angled parking. Depending on the location of the parking space,
there can be regulations regarding the time allowed to park and a fee paid to use the parking
space. When the demand for spaces outstrips supply vehicles may overspill park onto the
sidewalk, grass verges and other places which were not designed for the purpose.
 6.6.1 Different Types of Parking Facilities

a. Parking Lots: These are areas that are designated for parking. The parking spaces are
usually marked out on the ground with thick yellow or white lines. You can usually
find parking lots near business places, supermarkets, restaurants and more. They are
usually opened most of the time. On the other hand, other improvised lots are
assigned for specific events and are only opened for that purpose.

b. Parking Garages: These parking facilities are often referred to as “car park/ parking
structure/ parking building/parking ramp/ parkade/ or parking deck.
There are several types of parking garages, which include…

 Single Level Parking Garages

 Multilevel Or Multi-Storey Parking Garages
 Underground Parking Garages
 Automated Parking Garages

c. Carports: These are private covered places next to a driveway at your home where several
cars can be parked. When we say covered, we don’t mean that they have four walls – they
usually have two (with one wall usually being part of the house’s wall). The car port is aimed
at protecting the vehicle from bad weather conditions.

d. Parking spaces on the side of the street: There are spaces on the side of the road designated
for parking. These spaces are usually metered and you can tell where they are easily
identified by looking for the outlined squares (yellow or white paint spaces).

e. APS (Automated Parking Systems): These are systems that mechanically move cars from
the entry area, to a free parking space inside the area. They don’t need any workers to help
with the process. They are sometimes referred to as a mechanical/robotic/rotary parking
systems, automatic/stacker parking or underground parking garages, among other things.

f. Semi-Automated Parking Systems: These systems use mechanical systems to move cars to
move cars to their parking spaces, except that they need to be attended to by a driver or an
employee.

6.6.2 Types of Parking

1. On Street Parking
On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself. This will be
usually controlled by government agencies itself. The standard dimension of a car is taken as
5× 2.5 m and that for a truck is 3.75× 7.5 m.
Source: www.engineeringcivil.com: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM
2. Off Street Parking
Off street parking means vehicles are parked off the street itself. This will be usually
controlled by commercial /contractual agencies itself.

Source: www.engineeringcivil.com: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM

3. Parallel Parking
The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is no backward
movement involved while parking or un-parking the vehicle. Hence, it is the safest
parking from the accident perspective. However, it consumes the maximum curb
length and therefore only a minimum number of vehicles can be parked for a given
kerbed length. This method of parking produces least obstruction to the on-going
track on the road since least road width is used.
Source: www.engineeringcivil.com: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM
4. Thirty Degree Parking
In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30 degree with respect to the road
alignment. In this case, more vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking.
Also there is better manoeuvre-ability.

5. Forty Five Degree Parking

As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked. Hence
compared to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can
be accommodated in this type of parking.

6. Sixty Degree Parking

The vehicles are parked at 60 to the direction of road. More number of vehicles can be
accommodated in this parking type.

7. Right Angle Parking

In right angle parking or 90parking, the vehicles are parked perpendicular to the
direction of the road. Although it consumes maximum width kerbed length required
is very little. In this type of parking, the vehicles need complex manoeuvring and this
may cause severe accidents. This arrangement causes obstruction to the road track
particularly if the road width is less. However, it can accommodate maximum number
of vehicles for a given kerbed length.
Source: www.engineeringcivil.com: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM
8. Parking Spaces for the Disabled
Some parking spaces are reserved as accessible parking for disabled individuals. Disabled
parking spaces are typically marked with the Symbol of Access, though in practice, the
design of the symbol varies widely.

Source: www.engineeringcivil.com: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM

6.6.3 Multiple Level Car Parking

It is a building (or part there hereof) which is designed specifically to be for Automobile
Parking and where there are a number of floors or levels on which parking takes place.
Is essentially a Stacked Car Park

“Multilevel Car Park” – Term Originated in UK, in US it is called a “Parking Structure”

Types
1. Manually operated (non-mechanized-with ramps)
2. Mechanized (Classified in different type based on technology)
• Mini
• Puzzle
• Tower

In order to accommodate the large volume of vehicles, small cities and towns must develop
their infrastructure. One solution may be a multi-level car parking system to maximize car
parking capacity by utilizing vertical space, rather than expand horizontally. With land in
metros and ‘a’ grade cities becoming scarce and dearer, and plots getting smaller,
conventional parking is proving infeasible.

Salient Features of Multiple Level Car Parking

 Intelligent buffering system offering zero wait time for thepublic - Dynamic peak
hour management to configure the system in line with the demand pattern.
 Flexible, scalable and modular design to accommodate wide range of layout and
capacities and offers seamless capacity addition.
 Simple design by the way of electrical push pulls mechanism with direct drives.
Use of electrical drives to optimize power consumption.
 Intelligent emergency management system via. Manual over-ride option.
Advantages
 Space effective – space savings upwards of 70%
Freeing the space at ground level for better commercial use.
 Reduced total cost of ownership.
 Environmental friendly as ramps are avoided.
Higher throughput and faster operations (capability to handle 40 to 60 cars an hour)
6.6.4 Necessity of MLCPS (Multiple Level Car Parking)

Optimal Utilization of Space

Mechanical car parking system is a method of parking and retrieving cars by using pallets
and lifts. It thus removes the need for lengthy drive ways and ramps, accommodating
maximum cars in minimum space. Multiple Level Car Parking (MLCPS) is flexible
enough to solve varied parking problems. It can be sited above or below the ground or a
combination of both and designed to accommodate any number of cars.

Lower Construction Cost

MLCPS are cost effective in terms of construction cost. MLCPS are delivered pre-fabricated
which are assembled on site. As the system is operated automatically, added expenses of
underground parking such as building structure, providing lighting and security are avoided.

Low Maintenance and Operational Cost

Operating cost is low since mechanical car parking systems requires less energy to run. There
is no need for energy intensive ventilating systems as the cars are not being driven inside the
parking lot. Cladding can be specially selected to match the building’s facade.

Safety of Vehicle
MLCPS provide complete safety to a vehicle as parked cars are not accessible to anyone else.
Damages or a dent to the car is avoided while parking through narrow drive ways.

Environment Friendly
One of the greatest benefits related to conventional underground or open space parking, is the
saving of ground space. Outdoor space saved can be put to good use with gardens and
landscaping or additional buildings. It also significantly reduces noise and other pollutants.

Benefit to a Driver
Car driving now can become a pleasant experience. Mechanical car parking systems makes
parking easier and less stressful as the driver does not have to drive through the entire parking
lot looking for a place to park, nor do they have to attend the car when it is parked, thus
saving a lot of time. Difficulty in parking in a tight corner is also eliminated.

Check Your Progress 3

1. List down the types of Parking?

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2. What is Multiple Level Car Parking? Discuss the Salient features & advantages of
MLCPS?
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3. Explain the following terms:
a. Parking Garages
b. Parking Lots
c. Carports

6.7 LANDSCAPING & GROUNDS

A landscape is the visible feature of an area of land, its landforms to create an aesthetic
appeal and integrate with natural or man-made features, Landscaping refers to any activity
that modifies the visible features of an area of land, includes flora or fauna commonly called
gardening, the art and craft of growing plants with a goal of creating a beauty within the
landscape, fountains, sound and light effects, and water bodies.
6.7.1 Importance of Landscaping: Landscaping allows different species of plants to flourish
in their natural habitat, free of pests and insects. They are provided with an adequate amount
of water, good quality of soil, and sunlight to grow and nurture. It also helps in protecting and
conserving endangered plant species carrying medicinal properties. Now- a- days,
landscaping is using as an effective tool to conserve the water also by using canal/ cavity
techniques.
 Preservation and conservation of natural flora and fauna – The most significant
advantage of having a landscape is the preservation of nature. Urban architecture is
full of wooden decking and concrete flooring. People have started acknowledging the
importance of plants and trees in their lives. Landscaping offers solutions to various
environmental issues, and protects natural resources and ecology.
 To Reduce Pollution – A smart garden helps in reducing pollutants in the
environment. Many manufacturing for example ONGC, NTPC, IOC, GAIL, BHEL,
BAARC, andhospitality companies including ITC, Oberoi Group of Hotels, Indian
Hotels Company, Lords Group of Hotels, U.P. Hotels Limited have come forward to
adopt a garden in theirarchitecture. Landscaping helps in purification of the air in the
nearby surroundings which helps in purifying both outdoor and indoor air quality.
Protects Plants – Plants are a vital part of our biological life cycle. Landscaping allows
different species of plants to flourish in their natural habitat, free of pests. They are provided
with an adequate amount of water, good quality of soil, and sunlight to grow and nurture.
Protection from Heat –Landscaping is excellent ideas to promote greenery in the concrete
cities as everyone find solace in a tree shade during hot summers. This shows the importance
of plants and trees in our lives. Landscaping offers the concept of pocket parks or small parks
that allow people to relax from their hectic urban lifestyle.
Water Management& Conservation –Our country is running out of wetlands. Planned and
smart landscape is the solution for this dangerous situation and a natural way to curb this
issue. Wetlands are responsible for controlling floods and managing biological diversity.
Offers Outdoor Recreation –Beautiful landscape fascinate the human beings from
centuries. Landscapes are an excellent means of outdoor recreation. This will boost the
physical well-being of the local population. Kids always enjoy playing in landscapes, and
simultaneously can learn about conservation of the environment.
Improve Mental Health –from centuries sitting for some time in the lap of nature can have
a positive impact on a person and his state of mind. This exercise enhances the productivity
of working individuals by boosting their confidence and concentration levels. In other words,
more green spaces indicate better psychological health.
6.7.2 Principles of Landscaping

Source: https://www.greenmylife.in/principles-of-landscaping/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @

4:00 PM
Principles are certain facts that act as the foundation for a set of beliefs. Landscaping is one
such field that also has certain principles based on which they are designed or made.
Gardening has become more and more popular in the present-day situation as its importance
is being realized by us. The bare land is being landscaped to make it beautiful. But
landscaping it with the correct principles makes it a visual treat to everyone. The natural
landscapes with the tall mountains, hills, valleys, rivers, and plants do not fail to amaze
anyone. The similar imitation like nature should also be a perfect blend of all the features in
the right proportion.
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN LANDSCAPING

Background: The background serves as a main component of any landscaping and creating a
wall of trees, or tall trees or a hedge helps in designing a background. The background must
be neutral to support the other features of the garden.

Contrast: The contrast can be provided by using the color (a floral bed with yellow and
violet color flowers), or texture (a spiky leaved plant with a smooth textured leaf plant) or
with form (a tall form combined with a spreading or bushy plant).This ismost important
element in all landscapes irrespective of its size and helps to break the monotony of the
garden. The contrast provides a varied and beautiful look at the overall features.

Source: https://www.greenmylife.in/principles-of-landscaping/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @

4:00 PM
Balance: Balance is the most important feature and looked into in case of a formal garden or
a symmetrical garden. In the case of an informal garden, the balance can be achieved by
balancing the features but not exact with similar ones in terms of size or number i.e., a hedge
at one side balanced by a seater or a rock on the other side.

Source: https://www.greenmylife.in/principles-of-landscaping/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @

4:00 PM
Proportion: It refers to the size of each element with reference to the other. The proportion
of the different features of landscaping such as balance, contrast, background, rhythm, variety
etc. The proportion will make the objects look taller or smaller in size i.e., a tall tree in front
of the house will make the house look smaller and a bushy tree in front of a house will make
the house look bigger in size. The phenomenon of illusion is being played within the
principle of proportion. So, choosing the plants with the right proportion has the utmost
importance.
Source: https://www.greenmylife.in/principles-of-landscaping/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @
4:00 PM
Repetition: This principle helps in achieving a rhythm in the garden. In the case of a formal
garden, the same feature is being repeated (a set of 3 or 4 circular hedges). In the case of an
informal garden, it may not be the same. The repetition when done with different textures and
colors, it will provide good contrast and will be visually appealing.

Source: https://www.greenmylife.in/principles-of-landscaping/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @

4:00 PM
Rhythm: Rhythm in a landscape is about repetition and the strategic placement of elements
that contribute to a garden’s underlying structure.Rhythm enhances the unity and beauty of
the garden. The random placement of the various features such as flora, fountains etc. will not
look good as a whole. For creating a rhythm, an artistic sense is required that combines all the
principles like balance, proportion, repetition, and contrast and careful use of these principles
is required to enhance the rhythm.

Source: https://www.greenmylife.in/principles-of-landscaping/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @

4:00 PM
Variety: Variety breaks the monotony of the garden/ landscape and also helps in
beautification. Variety can be achieved by the use of different colors, forms, texture, planting
seasonal flowers, herbs and spices.
6.7.3 Key Elements of Landscape Design
All designs whether on a canvas, in a magazine or in the landscape, draws upon common
tools of composition. These elements of design include mass, form, line, texture and color. In
the landscape, they are used to transform space and create a unique experience.

While color and texture add interest and richness to a design, it is mass, form and line that are
critical to organizing space and providing structure. Understanding these key design elements
is the first step in creating a harmonious, unified landscape.
Source: https://southernlivingplants.com/plan-your-garden/3-key-landscape-design-
elements/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM

Two similar designs for a patio garden can be used to explore the elements of design. The
rectilinear design (top left) and angular design (top right) provide the same function and
visual connection to the surrounding landscape.

Line

Line in landscape design is used :

- Carry the eye through a landscape

- Create physical flow and connectivity
- Vertical lines carry the eye skyward and are useful in expanding small spaces.
- Strong horizontal lines can make a space feel broader
- Lines also elicit emotional responses: straight lines are formal and direct, while
curved lines are more gentle and natural.
- Consider line when shaping beds and walkways, or in choosing hardscape elements
such as fences. Visualize how a straight or curved line might direct the eye through
the landscape toward a focal point.

Source: https://southernlivingplants.com/plan-your-garden/3-key-landscape-design-
elements/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM
In both designs the primary line of site is toward the central focal point. Perceived lines in the
rectilinear design carry the eye in one direction, while the protruding points in the angular
design slow the eye’s movement.

Mass

In design, mass is;

- Measure of visual size

- Mass describes the space or area occupied by an object or group of objects
- Planting bed, house, patio and arbor all have mass, as do individual plants in a garden.

The objective in design is to balance the mass of objects in the landscape. Individual
components should be sized according to their surroundings. For example, planting beds are
sized in relation to the adjacent lawn, house or hardscape. Likewise, the mass of individual
plants or groups of plants within a bed need to occupy a space proportionate to the overall
planting.

Source: https://southernlivingplants.com/plan-your-garden/3-key-landscape-design-
elements/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM

The mass of open space (void) and filled space is balanced in both designs. Likewise, the
central fountain which serves as a focal point, is appropriately-sized for its surroundings.

Form

Form refers to the shapes of objects in a landscape. Many forms exist in a landscape such as
the rectilinear shapes of the house, walkways and driveways. Plants, topography and
hardscape delineate other forms that may include squares, circles, triangles or irregular
shapes.

Plants also have individual form ranging from pyramidal to rounded, vase-like to flat or
spreading. When plants are placed into groups, they take on a new form as a group which
may be quite distinct from the individual shape.

Landscape forms evoke emotions and create ambiance. Rectilinear forms feel structured and
formal, circles are soft, triangles are strong, and irregular shapes are casual and free. We can
take advantage of form in a design to set the mood of a landscape.
Source: https://southernlivingplants.com/plan-your-garden/3-key-landscape-design-
elements/: retrieved on 10-Nov-22 @ 4:00 PM

The rectilinear design has a formal, orderly feel while the angular design is more relaxed.
When designing landscape form strive to complement the style of the house.

Voids

Empty spaces or voids also “fill” a distinct area and contain visual mass. Voids also
encompass a particular space or form in the landscape. During designing, empty space is
more important than occupied space. The voids in a landscape serve to balance and unite
individual components.

Too often, lawns, patios, or other voids are composed of leftover space. A more effective
approach is to intentionally design the voids. When laying out bed lines or establishing new
hardscape elements, try designing the empty space rather than the occupied. Planting beds,
hardscape and focal points will fall into place around these intentional spaces.

6.7.4 Landscape &Grounds Maintenance

Landscape & Grounds maintenance is how an organization looks after the areas around their
facilities to ensure everything looks good and functions properly. Just like the assets and
equipment inside the buildings, the physical space around the facilities needs attention if an
organization hopes to maximize its value. Grounds maintenance includes:

 Trimming trees and hedges

 Keeping walkways clear
 Cleaning out gutters
 Installing and maintaining fencing
 Picking up litter
 Controlling pests and invasive species
 Removing snow
 Watering lawns, trees, and plants
 Maintaining irrigation systems
Benefits of Grounds Maintenance

 On top of making everything look good, the right grounds maintenance delivers a lot
of additional benefits including:

 Avoiding damage to your buildings and cutting energy costs.

 Reduce the risk of damage to foundation by controlling the amount of water in the
soil around buildings.

 Soil settlement leads to vertical cracks in the foundation and opens up to the
possibility of water leaks. Horizontal cracks are more serious.

 Ground, planting trees in the right spots help protect buildings from the elements,
making it to keep them cool in the summer and warm in the winter. When it’s hot
outside, trees provide shade. And when it’s cold, they block the wind.

6.8 LAWS, PERMITS & LICENSES

According to the Indian Constitution, state legislatures are empowered to make laws and
regulations regarding to a number of subject-matters, including water, land ( rights in or over
land, land tenure, transfer and alienation of agricultural land), as well as the preservation,
protection and improvement of stock and the prevention of animal disease.
The architect, interior design consultants, HVAC engineers, mechanical and electrical
consultants, plumbing consultants, structural engineers have to complete the construction
drawings consisting of the blueprint of the facility, which is a series of drawings showing
the layout of the parts of the building. The complete set of blueprints consists of the
following:
1. Plot and survey drawings delineate the legal boundaries of the plot.
2. Contour plans that give a graphical representation of the land parcel.
3. Floor plans that are drawn on the scale giving a bird’s eye view or a horizontal perspective
of the various spaces on a given floor such as rooms, corridors, lift locations, shafts and so
on.
4. Elevation drawings, as the name suggests, give a view of a building as seen from one side
and is used to describe the external appearance or facade of a building.
5. Perspective give s a three dimensional view of a building.
6. Cross section or simply section drawings give a vertical perspective and highlight the
relationship between different levels of a building.
7. Mechanical drawings or technical drawings enable dimensions and measurements to be
taken giving details of plumbing, sewage, electrical, TV cabling, telephone wiring, AC
ducting, and hot and cold water supply system details.
Simultaneously, site development has to be undertaken prior to commencing construction.
This involves demarcating of boundaries of the plot, soil testing, mapping the contours of
land, leveling the land parcel, marking of the building footprint and driveways, landscaping,
installation of electrical power load, water connection, constructing temporary buildings and
facilities, and so on. Upon completion of site development, it is mandatory for the developer
to give a notice to the municipal corporation advising them of his intent to commence
construction. The municipal corporation grants permission to the developer by issuing an
IOD and CC. [Intimation of disapproval (IOD) and CC (Commencement Certificate)] IOD is
a letter of approving the project, authorizing the development subject to the restrictions
mentioned in the approval letter, whereas a CC permits the developer to commence
construction activities on the plot of land subject the IOD. Generally, the IOC and CC are
given simultaneously by the corporation. In certain states, IOD is not required and a CC
issued by the corporation is the only document required by the hotel developer to commence
construction. These permission suffice only till the construction of plinth level. The free
dictionary.com defines: The plinth usually rests directly on the ground. A plinth is the base or
platform upon which a column, pedestal, statue, monument or structure rests. Once the plinth
level is reached, the grid of the building, consisting of column and beams upon which the
entire load of the building will rest, is completed. Once the construction starts, it takes
approximately 12-18 months for the hotel structure to be completed. An NOC from a
qualified engineer certifying that the building’s structural design meets all the safety
standards, that the materials used, the workmanship and the methodology employed for
construction work are of specified standards so as to protect the building from natural hazards
such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, landslides and floods is submitted to the
municipal corporation. During the last six to eight months of the project, the interior design
team and the operations teams coordinate the final finishing of the hotel to make it
operational. The project team initiates the process for securing a partial completion certificate
(PCC) from the municipal corporation. As the name suggests, a PCC issued by municipal
corporation authorities certifies that the hotel structure has complied with all the requirements
laid down in the IOD and CC, has fulfilled all the norms outlined in the National Building
Code 2005. In order to secure a PCC, the developer has to obtain NOCs from all the agencies
that have been listed earlier. Various certificates required to be submitted to secure a PCC:
 Structural Engineer’s Stability Certificate
 Architect’s Supervision Certificate
 NOC from Airport Authority of India
 NOC from Chief Fire Officer
 NOC from Chief Engineer, Electrical Department, Electricity
 NOC from Inspector of Lifts, Department of Electricity.
 Drainage Completion Certificate ( Storm Water drains)
 Drainage Completion Certificate ( Sewage)
 Rainwater Harvesting Completion Certificate
 Successful Installation of STP ( Sewage Treatment Plant)Certificate
 Boiler Inspection Certificate under The Indian Boilers Act, 1923 and The Indian
Boilers ( Amendment) Act, 2007
 Installation of storage tanks for LPG, HSD & Furnace oil under the Indian Explosives
Act, 1884
 Clearance from the Water Department authorizing water connection.
  NOC under The Water ( Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and the
Water( Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 1988- to release waste
water from the premises
 NOC under The Air( Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981- to operate diesel
operated generators and boilers
 NOC from the Electricity and Pollution Control Board for the installation of DG sets
conforming to noise pollution standards.
Granting of a PCC enables the facility developer to apply for various operational permissions
and licences.
Operational stage
Upon completion of the building interiors, the PCC is converted to a completion certificate
by the municipal corporation. Once a completion certificate is received, an application is
moved for securing an occupancy certificate (OC) from the municipal corporation. It is at this
stage when all the required permissions to make the hotel operational have to be obtained
from various government agencies. Occupancy certificate issued by the municipal
corporation certifies that the building has incorporated all the safety standards and is in a
habitable condition. An OC enables the residents to secure water, electricity, drainage, and
sewage connection from the appropriate authorities.

Check Your Progress 4

1. List down the principles of landscaping.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………
2. Write short note on Ground Maintenance.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………
3. Enumerate the various Building Laws, Permits & licenses.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………

6.9 LET US SUM UP

This chapter covered the fundamentals of Infrastructure Development-I focusing on

Architectural Design, Building Types, Impact of Facilities on the Building Design, Building
& Exterior Facilitiesaspect and it is not expected that students of facility management need to
become Architect but however, they must have sufficient knowledge& understanding of the
subjects dealt in this topic to enable them to supervise Infrastructure Development which as a
result provides an effective & efficient facility. This chapter also gives a detailed overview of
Parking Areas, Landscaping & Grounds, Laws,Permits& Licenses which are important
aspects to be known by the facility manager.

6.10 FURTHER READINGS

 A guide to parking by International Parking Institute

Publisher Routledge, 2018
 Parking in the city by Donald Shoup
Publisher Routledge, 2018
 Principles of Landscape gardening by S Y Chandrashekar And HemlaNaik B
Publisher Indian Council of Agricultural , 2020
 Landscape Detailing (Volume-1) 3rd Edition by M Littlewood
Publisher CBS Publishers, 1993
 Principles of Landscape Architecture by Pragnyashree Mishra &BhimasenNaik
Publisher New India Publishing Agency-Nipa, 2022
 Architectural Design - Theory And Practice by M. PratapRao
Publisher Standard Publishes, 2009
 Principles of Architecture by G. MuthuShoba Mohan
Publisher Oxford University Press Australia, 2008
 The History of Indian Architecture by Ar. A. K. Srivastava
Publisher Anybook, 2022
 Building Construction Illustrated by Francis D. K Ching
Publisher CBS, 1999
 Building Construction by Dr. B. C. Punmia, Er. Ashok K. Jain &Dr.Arun K.
Jain
Publisher Laxmi Publications, 2016
 TIME-SAVER STANDARDS FOR BUILDING TYPES by Joseph De Chiara &
John Hancock Callender
Publisher McGraw Hill Education, 2001

6.11 KEY WORDS

Architecture: the study of designing and making buildings

Building: a usually roofed and walled structure built for permanent use
Blueprint: a photographic plan or a description of how to make, build or achieve something
Deliverables: the quantifiable goods or services that must be provided upon the completion
of a project.
Facilities: any building, installation, structure, or other property (including any applicable
fixtures)
Kerbed: a line of stone or concrete forming an edge between a pavement and a roadway, so
that the pavement is some 15 cm above the level of the road.
Permit: to allow somebody to do something or to allow something to happen
Law: an official rule of a country or state that says what people may or may not do.
License: to give official permission for something

6.12 CLUES TO ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1

1. For details refer to 6.2

2. For details refer to 6.2
3. For details refer to 6.3

Check Your Progress 2

1. For details refer to 6.4

Check2.Your
ForProgress
details refer
3 to 6.5

1. For details refer to 6.6.2

2. For details refer to 6.6.3 & 6.6.4
3. For details refer to 6.6.1

Check Your Progress 4

1. For details refer to 6.7.2

2. For details refer to 6.7.4
3. For details refer to 6.8

6.13 ACTIVITIES

 Visit a nearby mall with Multi Level parking facility to observe & understand its
features & list down its advantages.
 Evaluate the positioning & current situation of the specially abled parking/ parking for
disabled individuals in the facilities around you.
 Visit to a good residential apartment facility or a commercial high rise building to
observe the type & style of landscaping focusing on its upkeep & maintenance aspect.
 Make a collage by pasting pictures representing principles of Landscaping.
UNIT 7 INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT – II

Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction

7.2 Types of Walls and Wall Fixings

7.3 Types of Paints

7.4 Types of Ceilings

7.5 Types of Roof Tiles

7.6 Types of Floors

7.7 Types of Doors
7.8 Types of Windows
7.9 Wallpapers
7.10 Types of Mirrors.

7.11 Let Us Sum Up

7.12 Further Readings

7.13 Key Words

7.14 Clues to Answers

7.15 Activities

7.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 describe types of walls, wall fixings, paints & ceilings

 explain types of floors, doors, windows & their usages.
 understand the concept of wallpapers & their types.
 develop the familiarity with the various types of mirrors & its application in facilities.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Infrastructure is the set of various facilities, and systems that make a facility efficient and
effective. Infrastructure development involves of the quality of various components of an
interiors and exteriors of a building such as roads, pathways, parking, landscapes, corridors,
paints, and varnishes, mirrors, HVAC, plumbing, water systems. To make the facility
operational and successful. Investment in infrastructure of a facility tends to be costly and
capital intensive and that's why selection and procurement of right quality of raw materials
such as paints, mirrors, wall papers etc. becomes very important. This unit highlights the
Types of Walls and Wall Fixings, Paints, Ceilings, Roof Tiles, Floors, Doors, Windows,
Wallpapers & Mirrors.

7.2 TYPES OF WALLS AND WALL FIXINGS

A wall is a structure and a surface that defines a place; contains a load; offers security,
shelter, or soundproofing; or is decorative.

Following are various types of walls used in building construction:

1. Load Bearing Wall

It may be outside wall or indoors wall. It braces from the roof to the ground. It contains
masses imposed on it from beams and slabs above including its very own weight and switch
it to the foundation. Those partitions help structural components /elements which includes
beams, slabs and partitions on above floors. as the top of the building extended, the specified
thickness of wall and ensuing pressure on basis will increase and reason it to be
uneconomical.

Types of Load Bearing Walls:

 Precast Concrete Wall
 Retaining Wall
 Masonry Wall
 Pre Panelised Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls
 Engineering Brick Wall
 Stone Wall

2. Non-Load Bearing Wall

Non-load bearing walls most effective bring their personal weight and does now not help any
structural individuals along with beams and slabs. These walls are simply used as partition
partitions or to separate rooms & doors.
Types of Non-Load Bearing Wall:
 Hollow Concrete Block
 Façade Bricks
 Hollow Bricks
 Brick Wall

3. Cavity Walls
It is a wall constructed in 2 leaves / skins with an area / cavity among them. A kind of
constructing wall production inclusive of an outer wall fixed to inner wall separated by
providing the air space. Hollow space partitions help to prevent the penetration of rain.

4. Shear Wall
Shear walls are used to face up the pressure of wind and earthquake loading on a building.
Awell framed wall designed to withstand lateral forces. Shear walls are usually made up of
timber/ plywood.

5. Partition Wall
Partition wall is an interior non-load bearing wall to divide the larger space into smaller
spaces. The heights of a partition wall depend on the use which can be one storey or a part of
one storey. These partition walls are made up of glass, fiber boards or brick masonry.

6. Panel Wall
Panel wall is usually made of wood and is an outdoors non-load bearing wall in framed
production. These walls are used for aesthetics of the buildings both outside and inside.

7. Veneered Walls
Masonry veneer partitions is a single non-structural outside masonry wall product of brick,
stone, or synthetic stone. It has an air area behind and is called as anchored veneer.

7.3 TYPES OF PAINTS

Paint- Paint is a coloured substance spread over a surface and dries to leave a thin decorative
or protective coating. Paint is made up of pigment & either an oil or water bases binder.
Water based paint emulsion, Vinyl & latex dries purely by evaporation while oil based paint
has a chemical drying agent added. Oil based paint are more durable in comparison to water
based paints. The greatest advantage of water based paint is that brushes & rollers can be
washed in water & no special cleaning agent is needed.

Varnish: It is resin dissolved in a liquid for applying on wood, metal, or other materials to
form a hard, clear, shiny surface when dry.

Paints can be categorised into following:

 Distemper paint
 Gloss/Solvent based paints
 Emulsion
 Functional Paints

Distemper Paint
Distemper paint is an ancient type of paint made of water, chalk, and pigment. The primary
problem with distemper paint is that it is not durable. Distempered surfaces can be easily
marked and discoloured, and cannot be washed down, so distemper is best suited to
temporary and interior decoration.

Gloss/Solvent Based Paints

These paints are oil based & includes resin to give a hard wearing quality, gloss are mostly
used in wood & metal surfaces. This paint has a pungent smell which linger after application
for several hours for drying.

Emulsion
This type of paint is also water based and provides a rich and Matt finish to interior walls.
This paint has a less pungent smell which does not linger after application & dries within the
next 2 hours. Its composition imparts excellent durability to the painted surface and gives the
walls a just painted look. These paints are washable, durable, fungus and mildew resistant &
stains can be removed easily by wiping with a cloth dipped in a mild soap solution.

Functional Paints
Functional paints are not just decorative paints; they have specific functions like eliminating
insects, bacteria, fungus or dust mites. Functional paints have an in-built, safe and non-toxic
mechanism to humans but fatal to insects, fungus, bacteria or dust mites.

Uses of paints are:

  To protect material from weathering oxidation process and damages
 To improve beauty of material
 To facilitate the cleaning process of surface
 To give high class finish and attractive colour and pleasing surfaces design and
appearances
 To protect substances from corrosion(iron)
 To make material long lasting
 Paint can be used for material made of wood, iron, steel, concrete and brick.

Merits & Demerits of Different Types of Paint

Paint Type Merits Demerits

1. Acrylic Emulsion • Emulsion paint is quick drying, • Emulsion paints require a
Paint with a very low level of VOCs (volatile coat of primer before application of
organic compounds). the paint.
Acrylic emulsion paints • The paint is available in various • Another drawback is that the
are water-based and some finishes, such as matte, satin and silk. glossy finishes of emulsion paint
of the most preferred • The paint is extremely durable and show up all the imperfections and
paints for homes. long-lasting. undulations of the walls.
• Emulsion paint is washable, and
stains can be removed by simply wiping
the surface with a damp cloth dipped in
water or a mild soap solution.
• It is resistant to fungus and mildew.
• Another plus is that emulsion
paints contain non-yellowing agents,
which ensures good stability of colours
that do not fade in the presence of sunlight.
• The paint is acrylic based, which
makes the paint elastic and highly resistant
to cracking.

2. Enamel Paint • Enamel paint is highly durable. • One disadvantage is that

• It is glossy, which imparts a rich
Enamel paint is a solvent- finish to the walls
or oil-based paint. • Enamel paint is best suited for
areas that are subject to high moisture and
humidity.
enamel paint is less flexible in
comparison to emulsion paint. It may
develop cracks over a period.
• Enamel paint takes a longer
time to dry.
• Another minus is that this
paint emits strong odours, which
may also be harmful to health.

3. Distemper Paint
Distemper paint comprises
chalk, lime, water, and
some colouring agents.
This type of paint is
commonly known as
‘whitewash’.
4. Textured Paint
These are water-based
paints that create specific
effects on the wall, when
used with techniques such
as sponging, distressing,
stippling, brushing,
ragging and so on.
5. Metallic Paint
Metallic paint is a water-
based paint that contains
minute particles of metal,
such as aluminium,
copper, bronze, or stainless
steel, and is best suited for
an accent wall.
Paint Faults-Most common paint faults are as follows:
 Pimples
 Flaking
 Slow Drying
 Blisters
 Wrinkles
 Dull Gloss
 Brush Marks
• Distemper paint is also known as
cement paint because it can be applied
directly onto the plastered surface without
the use of any primer.
• These paints do not crack in the
presence of sunlight.
• Distemper paint is very economical
and can be used on both the interior and
exterior walls.
• Textured paint can impart a rustic
look to the accent wall or create the effect
of marble, stucco and so on.
• Textured paint is usually thicker
than the other conventional types of paint.
• This paint is a great way to cover
minor defects such as an uneven or
damaged wall or even wall cracks.
• This type of paint has a metallic
finish which imparts a high-look luxurious
look to the space.
• Metallic paint works as a great
alternative to wallpaper.
• Solvents such as turpentine
are required to clean the paint
brushes.
• Distemper paint is not fully
washable; it has the tendency to
come off when wetted.
• Textured paint is
comparatively more expensive than
the other conventional types of paint.
• Once the surface of the
textured paint is damaged, it
becomes very difficult to touch up
the surface in precisely the same
colour or texture. There is likely to
be a slight colour variation.
• Only expert painters can
work with textured paint
• These paints are very
expensive, but, on the other hand, it
takes only a small section of wall
painted with metallic paint to create
a stunning effect.
 Check Your Progress 1

1. Briefly discuss about the different types of walls?

……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What is paint? List down the different types of paints?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Write merits & demerits of different types of paints?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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7.4 TYPES OF CEILINGS

A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that covers the higher limits of a room. Ceiling is a
finished surface concealing the bottom of the roof structure or the floor of a story above.
Ceilings may be decorated to flavour, and there are many examples of frescoes and artwork
on ceilings.

1. Conventional Ceiling
Conventional Ceilings/ Traditional ceilings are flat and usually 8 to 9 feet high and may up to
any length and width according to size of the ceiling surface. These ceilings are most cost
effective and required minimum cleanliness.

2. Suspended Ceiling
Suspended ceiling is also termed as dropped ceiling and hangs from a metal grid beneath the
prevailing ceiling. These are generally made of by using noise-regulating acoustic ceiling
tiles to hide mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and lighting (MEP). Installation of suspended
ceiling must be done by professional engineers/ specialists to achieve highest level of
accuracy and satisfactory results. These ceilings are mostly used in industrial homes,
workplaces, and retail spaces, due to their flexibility.

3. Coffered Ceiling
Coffered ceilings are most common in excessive-stop houses, churches, libraries, and inns.
These ceilings are recognizable through its grid of inverted panels which are accentuated by
using moulding; commercial wood coffered ceilings are commonly designed to paintings
with fashionable T-Bar suspension grids – assisting to streamline the set up technique.

4. Tray Ceiling
As the name suggests, the ceiling layout resembles a tray. Tray ceilings are multi-degree
ceilings – they start from one top, then drop as upload levels. The flat ceiling at the outdoor
of the tray surrounds the raised centre, which is the best part of the ceiling. Tray ceilings
(additionally called panned ceilings) come to be barely lower with every brought step or
“level” that surrounds the raised middle, creating a 3-dimensional impact because the ceiling
expands outwards.

5. Coved Ceiling
A vaulted ceiling is commonly found in formal rooms, theatres or houses of worship. The
Vatican Houseis one of the most famous vaulted ceilings on an international scale. Forming a
domed arrangement, this ceiling has curved edges rather than the sharp angles of most
ceilings and walls, and is often constructed using curved moulding or framing.

6. Cathedral Ceiling
Cathedral ceilings are often determined in big dwelling rooms, dining rooms, bedrooms, or
even the master bath. These high ceilings are crafted from a selection of substances. Linear
wood is an incredible option to use, whether planks or panels mounted either continuously or
gradually.

7. Shed Ceiling
Shed, or single-slope, ceilings are generally located at the top story of a domestic, both within
the attic or loft.

8. Beam Ceiling
Beam ceilings are usually found in hallways and corridors for business settings and living and
dining rooms for residential settings. Load-bearing beams are exposed within the indoors of
the space, the herbal timber offers visible version from the rest of the room. In cases wherein
load-bearing beams are not required, a copy of the beam is created using plywood and miters
and is used certainly for its aesthetic attraction.

7.5 ROOF TILES

Roof tiles are in general made to preserve water out of a building. There are different types of
roof tiles namely as under:
1. Slate Roof Tiles
2. Metal Roof Tiles
3. Concrete Roof Tiles
4. Composite Roof Tiles
5. Solar Roof Tiles
6. Clay Roof Tiles
7. Synthetic Spanish Barrel Roof Tiles
8. Synthetic Slate Roof Tiles
9. Synthetic Cedar Roof Tiles
Features of Roof Tiles

Types of Roof Tiles Features

Slate Roof Tiles Fire resistant, low maintenance, long lasting

Metal Roof Tiles Light weight material , energy efficient, environmental friendly,
safe and durable
Concrete Roof Tiles Less water absorption, better mechanical resistance, flexibility in
thickness from 5 mm to 10 mm and varied colours.
Composite Roof Tiles Made up of recycled synthetic material, durable, eye appeal,
maintenance free
Solar Roof Tiles These are made of photovoltaic cells and each tile is connected to
the power distribution board via cables and convert solar energy
into electrical energy, environmental friendly, low maintenance,
durable,
Clay Roof Tiles Long life span, resistant to extreme weather conditions, easy to
maintain, suitable for both slopping and curved roof, easy to
handle and environment friendly
Synthetic Spanish Extremely durable for all weather conditions, interlocking pattern,
Barrel Roof Tiles easy to handle and environment friendly, flexible in use

Synthetic Slate Roof Heat and fire resistant, light weight, long lasting, low maintenance
Tiles cost, flexible in use
Synthetic Cedar Roof Long lasting, environment friendly, maintenance friendly
Tiles
Slate Roof Tiles

2. Metal Roof Tiles

3. Concrete Roof Tiles

4. Composite Roof Tiles

5. Solar Roof Tiles

6. Clay Roof Tiles

7. Synthetic Spanish Barrel Roof Tiles

8. Synthetic Slate Roof Tiles

9. Synthetic Cedar Roof Tiles

 Source: https://www.bravarooftile.com/blog/roof-tile-types;

Check Your Progress 2

1. Enumerate different types of ceiling.

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………………

2. Discuss about various types of roof tiles.

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……………..

7.6 TYPES OF FLOORS

A floor is the bottom surface of a room or building. Flooring range from easy dust in a cave
too many layered surfaces made with modern generation. floors can be made of stone, timber,
bamboo, metallic or some other material that can support the expected load. The tiers of a
building are often called flooring, despite the fact that a greater proper time period is storey.
flooring commonly encompass a subfloor for support and a ground protecting used to give a
terrific strolling floor. In modern building the subfloor often has mechanical, electrical
wiring, plumbing, and other offerings built in.

Ground Level (GL)

Ground Level and Floor Level are the contractions applied for ground stage and floor stage,
one by one. The term ground level alludes to the shape's level on the floor or closest to the
ground level round it.

Building Ground Level (BGL)

The extent of land or the finished floor level in the shape is referred to as the building ground
stage (BGL). The stature of the building's floor level generally goes from 150mm to
1200mm, from the natural floor level (NGL).

Plinth Level
The plinth is a piece of the superstructure located among the floor degree and the completed
ground degree. The plinth allows in moving the superstructure's heap to the status quo. It
likewise offers safety to the shape towards infiltration of dampness and a respectable
engineering appearance. The basic function of giving a plinth is to prevent the segment of
water and stormwater into the shape.

Sill Level/ Ledge Level

A stage between the shape's window base and floor degree over the ground level is referred
to as the ledge level. The good sized mattress or mortar mattress is about on the window base
level. Stone is also utilized at the base degree of the window.

Ledge level tallness changes from one area to another and relies upon the room kind. For
rooms, for the maximum element, a stature of 1100 mm is embraced because of safety while
inside the drawing-room, typically tallness of six hundred-650 is given.
The base required tallness of the ledge degree has to be forty four inches.

Lintel Level
A lintel is a flat part located throughout an opening to assist the piece of the development. It
gives bearing for the brickwork over the hole and moves each one of the thousands
performing over the opening to the assisting dividers.Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC)
lintelis most in modern buildings however, there are unique styles of lintel like wood, stone,
and Brick are utilized in step with reasonableness.

Finished Floor Level (FFL)

The structure's inward ground is achieved with tiles, marble, stone, or special way; from that
factor ahead, no further completing paintings is required, known as the finished ground
degree. FFL is 150 to 450 mm over the regular ground stage with the purpose that water and
stormwater do not enter within the shape.

7.7 TYPES OF DOORS

Types of Doors based on Placing of Components

Based on the arrangement of door components, the doors are classified as following:

Features of Battened and Ledged Doors

Battens are vertical bonds which are having grooves are
attached together by horizontal supports called ledges.This
kind of battened and ledged doors appropriate for slender
openings.

Features of Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors

These kinds of doorways can be used for wider
openings.To make more inflexible, braces are furnished
diagonally in extra to battens and ledges as proven in
parent.

Features of Battened, Ledged and Framed Doors

For the simple battened and ledged door, frame paintings
is furnished within the shape of verticals, called
stiles.Tiles are typically 100mm wide and as a long way as
thickness is worried, the thickness of stile must be equal to
the blended thickness of ledge and batten. preferably 40
mm.

Features of Battened, Ledged, Braced and Framed Doors

In this type, the door made from battens, ledges, stiles and
braces. So, it's miles extra rigid.
The braces are linked diagonally among the ledges, at
approximately 40mm from the stiles.

Features of Battened, Ledged, Braced and Framed Doors

In this type, the door made from battens, ledges, stiles and
braces. So, it's miles extra rigid.
The braces are linked diagonally among the ledges, at
approximately 40mm from the stiles.

Types of Doors based on Method of Construction:

Features of Framed and Panelled Doors

These are very sturdy and will supply good
appearance whilst compared to battened doors. these
are the widely used doorways in nearly all forms of
homes.
Stiles, vertical participants and rails, horizontal
members are grooved along the inner edges of frame
to obtain the panels.
The panels are made from timber or plywood or A.C.
sheets or glass.
These doorways can be single leaf for slim openings
and double leaf for wider openings.
Minimum widths of stile have to be 100 mm and
minimum width of backside and locked rail ought to
be 150mm.

Features of Glazed Doors

Glazed doorways are usually provided in indoors wall
openings or in hospitals, colleges and many others.
The interior of room is visible thru glazed doors and
light additionally passes via glazed part of the door.
Those can be absolutely glazed or partially glazed and
in part panelled. Glass panels are supplied for glazed
doors.

Features of Louvered Doors

The louvers permit natural ventilation when the door
is closed and also provide privacy in the room.
These are generally used for toilets of residential and
public buildings.
The door may be fully louvered are partly louvered.
Louvers are made up of timber or glass or plywood
and these may be either fixed or movable.

Features of Wire Gauged Doors

Wire gauged doors permits natural ventilation and
restrict the entry of flies, mosquitoes, insects etc..
These doors are commonly used in hotels, restaurants
and for cup boards containing eatables.

Types of Doors based on Working Operations

The doors are classified on the basis of working operations as:

Features of Revolving Doors

Revolving doors are only
provided in public buildings
like museums, banks, libraries
etc., because of constant
visitors. It consists mullion at
its centre to which four
radiating shutters are attached.

Features of Sliding Doors

In this type, with the help of
runners and guide rails the door
slides to the sides. The door
may have one or more sliding
shutter depending up on the
opening available.

Features of Swing Doors

In this case, the shutter is
attached to frame by double
action spring which helps the
shutter to move inwards as well
as outwards.

Features of Collapsible Steel Doors

Collapsible steel doors are
generally used for workshops,
sheds, warehouses etc.. It acts
like a steel curtain which will
opened or closed by horizontal
pull or push. Vertical double
channel units of (20x10x2 mm)
are spaced at 100 to 120 mm
thick and are braced flat iron
diagonals 10 to 20mm wide and
5mm thick.

Features of Rolling Steel Shutter Doors

Rolling steel shutter doors are
commonly used for
warehouses, garages, shops
etc.. These are very strong and
offer proper safety to the
property. The door consists
frame, drum and a shutter of
thin steel plate inter locked
together. A horizontal shaft is
provided in the drum which
helps to open or close the
shutter

Types of Doors based on Materials: Doors are made up of wood, glass, metals. Wood doors
are already discussed in the 1t classification and glass doors are nothing but glazed doors.
Types of Metals doors are described below.
Types of Mild Steel Sheet Doors
The door frame is made up of angle or T-
sections.
Shutter is made up of frame of angle of iron,
having 2 verticals at least 3 horizontal.
Mild steel plates are welded to the shutter
frame.

Features of Corrugated Steel Sheet Doors

These are same as mild steel sheet doors, but
in place of mild steel sheet corrugated steel
sheet is welded.

Features of Hollow Metal Doors

Hollow steel sections are used to make these
doors. The rails and stiles etc., are
strengthened by welding small T or I
sections inside.

Features of Metal Covered Plywood Doors

This type of door is a composite
construction of hollow metal door and wood
door.
The door is encased in tight fitting sheet
metal, having tightly folded joints to exclude
air so that the core of the door does not
ignite. So, it acts as fire proof.

Sources- https://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-doors/11898/

7.8 TYPES OF WINDOWS

A window is a vented barrier provided in a wall opening to admit light and air into the
structure and also to give outside view. Windows also increases the beauty appearance of the
building. There are so many types of windows are available based on their positions,
materials, and functioning. Windows are classified as Fixed windows, Sliding
windows, Pivoted windows, Double-hung windows, Louvered windows, Casement
windows, Metal windows, Sash windows, Corner windows, Bay windows, Dormer
windows, Clerestory windows, Lantern windows, Gable windows, Ventilators, and Skylights.

Types of Windows used in Buildings

There are so many types of windows are available based on their positions, materials, and
functioning. Windows are classified as follows.

Features of Fixed Windows

Fixed windows are fixed to the
wall without any closing or
opening operation. In general,
they are provided to transmit the
light into the room. Fully glazed
shutters are fixed to the window
frame. The shutters provided are
generally weatherproof.
Features of Sliding Windows
In this case, window shutters are
movable in the frame. The
movement may be horizontal or
vertical based on our
requirements. The movement of
shutters is done by the provision
of roller bearings. Generally, this
type of window is provided in
buses, bank counters, shops, etc..

Features of Pivoted Windows

In this type of windows, pivots
are provided to window frames.
Pivot is a shaft which helps to
oscillate the shutter. No rebates
are required for the frame. The
swinging may either horizontal
or vertical based on the position
of pivots.

Features of Double Hung Windows

Double hung windows consist of pair of
shutters attached to one frame. The
shutters are arranged one above the
other. These two shutters can slide
vertically with in the frame. So, we can
open the windows on top or at bottom
to our required level.
To operate the double hung windows, a
chain or cord consisting metal weights
is metal provided which is connected
over pulleys. So, by pulling the weights
of cord the shutters can move vertically.
Then we can fix the windows at our
required position of ventilation or light
etc..
Features of Louvered Windows
Louvered windows are similar to
louvered doors which are provided for
the ventilation without any outside
vision. The louvers may be made of
wood, glass or metal. Louvers can also
be folded by provision of cord over
pulleys. We can maintain the slope of
louvers by tilting cord and lifting cord.
Recommended angle of inclination of
louvers is about 45 degrees. The sloping
of louvers is downward to the outside to
run-off the rain water. Generally, they
are provided for bathrooms, toilets and
privacy places etc..
Features of Casement Windows
Casement windows are the widely used
and common windows nowadays. The
shutters are attached to frame and these
can be opened and closed like door
shutters. Rebates are provided to the
frame to receive the shutters. The
panels of shutters may be single or
multiple. Sometimes wired mesh is
provided to stop entering of fly’s.

Features of Metal Windows

Metal windows, generally mild steel is
used for making metal windows. These
are very cheap and have more strength.
So, now days these are widely using
especially for public buildings, private
building etc.
Some other metals like aluminum,
bronzeetc. also used to make windows.
But they are costly compared to mild
steel windows. For normal casement
windows also, metal shutters are
provided to give strong support to the
panels.
Features of Sash Windows
Sash window is type of casement
window, but in this case panels are fully
glazed. It consists top, bottom and
intermediate rails. The space between
the rails is divided into small panels by
mean of small timber members called
sash bars or glazing bars.

Features of Corner Windows

As in the name itself corner windows
are provided at the corners of room.
That means corner windows has two
faces in perpendicular directions. By
providing this type of windows, light or
air can be entered into room in two
different directions.
To provide this type of window special
lintel is provided in the wall. Corner
windows will give aesthetic appearance
to the building.

Features of Bay Windows

Bay windows are projected windows
form wall which are provided to
increase the area of opening, which
enables more ventilation and light form
outside. The projection of bay windows
are of different shapes. It may be
triangular or rectangular or polygonal
etc. They give beautiful appearance to
the structure.

Features of Dormer Windows

Dormer windows are provided for
sloped roofs. These are projected from
the sloping surface as shown in below
image. They provide ventilation as well
as lighting to the room. They also
enhance aesthetic sense of room.

Features of Clerestory Windows

If the rooms in a building are of
different ceiling heights, clerestory
windows are provided for the room
which has greater ceiling height than
the other rooms. The shutters able to
swing with the help of cord over
pulleys. These also enhances the beauty
of building.

Features of Lantern Windows

Lantern windows are provided for over
the flat roofs. The main purpose of this
window is to provide the more light and
air circulation to the interior rooms.
Generally, they are projected from the
roof surface so, we can close the roof
surface when we required.

Features of Gable Windows

Gable windows are provided for sloped
roof buildings. These windows are
provided at the gable end of sloped roof
so; they are called as gable windows.
They also improve the appearance of
building.

Features of Ventilators
Ventilators are provided for the purpose
of ventilation in the room. They are
provided at greater height than windows
nearer to roof level. It is in very small
size. Horizontally pivoted shutters are
provided for ventilators. Sometimes
shutter is replaced by wired mesh, in
this case sunshade is provided to
prevent against rain water.
Features of Skylights
Skylights or generally provided on the
top of sloped roofs. To admit light into
the rooms, sky lights are provided. It is
provided parallel to the sloping surface.
Sky lights can be opened when we
required. Lead gutters are arranged to
frame to make it as waterproof.

Source- https://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-windows/12776/

Check Your Progress 3

1. Discuss in Detail:
I. Types of Floors
II. Types of Doors
III. Types of Windows

7.9 WALLPAPERS

Wallpaper is a fabric utilized in interior ornament to beautify the indoors partitions of

domestic and public buildings. it is also sold in rolls and is carried out onto a wall the usage
of wallpaper paste. Wallpapers can come simple as "lining paper" (in order that it is able to
be painted or used to help cowl choppy surfaces and minor wall defects as a consequence
giving a higher floor), textured, with a normal repeating pattern design, or, much less
normally these days, with a single non-repeating huge layout carried over sheets. The
smallest rectangle that may be tiled to shape the whole pattern is referred to as the pattern
repeat.

ADVANTAGES
It is available in a wide variety of designs,
patterns, and surface finishes.
There are many ways to attach the wallpaper
to your walls which include: paste the wall,
paste the paper, and peel and stick.
Wallpaper, and especially the peel-and-stick,
can be easily removed and replaced.
Some types can last for more than 15 years.
Many wallpaper types are washable.
Wallpaper can, also, be used to personalize
temporary homes, like dorms and rentals,
since it can be easily installed and removed
without leaving traces.
It can cover uneven walls and hide the
defects easily, with little initial preparations.
Wallpaper can be considered eco-friendly,
since it can be purely manufactured from
natural materials, and its adhesives do not
contain harmful chemicals.
DISADVANTAGES
It is more expensive than paint.
Traditional wallpaper is difficult to maintain
and remove.
The edges may separate from the wall,
especially in damp weather, and need to be
reattached or pasted.
Patterns need to be matched and well-aligned
together. That requires a good deal of
accuracy.
It can’t be applied on raw concrete and
textured walls.
Wallpaper colors may be affected by light
and shadow. Parts that are exposed to
sunlight daily could burn out.
The more fragile types of wallpaper may not
last more than 5 years.

Types of Wallpaper

1. Liner Wallpaper
Also known as lining paper, this type of wallpaper is made from paper or fibreglass. It is
effective for hiding wall defects and minimizing repairs, and it can be a base for more
delicate wallpaper types. It can be used alone, and maybe even painted. Moreover, it is easy
to apply and remove.

2. Printed Wallpaper
This type is commonly used and available in a wide variety of colors and patterns. The
digitally printed wallpaper is normally cheaper than the hand-printed, and it can be mass-
produced, but it could be torn easily. Also, the printing ink is water-based, so it’d better not
be used in kitchens and bathroom.

3. Vinyl Wallpaper
This type of wallpaper is composed of printed paper coated with layered vinyl. It is the most
commonly used type of wallpaper, currently, because of its high durability. The thicker the
vinyl coating layer is, the more durable the wallpaper will be. Vinyl paper can be used in
kitchens and bathrooms, as it can of withstanding steam. It is can also be washed, making for
easy maintenance.

4. Foil Wallpaper
A polished metal foil is used as a base for this type to give the interior space a shiny metallic
effect. Due to its high reflectivity, foil wallpaper highlights wall defects. So, the base wall
needs to be repaired, treated, or covered with lining paper first. The lining and adhering
process need to be neat enough, not to ruin the foil’s reflectivity and shine.

5. Flock Wallpaper
Flock wallpaper is distinct for its fuzzy three-dimensional patterns, created from a velvet-like
fiber that is printed on a base of the paper. It is one of the most expensive wallpaper types,
yet it is hard to maintain. Its velvety texture reflects a sense of luxury; however, it is not
washable and could be hard to remove. Accordingly, it is best used for rooms with lower
traffic, like the master bedroom or guest room.

6. Mylar Wallpaper
Mylar wallpaper comprises a printed paper base and a polyester film applied on top of it. It
has a wet or shiny appearance, kind of like foil wallpaper, and likewise, it highlights wall
defects, so prior paper lining is recommended. The polyester film makes it possible to wash
Mylar wallpaper, and it is also easy to remove. However, further care should be given to the
installation process to avoid creasing the paper. It is most used for kitchens and bathrooms.

7. Bamboo Wallpaper
This type is handcrafted from natural bamboo and glued to paper. It is environmentally
friendly, and its hue varies from one roll to another owing to its natural base. However, it
requires delicate treatment when gluing and installing as the adhesives can ruin its
appearance, and it is not washable.

7.10 TYPES OF MIRRORS

Plane Mirror

A plane mirror is the most basic and common type today. This type is focused on
functionality rather than aesthetics, centering on reflecting images identically in normal
proportions but left to right reversed. These mirrors are normally installed in bathrooms and
bedrooms. Plane mirrors are made from glass and metal alloy. The flat piece of glass is
coated with a metal alloy, which is responsible for the reflection, as well as the protection of
the mirror’s surface.

Design
The plane mirror’s design is known for its flat reflective surface. If preferred, it can also be
structured slightly curved.
While the primary design of the plane mirror is for functionality, it can also be designed in
fun shapes, from basic ones to animal shapes.

There are a variety of designs in the market to choose from, you only have to look.

Uses
The primary usage of a plane mirror is image reflection. It produces almost-identical images,
from size to shape.

The virtual reflection is realistic but it is also laterally inverted, which means that the right
will always look like the left and vice versa.

Materials
Plane mirrors are made from thin plate glass pieces, which are responsible for producing
realistic and identical images. The plate glass also helps protect the mirror’s surface so that it
won’t tarnish easily and quickly.

There are also some plane mirrors made from gallium and mercury, which are both reflective
in a liquid state.

Sizes
Plane mirrors come in varied sizes and even shapes. They can be small to fit a compact or
even as large as a big wall (which a lot of dancers install in their studios).
To be honest, your imagination is only the limitation of the sizes that plane mirrors can come
in.

Spherical Mirrors
Spherical mirrors can be differentiated from plane mirrors due to how it looks. Spherical
mirrors come in either convex or concave versions.
Convex mirrors bulge outward, creating a distortion in the reflection. This results in a
smaller distorted image compared to the actual object.

Some examples of convex mirrors are passenger-side mirrors and dressing room mirrors in
closing stores.

Concave mirrors curve inward. Opposite from convex mirrors, concave mirrors make
enlarged reflections of images (which seem upside down from away but flips once you get
near).
Some of the concave mirrors used in everyday life are shaving mirrors, car headlights,
makeup mirrors, and dental mirrors.

Design
Spherical mirrors are named as such because they are curved and appear to be half of a
sphere.
Concave and convex mirrors are examples of spherical mirrors and while the concave mirror
curves inward, the convex mirror curves outward.

Reflections are also distorted when using these mirrors.

Uses
When using spherical mirrors, there are only 2 effects that also work as their uses. It either
magnifies an image or makes it smaller and the reflections would also appear distorted of
some sort.
These are concave and convex mirrors respectively. The former focuses on the center point of
the mirror while the latter focuses on the edges.

Materials
Spherical mirrors are made from polished metal or glass. The materials are guaranteed to be
of high quality and reasonably priced too.

Sizes
Due to different uses, spherical mirrors come in different sizes. For instance, dental mirrors
are considered concave mirrors and are considerably small due to how they are used.
Dressing room mirrors are examples of convex mirrors.
Non-Reversing Mirror
A non-reversing mirror, also called true mirror or flip mirror, showcases an eerie reflection of
yourself and something else.
Since we are used to flat mirrors, seeing ourselves in a non-reversing mirror can be weird
since it reflects your actual movement, as well as your right and left profiles.

Design
A regular non-reversing mirror involves two mirrors joined together at a 90-degree angle.
Besides that though, there are three main designs that can be found in the market.

This includes the following:

• Surface mirrors are joined at an exact spot, making it seem non-existent
• Concave mirrors and at some point there will appear a non-reversing image

• Mirrors are angled to create a surface with curves and bends that create a disco ball effect

Uses
Non-reversing mirrors are mean to present an image in actuality and as is with the subject.

These kinds of mirrors have more commercial applications than the other previous mirrors.
They are most often used in retail outlets and stores.

Materials
Non-reversing mirrors are not made from anything special. They are just comprised of two
flat mirrors combined together at a 90-degree angle to have this “non-reversing” effect.

Using rectangular/square flat mirrors is the way to go since using other shaped mirrors may
not successfully create the same effect.

Sizes
Most non-reversing mirrors are large (like an entire wall) primarily because most of them are
used commercially. Like other types of mirrors though, they also come in different shapes
and sizes.

The design itself though doesn’t allow it to be small since two mirrors are used. Most would
also prefer at least medium-sized mirrors to accomplish and see its effect.
One-Way & Two-Way Mirrors
One-way & two-way mirrors are interesting because they have been seen and advertised in
movies and drama shows.
Remember that scene where police officers will interrogate suspects in one room where the
suspect is seen by other officers but the people inside the room can only see a mirror? That’s
the two-way mirror!

Design
One-way and two-way mirrors are designed with a coated see-through panel, which makes
them reflective and transparent.

The one-way reflection and transmission are accomplished by keeping one side of the mirror
dark and keeping the other side bright.
You will be able to see from the darkened side but not from the bright side. On the bright side
though, you won’t be able to see through it.

Uses
One-way and two-way mirrors have specialized lighting that allows them to be the unique
mirrors that they are. What allows this to be a two-way mirror is the use of aluminum on the
surface of the mirror for the reflection.
Only half of the light is reflected back and the other half goes through the glass pane,
resulting in an effective two-way mirror. These mirrors are normally used in the following:
• Interrogation rooms
• Experimental labs

• Security observation decks

Materials
Minerals including aluminium, tin, silver, or nickel play an important role in creating
effective one-way and two-way mirrors. Other materials used in these types of mirrors are
glass and paint. You will need a glass to serve as the base while the minerals are needed to
coat the glass panel for the reflection.
After coating the glass with one of the minerals you’ve chosen, the next step is to cover the
glass with copper to help protect it from oxidation. And finally, the paint will follow as the
last step.
Sizes
These mirrors also come in a variety of sizes, depending on where you plan to install them
and how you’re going to use them.
For hidden security cameras, the mirrors need to be small to still appear hidden. For
interrogation rooms though, it can be the size of half a wall or even the entire wall.

Silvered Mirror
A silvered mirror, based on its name, uses “silver” (can be other compounds acting as silver)
as its main material for reflectivity.

This is the factor that differentiates it from other types of mirrors. These silvered mirrors are
usually for decorative purposes in rooms, adding aesthetic value.

Design
Silvered mirrors have a simple design, which involves silver coating responsible for their
reflective factor.

People started “silvering” their mirrors with mercury and tin mixture but it all changed in the
18thy century when people started using pure silver instead.
Other mixtures used besides silver are aluminium and other compounds.

Uses
Silvers (and similar compounds) make a mirror stronger, non-corrosive, and more durable so
it can last longer. They are also highly reflective, which makes them perfect for making
mirrors. Some of the uses of silvered mirrors include the following:
• One-way and Two-way Mirrors

• Rear-view Mirror
• Dental Mirrors

Silvered mirrors are also popularly used for decor and entertainment. They can also be used
for signalling in technology. You can even make this your project during your leisure time.

Materials
Silvered mirrors need highly reflective materials in order to successfully accomplish their
roles. Other mixtures used in place of silver, when it’s not available, include stuttering
aluminium and other compounds.

Sizes
Silvered mirrors come in various sizes and shapes, depending on how they are used and
where they will be used or installed.
One-way and two-way mirrors are popular examples of silvered mirrors and when installed in
interrogation rooms, they are expected to be larger than your regular compact mirror.

Some silvered mirrors are also decorative in that they are installed in the living room and
bedroom, their sizes, and shapes would also be varied.

Custom Mirrors
Custom mirrors are mirrors that have been tailored depending on what mirror is needed.
Some designs are unique and the limitation can only be in the mind of the person requisition
for its customization.

You can have mirrors customized in traditional style, Victorian design, formal style, or
modern style. Whatever you want will be followed.

Design
When talking about the design for custom mirrors, it will really depend on which custom
mirrors we’re talking about. A custom mirror ordered by a company for a dressing room in a
mall can come in full-length mirrors.

. They can come in specialized frames, shapes, and colors. The design of a custom mirror will
always be as instructed.

Uses
The use of custom mirrors depends entirely on who had them customized.

There are custom mirrors focusing on increasing the size of the mirror to accommodate the
use of more than one person at the same time. And that’s the specific use for that particular
custom mirror.
On the other hand, it is entirely different for custom mirrors that have been designed to add
aesthetic value to a room.
Materials
The materials used for custom mirrors can range from the most common materials usually
used to create mirrors to the rarest materials you didn’t think possible.
You may want to use tin or aluminum for the coating or you can also choose silver if you can
afford it. In addition to that, the materials used for frames are also varied and would just
depend on what you want and what you can afford.

Sizes
Similar to its designs and materials, the sizes of custom mirrors are also varied and would
depend on the individual having the mirrors tailored.

Custom mirrors for a dressing room of a mall will be large in size

Different Mirror Styles

More than just the different types of mirrors you can make the most of, there are also
different mirror styles to choose from.

Your choice on what specific type and style of mirrors to consider will depend on what you
need the mirror for. Where will you use the mirror and for what purpose? After answering
these questions, the next step to do is to know your options. You’ve been presented with the
different types of mirrors. Here are the different mirror styles to consider.

Mounted Mirror
Mounted mirrors are installed on the wall, cleanly. This helps free up floor space, which will
be perfect for small spaces.
This is the reason why most mounted types of mirrors are found in bathrooms.

Freestanding Mirror
Freestanding mirrors are mirrors that can stand on their own, whether through a tripod stand
or other types of stand.
One good example of this type of mirror is a freestanding full-length mirror, which is
normally used in fitting rooms in clothing stores. It can also be installed in bedrooms for
your walk in closet.
Behind the Door Mirror
Behind the door mirror is a bit similar to a mounted mirror but instead of being mounted to a
wall, it is mounted behind the door.
Also known as an over-the-door mirror, it also helps save space, is affordable, and is easy to
install too.

Mirrored Wall Panels

Mirrored wall panels, also known as wall mirrors, can come in a variety of sizes and shapes
but one thing is sure, they are hanging mirrors.

These are heavy mirrors due to the solid wood frames that they come in. If you plan to use
this type of mirror, make sure you know how to safely and securely hang a heavy mirror.

Mirrored Furniture
Mirrored furniture is another style of how a mirror is installed. The mirror is integrated into a
specific piece of furniture, where it will do its purpose. One popular example of this is a
mirrored tabletop. A mirrored tabletop can result from customizing a coffee table n order to
protect its surface from scratches.

Uses for A Mirror in Interior Design

When it comes to interior design, a mirror is also an item you can use to its full extent.
Coming in different sizes, shapes, and styles, mirrors can be a great addition. Here are some
uses for these different types of mirrors.

Produces Reflection: Starting with its primary function, mirrors are used to provide
reflection. When you have a mirror at home, you can be sure that you know how you look
and if you are presentable enough before even going out of the house. It will be helpful either
in the bathroom or your bedroom, to check how your clothes look on you, as well as in fixing
your hair and makeup (if you’re using some).

Brightens Up Space by Enhancing Natural Light: Mirrors can brighten up the space when
you install them across the window because of their ability to enhance natural light. The
mirror reflects the light that comes in through the window.
Makes A Room Feel Bigger: The trick is to use large types of mirrors, preferably a floor-to-
ceiling mirror, and install them around the room. This helps visually increase the size of the
room.

Adds Aesthetic Value: You can choose to have mirrored tiles for a backsplash in the kitchen
or add a mosaic mirror with a Victorian frame and hang it on the living room wall

Hides Imperfections: You can choose to hang your mirror in areas at with faded paints or
ugly nail holes. If you choose to hang it, either for functionality or decor, you can also hide
other imperfections you have on your walls.

Check Your Progress 4

1. Write advantages & disadvantages of Wallpaper?
2. List down different types of Wallpapers?
3. Enumerate various types of Mirrors?

11.7 LET US SUM UP

Understanding of infrastructure with interiors of a building/ facility plays a vital role in

facility planning and its management. Whereas walls, doors, windows, floors, and roofs
provide structure, paints, ceilings, wallpapers, and mirror not only play their own respective
rolls but also have a great aesthetic value. New types and varieties of these features of a
facility are introduced every day. One should always keep themselves updated with the latest
variety.

7.12 FURTHER READINGS

Infrastructure Development and Construction Management by J.C. Edison

Publisher: Routledge, 2020

Infrastructure Development: Issues and Country Experiences by DhandaoaniAlagari,

Naveen Kumar E
Publisher: ICFAI University Press, 2007
Infrastructure Development and Financing in India by N. Mani
Publisher: New Century Publications, 2012

Urban Infrastructure Development in Small and Medium Towns by S. S. Dhaliwal

Publisher: Deep & Deep Publications, 2004

7.13 KEYWORDS
1. Collapsible:that can be folded into a shape that makes something easy to store
2. Contractions: the process of becoming or of making something become smaller or
shorter
3. Infrastructure:the basic systems and services that are necessary for a country or an
organization, for example buildings, transport, and water and power supplies
4. Latex:an artificial substance that is used to make paints, glues band materials
5. Matt:not shiny
6. Mosaic: a picture or pattern that is made by placing together small coloured stones,
pieces of glass, etc.
7. Mullion: a vertical bar between the panes of glass in a window.
8. Oxidation: A chemical reaction that takes place when a substance comes in contact
with oxygen or another oxidizing substance.
9. Panels: a square or rectangular piece of wood, metal or glass that forms part of a door
or wall
10. Pivots: the central point on which something turns or balances
11. Reflection:an image that you see in a mirror, in water or on a shiny surface

7.14 CLUES TO ANSWERS

Check Your Progress-1

1. For details refer to 7.2

2. For details refer to 7.3
3. For details refer to 7.3

Check Your Progress-2

1. For details refer to 7.4

 2. For details refer to 7.5

Check Your Progress-3

1. For details refer to 7.6,7.7 & 7.8

Check Your Progress-4

1. For details refer to 7.9

2. For details refer to 7.9
3. For details refer to 7.10

7.14 ACTIVITIES

 Observe your surroundings, make a list of infrastructural features on the structure, and
then categorise them.
 Visit a nearby Paint shop & explore types of paints available in market & segregate
them as per their application, price, durability & maintenance.
 Visit a hardware store near you. Compare and contrasts different varieties of tiles,
wallpapers and mirrors on the basis of usage and price.
UNIT 8 INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT - III

Structure
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Types of carpet and underlay
8.4 Types of upholstery covers cushions
8.5 Types of curtains heading and trimming
8.6 Selection of fabric
8.7 Let Us Sum Up
8.8 Keywords
8.9 Clues to Check Your Answers

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 understand the concept of infrastructure development
 identify different types of carpet
 classify upholstery covers
 describe cushions
 classify curtains, their headings and trimmings.
 how to select different types of fabrics

8.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous units, we have discussed the types of walls and wall fixing, Types of paints,
types of ceilings and roof tiles, types of floors, Types of doors and windows, Wallpaper, and
Mirrors. In this unit, we will study carpet and underlay, types of upholstery covers, cushions,
curtain headings, and trimmings. The chapter also discusses the criteria for selecting the
fabric for its durability, enhancing the longevity of furnishings used in hotels, commercial
organizations and multiplex.

8.3 DEFINING CARPETS

 A soft floor covering consisting of strong woven fabric is termed a carpet. Carpet enhances
the attractiveness of the floor with a thick and soft span of weaves. Carpets are available in
various shades, patterns, and compositions; therefore, it is often used as a floor covering in
multiplexes, hotels, banquets and public areas. Alternatively, a carpet is described as a type of
textile floor covering with a backing and an upper layer of the pile which may be made up of
wool, acrylic, polyester and Viscose Rayon. Nowadays synthetic fibres like nylon, polyester,
and polypropylene are commonlyutilized by carpet weavers because they are less expensive
than wool.
Hotels and other public venues i.e., offices, banquets, and rooms regularly use carpets as
floor covering. The area's suitability and traffic footfall determine the kind of carpet to be
selected. They can be used in businesses, dining establishments, lounges, TV rooms,
bedrooms, and hallways. Carpets are comfortable, robust, slip-resistant, and reasonably
priced. A high-quality carpet should resist grit, spills, and cigarette ash and be resistant to
large furniture.
8.3.1 Carpet Construction
The pile, the underlay, and the backdrop are the three layers that form a carpet. With the aid
of knots and glue, the pile is secured to the backing.
8.3.2 Types of Carpets

CARPETS

CARPETS
WOVEN CARPET NON-WOVEN
CARPET

AXMINSTER ORIENTAL CARPETS

WILTONCARPETS
CARPET

TUFTED BONDED PILE BONDED NEEDLE PUNCHED

KNITTED CARPETS
CARPET CARPET CARPET CARPET

Figure 8.1 Types of Carpet (Source: Author)

8.3.3 WOVEN CARPET
The carpet is made on a loom that is significantly identical to the one used to weave fabric.
Berber or plush pile could be used. Berber carpet has a spiral texture, while plush carpet has a
cut pile. Cut and loop carpeting combines the two designs. A variety of hues of yarn are
utilised because this procedure is capable of generating complex patterns from fixed designs
Due to the very slow production process, this carpeting is the most expensive. Woven Carpets
are well-known throughout Arabia, Iran, India, and Pakistan.
Woven carpets are of three types

Figure 8.2 Different types of woven carpets (Source: Author)

8.3.4 AXMINSTER CARPET
Axminster carpet is woven primarily for strength and durability with its interlocking pile and
backing yarns. They are designed to suit high-traffic areas like hotels, casinos, ships,
convention centres, and airport projects all over the world, Wool, a naturally resilient and
soil-repellent fibre, and three-dimensional weaving from Axminster make for a beautiful and
useful combination, especially in ballrooms and hotel corridors where heavy foot traffic
exposes people to a speck of potentially harmful dirt.
Axminster's three-dimensional weaving and wool (a naturally soil-repellent and resilient
fibre) are a lovely and practical combination when specifying for public spaces, particularly
in hospitality corridors and ballrooms.
Axminster construction design trends and technological advancements have elevated the
specification of this kind of wool carpeting to new heights.
Designing with up to 32 colours and using electronic jacquard weaving to create patterns with
enormous scale are now included in the expanded product offerings for project teams.
Precision weaving offers virtually infinite possibilities for design.
Axminster's three-dimensional weaving combined with wool (a naturally soil-repellent and
resilient fibre) is a lovely and practical solution, especially in hospitality corridors and
ballrooms. Shots of backing yarn weave and secure each yarn tuft in place.
This results in a more robust, three-dimensional structure than a tufted carpet. In addition to
producing a high-performance floor covering, the manufacturing process enables the creation
of intricate designs with numerous colour combinations.
The yarn used is an 80/20 wool and nylon blend in the Axminster weaving processdiffers due
to the weaving process.Traditional tufted carpets and Axminster carpets both use pile and
backing,anticipated traffic is one of the most crucial factors to take into account while
choosing anAxminster carpet.The greater the specification, the more traffic will be expected.
Higher specifications, or carpets with more tufts per square inch, are best for public areas and
hallways (i.e., 9/10-row standards), but 7/8 row specs, are preferable for places like
guestrooms.
Axminister is naturally resistant to staining, Designers should stay away from lighter colours
and higher quantities of one single colour in the traffic fall regions. The appearance of soiling
can be reduced through the proper application of pattern and texture combinations. The
distinction between Axminster carpeting and other woven floor coverings is the capability to
manage particular pattern features.

8.3.4.1 WILTON CARPET: To create the pile on Wilton carpets, wires are inserted into the
pile warps. After the wires are removed, the pile is either cut (if straight wires were used) or
weaved (in case cutting wires are used).
Due to its strength and resilience in the face of heavy activity, the Wilton carpet is a well-
liked option for commercial spaces. Wilton carpeting is frequently used in hotels, on
passenger trains and aeroplanes, and sometimes it is patterned.

8.3.4.3 ORIENTAL CARPET: An oriental rug is a densely woven piece made in "Oriental
countries" for a wide range of practical and symbolic uses, including at home, on regional
markets, and for export. Silk, wool, and cotton are just a few of the materials used to weave
Oriental carpets, which can either have a pile or be flat-woven without one. Oriental rugs are
carpets that are solely hand-dotted in Asia. Some of the top countries that export rugs are
Iran, China, India, Russia, Turkey, Pakistan, Tibet, and Nepal. Oriental rugs are also Persian
rugs, although only Iranian manufacturers produce them.
Non-woven carpets are of five types.
 Figure 8.3 Different types of Non-woven carpet(Source: Author)
8.3.5 Tufted carpet:
Tufting is the process of using a needle to sew tufts of yarn into a backing fabric.The tufting
loom has a significant quantity of sewing machine-like needles. To improve the carpet's
dimensional stability, a secondary backing is included after the tufts are attached to the
primary backing with latex glue. Additional stability is helpful when stretching the carpet into
position during installation.Most carpets are made bytufting process less expensive than
woven ones., tufts are inserted into a framework and fastened with latex. The pile may be
looped, sliced, or both. With this method, carpets are produced quickly and in different sizes.
Tufted carpets are frequently utilised in public areas and hotels. Precautions must be taken to
avoid wetness, which could harm the adhesive.

8.3.6Bonded carpet
This kind of carpet binds to an adhesive backing and compacts the pile. Electrostatic
flocking, shortcut piles, loops, and cables are all options. Firm bonding is produced by using
heat.

8.3.7Pile bonded carpet

These carpets have their pile injected into the backing, which is then sewn to a second
backing consisting of woven hessian or synthetic.

8.3.8Needle Punched carpet

To fabricate these carpets, different fibres are needle-punched and tangled through a backing
cloth before being coated with resin. They don't have a pile and have polypropylene, jute, and
nylon. The fibres are fixed using heat.

8.3.9 Knitted carpet

Knitted carpet binds pile to a backing cloth using knitting principles, however, a subsequent
variation substitutes unknit weft threads for the backing. Knitting can be produced at higher
rates than on conventional looms, but not at the high rates of contemporary tufting.
8.3.10 Laying of carpet
Carpets are laid out from wall to wall along skirting in hotels and other public buildings. The
carpets can be fastened with glue, thin wood strips that are, mounted on the wall or by
sinking into a hollow space in the floor. To prevent accidents, carpets along staircases must
be securely fastened with metal tacks. Some treatments can be utilised, including anti-static,
flame-proofing, moth-proofing, and water resistance to increase the effectiveness of carpets'
durability and simplicity of maintenance. The carpet treatment process can also include
disinfectant solutions.

8.3.11Selection of Carpets
The choice of carpet will impact factors like delivery time, cost, quality, durability, and,
design alternatives.
 The quality of the carpet is influenced by the process of manufacture, in addition to
how well the carpet is created, the type of fibres used, their quality, and the pile
density.
 A high-quality carpet should be resilient enough to rebound after being damaged by
heavy or sharp furniture along with wear from frequent spills, cigarette ash, and dirt.
 Even after thorough cleaning or prolonged exposure to sunshine, its shape and colour
ought to remain unchanged.
 The pile should be tightly positioned, compact, and constructed of tough fibres.
 One can evaluate a carpet's performance by wear resistance and durability, Protection
against abrasion, good structure and securely held tufts,
 The resistance to flattening determines the appearance, Resistance against stains, soil
and Colourfastness in the case of water, shampoo, sunshine, and rubbing.
 Resistance to flames is crucial for safety. The amount of static charge and the pile’s
length and softness all affect the comfort.
 Selecting a carpet is influenced by the following considerations i.e.; Floor traffic,
carpet fibres, resistance to soil, protection from odour, resistance to stains, a carpet's
structure and Carpet cushions.

8.3.12 Maintenance of Carpets

 Vacuum regularly, and remove stains/spots right away. Assess the carpet cleaning.
  Casters, hose pipes, wires and plugs, brushes, tanks, bags, and filters for periodic
shampoo apparatus.
 substituting runners and mats periodically in high-traffic areas as a preventative
measure. furniture with castors, waterproof plastic carpet protectors that can be
utilised in restaurants and bars, and are replaceable.

Check Your Progress-1

1. Define Carpets.
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8.3.13 Defining Underlay

Underlay is positioned beneath carpets before their installation. Underlay is vital for
carpeting an area. Underlay serves various functions, i.e., improves insulation, softens the
carpet, and between the backing and the subfloor, it serves as a shock absorber levelling it
out.
The carpet seems softer and more opulent. It cushions the impact of furniture, insulates sound
and heat, and guards against rising dust and filth. The carpet can be laid down quickly and
easily with attached underlays, which lowers installation expenses. Moisture can damage
underlays. Separate underlays are pricey, long-lasting, and simple to replace.

8.3.14 Types of underlay

Underlays are constructed of impregnated feeling rubber foam and simple needlefelt fabric
with a jute or polyurethane backing. A polypropylene backing can be used with an underlay
made of felt, rubber, foam, or jute.
Various underlay varieties are available, with rubber, felt, and polyurethane (PU) foam seems
to be the most prevalent. Since it provides a soft touch underneath, PU foam is a common
pick as it is created from recovered furniture foam, it is a green material that can be recycled
again.

Check Your Progress -2

1. Define Underlay.
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8.4 SOFT FURNISHINGS

The appearance of the room is substantially enhanced by soft furnishings like curtains,
fabrics, cushions and bedspreads by adding colour, pattern, and texture.

8.4.1 Upholstery
Upholstery is described as the process of adding cushioning, springs, webbing, and textile or
leather covers to furniture, particularly seats. The term may also be utilized to characterize
the upholstery materials utilized. Alternatively, applying padding, cushioning, and fabric or
leather textile covers to a furniture frame is known as upholstery.

8.4.2 Role of Upholsterer

Upholsterers deploy fabric, leather, or other upholstery materials to cover furniture, fixtures,
and similar items. They may also work for furniture retailers and repair businesses or work
for themselves.
8.4.3 Classification of Upholsters fabric
The longevity of the furniture is ensured by selecting the right upholstery fabric.The various
kinds of upholstery fabric include nylon, polyester, polypropylene, acrylic, rayon, hemp,
cotton, linen, and wool. They also come in acetate, hemp, silk, hemp, linen, and hemp. A
combination of yarns is used to create upholstery fabric.

8.4.4 Care and maintenance of Upholstery

Pets and bugs should be kept away from upholstery. They may sustain damage from dogs’
and cats' shredded fur and claws. Arm covers may become damaged if you perch on them.
Upholstery takes in cigarette smoke. Heat may cause the wood to warp, while sunlight causes
fading and discolouration. Fabrics may absorb moisture as a result of condensation.
Stains can be removed by being caught as soon as they happen, and loose covers can be used
to shield chair backs and armrests. Keep an eye out for woodworms, as they can harm the
cloth. For even wear, take out the seat cushions. Every so often, wash or dry-clean removable
covers and give fixed covers a dry foam shampoo. Regular brushing and dusting of leather
upholstery are recommended. One may use cream polish. When heavily filthy, a towel dipped
in warm water with detergent can be used to gently wipe. Dry completely before polishing.
Regular dusting, vacuuming, and damp cloth wiping are all things that should be done with
upholstery wrapped with plastic.

8.4.5 Cushions
According to the Britannica dictionary, a cushion is a soft component or material utilized to
enhance comfort (such as a seat) or shield a surface from harm: a plush cushion, pillow, etc.
Cushionscan protect hard and soft surfaces, there is a cushion under the rug. An air cushion
has a layer of air that supports or shields something.
A cushion is defined as a soft sack filled with decorative material made of cotton, wool, hair,
feathers, polyester staple fibre, non-woven material, or even shredded pieces of paper. It can
be used to soften the hardness or angularity of a chair or couch, to sit or kneel upon, or
both.Cushions can be utilised to give the room colour, pattern, and texture and to improve the
comfort of the chairs and sofas. They can be used loosely as scatter pillows or fixed to
provide a seat or a back. Shapes can range from extended pillows known as bolsters to
square, rectangular, circular, triangular, and semi-circular shapes. They will be filled with
materials such as silk cotton, foam plastic, thermocol balls, kappa, rubber, polyfill, down,
feathers, and urethane foam.

8.4.6 Cushion Covers

Cushion covers serve largely as decorative items, giving consumers an affordable means of
expressing their particular preferences of taste and aesthetic appeal. Impeccable cushion
covers add harmony to office space, dining room, lounge, rooms and public areas. Cushion
covers are decorative, embroidered creative pieces of covers. With cushion covers, one can
create a different feel and ambience with various patterns, fabrics or styles. For
example,contemporary or traditional cushion covers make the area alluring and appealing.
Cushion covers are availablein natural, bright and dark colours with amazing patterns, and
styles.

8.4.7Cushion Covers Using Materials

The cloth out of which cushions are constructed is the material used. Cushions can be made
out of almost any fabric,it should be selected best suiting the intended function. For example,
if one needsa cushion cover with durability, cushion coverings should be made of polyester
or cotton. Chenille cushion covers are employed as a luxury and enhance the living or
drawing room, as opposed to silk and velvet cushion covers. Taffeta has a natural smoothness
and is a very glossy fabric. If embellished with embroidery or appliqué, it appears quite
exquisite. Soft leather is used to make suede cushion covers. Leather covers are a bit
expensive. Cotton is also one of the materials used for making cushion covers.

8.4.8 Cushion covers as per Usage

Due to their ubiquity, cushion covers are widely available and widely used. There is no
restriction or established rule on where to use it and where not.Cushion covers can be used on
the bed, dining chair, sofa, outdoor furniture, or living room couch. Establishments can
discover a variety of sizes and forms of cushion covers to suit their needs.

8.4.9 Cushion Covers as per the pattern

Cushion covers are available in stunning and wonderful patterns. Cushion covers with
embroidery are typically crafted by hand from 100% cotton, silk, or another fabric.
Additionally, highly popular cushion covers areembroidered covers with beadwork. Cushion
covers with prints are quite appealing, and plain-coloured or Baltic pillow covers are the most
understated and beautiful option. Cushion covers are available in Embroidered, Plain-dyed
andprinted patterns.

8.4.10 Cushion covers as per Style

On a sofa or couch, jacquard's elaborate patterns look stylish. The fabric itself has raised and
woven designs. You will find either diagonal or parallel raised lines in twill kind. Debby uses
floral and geometric prints that are incorporated throughout her clothing. These are made
from a variety of textiles. The most popular designs include Jacquard, Twill, Debby, fancy,
and hand-made.
Cushion upkeep and care demand regular attention. The following can be employed to
enhance the durability of cushion covers.
1. Regularly shake and tidy
2. Repair as necessary
3. Consistently brush and suction clean
4. Remove the coverings, wash them, or dry them.
8.5 CLASSIFY CURTAINS, THEIR HEADINGS AND TRIMMINGS

According to Merriam-webster dictionary curtain is a hanging screen that hangs and can be
pulled back or up i.e. window coverings. Curtains can also be used for separating and
covering the area.Among soft furnishings, curtains are the most expensive. They should
complement the remaining furniture and decor while enhancing the floor and wall coverings.
They serve a variety of functions i.e add to the décor. They shield a space from cold and
noise.Window dressing is crucial to enhancing or hiding the shape of the window and
enhancing the look and feel of the room. Curtains are especially used in hotels (airport hotels)
when people are sleeping during the day due to jet lag, to block out light. Curtains can shade
a space as excessive sunshine- can harm items and are uncomfortable for individuals.In a
congested environment, Net curtains let the light pass through the room.

8.5.1 Fibre for curtains

Natural fibres have high tenacity and hold up well, including cotton, wool, and linen. They
offer good thermal insulation and do not easily catch fire. Fabrics that are loosely woven do
not drape nicely, and the oxidation process could cause the fibres to turn yellow. Polyester
and nylon synthetic fibres may be easily maintained and have good wear properties. They
may be very combustible yet have good abrasion resistance. It is ideal if the finish is flame-
resistant. Popular alternatives include glass fibre, acrylic, and mixes. Curtains for showers are
made of plastic.

8.5.2 Different types of curtains

1) Glass curtains: These are simple straight-line drapes made of sheer cloth that cover
the entire window space.
2) Back curtains: These have ornamental ruffles and are composed of sheer fabrics and
lightweight material. Special fasteners hold them to the wall or frame.
3) crisscross curtains:To make crisscross drapes, panels are hung on walls such that
they overlap at the top and are knotted back.
4) Café curtains: short drapes that frequently use rings to hang on decorative rods to
cover a piece of a window.
5) Cottage curtains: Back and café curtains have been combined to create cottage
curtains.
6) Tier curtains: Two or more short curtain rows arranged horizontally that overlap
each other and are fastened on poles.
7) Vertical draw curtains: These vertical draw curtains may be drawn open by being
mounted on traverse tracks.
8) Vertical drop curtains: Curtains that slide up and down vertically can be found in
theatres and movie theatre auditoriums.
9) Curtains with swags and tails: These have headings at the top that are essential to
the decor.
8.5.3 General guidelines for curtains:
Curtains hang from rings or hooks on the track and land on the floor or a windowsill.
• The curtain material ought to be a sizable piece draped with the entire pattern showing.
• In large institutions, it is preferable to avoid materials with white backgrounds.
• The material's overall width maybe 90 cm, 120 cm, 150 cm, or even more.
A lined curtain helps to protect it from dirt or sunshine and offers a good drape. It should be
at least 1.5 times wider than the track.
The public spaces and suites of upscale establishments frequently use extravagant silk
materials. It is possible to utilise brocades, damasks, velvet, and various weaves. Lighter
materials, such as cotton, linen, chintz, satin, etc., may be used in the bedroom. Heavy
windows in bathrooms don't need curtains, however, nylon, plastic, and glass fibre are
frequently used for shower curtains. Plastics may dry quickly, but they may also tear quickly.

8.5.4 Care and Maintenance of Curtains

For the proper care and maintenance of curtains, it is important to take into account sunshine
exposure and airborne soiling.
 The lining of curtains aids in minimising fading and rotting damage.
 Abrasion occurs when curtains are tugged and drawn, brushed up against, rubbed
along a floor or window frame, and washed.
 The fabric construction and fibre type affect the cloth's ability to resist abrasion.
Loosely woven fabric tends to lose the drape, and continuous hand sketching could
result in shape loss.
 Utilize a wall broom or vacuum to keep the rod and track clean.
 Dust can be removed by shaking the curtain.
 Deal with stained areas, broken hooks, gummed drapes, and faded borders right away.
 To prevent fading, reverse double-sided, unlined curtains.
 Use solvent sprays or dry cleaning for brocade and damask curtains.

8.5.5 Curtain headings:

Curtain headings hang on the curtain track. As per their utility, they are categorised into
several types.
1. cornices and pelmets to conceal the poles and other hardware, At the top of the
horizontal drapery treatment, cornices are used in the form of boxes.
2. Valances These are constructed from cloth that has been scalloped, ruffled, or
pleated. They should be between 8 and 12 inches deep and should never be taller than
one-sixth of the window.
3. cranes for drapes When flexible installations are required, this hardware should be
used.
4. Decorative and traverse rods These are utilised along with runners that are attached
to the curtain. They might be of several kinds. A traverse rod is often used with
conventional pleated curtains that pull away from the centre and to either side.
Figure 8.4 Different types of curtain headings (Source:（Mendelsohn）

Curtain headings are of different types i.e., ripple fold, goblet, tailored pleat, cubicle, pinch
pleat, rod pocket, inverted pleat and grommet.
1. Ripple fold -The term "ripple fold" refers to rolled-pleat draperies in which the
spacing between the carriers creates the pleating in the fabric. Architects and
designers favour this minimal, streamlined drapery style.Ripple fold draperies are
contemporary in appearance and have an advantage over other types because they
look the same from either side. However, if complete room darkening is wanted, a full
top treatment is necessary due to the way they hang below the track.
A constant s-curve ripples across the length of the track in ripple fold drapery. The selected
carriers are strung together to form that dependable wave, which causes the ripples. Many
other design styles can go well with the ripple fold.
 2. Goblet:Goblet pleats are a complex heading design that resembles pinch pleated
draperies in appearance. Goblet pleats are open at the very top and are tucked and
folded to resemble a wineglass or a goblet. They may be suspended from a pole or a
track.
Goblet-pleat curtains are a favourite for beautiful and modern spaces. Goblet pleat curtains in
opulent materials like velvets or chenilles are a chic, opulent choice.
3. Tailored pleat:The most popular drapery style is tailored pleat. It is richer and more
subdued in its grace. The buckram stiffener used to hold the waterfall pleats rigid
makes this form of drapery practical and simple to use. An intermediate style between
traditional and modern, tailored pleats are produced at the very top of the fabric to
give it shape and rigidity before gradually opening up or taking on a more relaxed
appearance as they descend.
4. Cubicle:In hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, and other medical institution settings,
dividers called cubicle curtains are employed to enable patients to construct private
enclosures. A cubicle curtain, also known as a hospital curtain, is a divider fabric used
in medical treatment facilities to give one or more patients a secluded enclosure. The
curtain is typically suspended from a supporting structure or ceiling track and is
constructed of fabric that is naturally flame retardant (IFR).
In the 1990s, the design of cubicle curtains experienced a period of significant
expansion. A wider selection of subtle colours, muted tones, and soft hues as well as
various textures and more complex patterns became accessible in place of
conventional solids and tone-on-tones. Both customisable and cubicle curtain
alternatives with a natural theme are popular.
5. Pinch Pleat:Pinch pleat is a beautiful curtain heading that works with all materials.
Pencil pleats are larger and utilise less fabric than pinch pleats. To give the pleats a
more opulent, fitted appearance, they are hand-sewn in and fastened permanently.
Pinch pleat curtains have a highly ornamental top that gathers a lot of cloth into a compact
bundle that is stitched together. The pleats are permanently sewn in, giving the garment a
sophisticated finish with graceful folds flowing from top to bottom. Pinch pleat curtains can
be made with a pole or a track.
All interior designs look fantastic with pinch pleat curtains. Pinch pleat curtains are
uncomplicated and perform well in informal settings as well as chic or formal settings
because of their clean appearance. Pinch pleat curtains enhance the best aspects of a strong
design or a luxurious material due to the depth of the folds. For the living room, dining room,
and bedroom, pinch pleat curtains should be taken into consideration. Making sure pinch
pleat curtains complement the room's decor is crucial.
6. Rod pocket curtains:Rod pocket curtains, often referred to as fitted or pole top
curtains, have a rod pocket sewed into the top of each curtain panel. These kinds of
curtains are also simple to hang because your curtain rod just goes into the curtain rod
pocket.
Rod Pocket Curtains Are Excellent and Have a Casual Look Apartments and other living
spaces benefit greatly from the use of curtains. These curtains are in high demand because
of their adaptability. To blend in with any aesthetic, they are available in a range of
designs and hues. Because the fabric doesn't move down the rod easily, rod pocket
curtains are more challenging to open and close. Curtains are easier to alter using rings or
pin hooks.
7. Inverted pleat curtains-The Inverted pleat is a well-tailored modern pleat that has a
lot of fullness in the body of the curtain and rests flat when closed at the top. It is a
great alternative if a generous amount of fabric has to be used. It looks its best when
created in simple plain textured fabrics or sheers. It is ideally hung beneath a rod or a
track that is fixed to the ceiling and stacks back extremely neatly. It requires between
80 and 100 per cent fullness, and elongated pleats can also be created with 150mm-
deep buckram tape.The fullness of the curtain is turned inward by an inverted pleat, a
common style of the header for draperies that gives the fabric texture and depth. It is
the opposite of a box pleat, which is produced taking into consideration depth,
underlay, and spacing.
8. Grommet curtain headings: Due to their ease of use, grommet curtain heads are the
best alternative if one needs to often open and close curtains. Grommet-topped
curtains have open metal rings punched into the fabric at the top that allow the panels
to glide easily along the rod. Grommet draperies have long been a popular choice for
curtains because of their modern, sleek design. Grommets can easily be incorporated
into any style because they come in a variety of sizes and colours.

8.5.6 Trimmings:
Trimmings like brush fringe, guimpc braiding, eyelet embroideries, cording, and tasselled
deficits can be used to effectively match curtains and draperies to the furniture in a room,
even though they are not necessary, If handled properly, they will exhibit a close affinity for
the colour, pattern, and texture of the cloth to which they are applied as well as the other
pieces of furniture in the space.
When paired with the more ornate furniture styles of the Empire period, window curtains take
on a "decorative" bent.One can discover trims that provide colour and interest in braids,
loops, fringe, and tasselled effects with opulent and formal furnishings. Drapes don’t need to
have a trim ifthe furniture is modern. It is possible to employ brush binding in modern hues
or with metallic yarn flecks. However, it must be kept in mind that untrimmed, straight-
hanging curtains with suitable colour, style, and texture work best in contemporary spaces. If
the furniture is country-style, one might find a "trim-mate" in the gay-coloured boucle yarns,
as long as this treatment tends to produce the appropriate decorative impact. If one has to
utilise trimming, the material for the window curtain should be selected at the same time.

8.5.7 Post-Covid Maintenance of Soft Furnishings

Following each guest's departure, the laundry is contacted to launder all pillows, cushions,
sheets, sheet protectors, shower curtains, duvets, and other linens. Every time a guest
departs, the heavy, sheer, blind, rug, upholstered furniture, and headboard covered in the
fabric are thoroughly cleaned. The frequency of Rugs and carpet cleaning has been enhanced
post-Covid-19. They are vacuumed regularly.

Check Your Progress-3

1. How the post covid maintenance of soft furnishings is carried out?

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……………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Define trimming with examples?
……………………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………………..

8.6 HOW TO SELECT DIFFERENT TYPES OF FABRICS

To give warmth, comfort, protection, and decoration, fabrics have been utilised in furniture.
Fabrics are utilised as drapes, cushioning, hangings, and covers. Interior design makes
extensive use of fabrics by style, concept, and décor. In mediaeval Europe, hangings and
drapes were typically loose. Textiles account for the majority of the interiors' wealth. These
were embellished with embroidery, dyeing, and painting to significantly change the look of a
space.
The establishment uses fabrics in a wide range of methods. They may be chosen for their
aesthetic appeal, comfort, warmth or coolness, protective properties, durability, and hygiene
considerations.Fabrics can be subjected to several types of wear and tear depending on their
intended use, including soiling, abrasion, snagging, creasing, and fading.
The physical and chemical characteristics of the fibres, such as their softness, durability,
elasticity, lustre, resistance to fading, soiling, etc., influence the fabric's nature. Modified
fabric made with drying, wrinkle and shrink resistance, etc., is based on the fibre’s
characteristics.Man-made fabrics are not resistant to soil, abrasion, fire, water, sunshine,
wrinkling, creasing, odour, etc. Every cloth has unique characteristics, such as durability and
colour (fastness and washability).
Cost is an important factor while selecting fabrics for upholstery, however, if a particularly
low-priced fabric is chosen, the adage "Spending less upfront typically costs more in the long
run" rings true. It has been noticed that Cost-effective fabrics cannot endure repeated
washings or retain their form, colour, or weave for an extended period.
The three types of fibres—natural, man-made, and synthetic—are classified according to
where they originate. Animals and plants provide natural fibre. Cotton and linen are other
names for vegetable fibres. They are used in hotels to make upholstery and provide bed and
table linen. Wool and silk are two types of animal fibres that are commonly used to make
carpets, blankets, soft furnishings, and upholstery. Curtains and opulent wall coverings are
made of silk fibres.
Viscose rayon, modified rayon, acetate rayon, and triacetate rayon are examples of
regenerated fibres from which man-made fibres are manufactured. Under the trade names
Viloft, Evlan, Sarrille, Colvera, Dicel, Estron, and Tricel, Arnel, they are offered for sale. The
best uses for synthetic fibres are in the production of carpets and soft furnishings.
Polyamide, Polyester, Acrylic, Modacrylic, Polyvinyl, Polyethene, and Glass fibre are
examples of synthetic fibres. Nylon, Enkalon, and Celon make up polyamide. Bed linen,
blankets, rugs, and soft furnishings are all made with this fibre.The components of polyester
are Terylene, Dacron, and Trevira. Net curtains, pillow and quilt fillings, bed and table linen,
and these items are the best uses for them.
• Courtelle, Dralon, and Orlan blankets, carpets, upholstery, and soft furnishings are
constructed of acrylic.
• With the help of Teklan and Dynelis, modacrylics are created and used for soft furnishings,
blankets, carpets,
• Saran and Movil are components of polyvinyl, which is used to make deck chair covers.
Couelene and Polital are the components of polyethene. It is utilised to create upholstery.
• Fiberglass is used in the design of glass fibre. It is used to make fire blankets and curtains.

Check Your Progress-4

Fill in the blanks:

1. Fibreglass is used to make _____________ (glass fibre/ modacrylics)
2. Saran and Movil are used to make___________________ (carpets/deck chair covers)
3. Teklan and Dynelis are used for ______________ (soft furnishings/deck chair covers)
4. Courtelle, Dralon, and Orlan blankets, and carpets are constructed of ________ (glass
fibre/acrylic)
5. Viscose rayon, modified rayon, acetate rayon, and triacetate rayon are examples
of__________ (regenerated fibre/synthetic fibre)

8.7 LET US SUM UP

Carpets:
Hand-tufted rugs can be found in public spaces and guest rooms. Axminster carpets are
primarily found in hallways and all public spaces. A production facility for the well-known
brand Brinton is also located in India. Offices and administrative spaces have carpeting.
Depending on the kind of carpet we select, there are numerous types of underlays. It's crucial
to remember that carpet pile density is more significant than pole height. In carpet yarn's
composition, the best combination is 80/20 wool and nylon since wool has a natural feel and
the nylon adds strength. Additionally, 100% Nylon carpets are used specifically in low-cost
motels. Its maintenance is very simple. There are carpets with injection printing, similar to
Brand Milliken rugs.
Curtains:
Curtains offer thermal insulation and privacy, manage to light, and reduce noise. The room's
character and ambience are influenced by the line, colour, pattern, and texture of the curtains.
Regarding its resistance to flame resistance, dimensional stability, abrasion, fading, and
drape,the fibre selection of curtains should be made wisely.
Selection of Fabric:
Fabrics should only be selected for meeting certain requirements i.e., particular purposes after
giving it great thought to get the best use possible.
Fabrics are often created by weaving yarn or threads generated from either natural or
synthetic fibres. Although fabrics are made by knitting threads together as well as made by
fibre bonding or other similar processes, textiles (woven fabrics) are frequently utilised.

8.8 KEYWORDS

Carpet-A carpet is a type of textile floor covering that normally has a backing and an upper
layer of the pile.
Curtain-Draperies are another name for curtains, which are often made of heavy cloth and
set to fall straight in decorative folds.
Curtain heading-The portion of the curtain that hangs on the curtain track or rod is called
the heading.
Cushion cover-A cushion cover is a cloth case to cover cushions.
Fabric-Fabric is a term used to describe materials created by weaving together threads such
as cotton, nylon, wool, and silk. Fabrics are used to create items like clothing, drapes, and
sheets.
Fibre-Fibres are long, slender, flexible structures that resemble hair or thread. The two
primary sources of fibres are often plants and animals.
Soft furnishings-soft furnishings, include items categorised as linens, such as sheets,
pillowcases, mattresses, blankets, comforters, and bedspreads. Bath and dish towels,
tablecloths, shower curtains, and bathroom sets, are made from fabrics.
Underlay-It is secondary backing, and can be attached to the carpet backing or put
separately.
Upholsterers-They work for businesses that produce furniture, automobiles, aeroplanes, and
other things.

8.9 CLUES TO CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

 Check Your Progress-4

1. glass fibre 2.deck chair covers 3. soft furnishings 4.Acrylic 5. Regenerated fibre

References:
1. MendelsohnHadleyA Complete Guide to All the Best Types of
Curtains．[Online][Cited: 04 December
2022．]https://www.housebeautiful.com/room-decorating/a30704691/types-of-
curtains/．
UNIT 9 SPACE MANAGEMENT
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Space Standards
9.1.2 Car parking and access
9.1.3. Basic layouts
9.1.4 Circulation
9.2 Preliminaries and design principles
9.2.1 Dimensional co-ordination
9.2.2 Type of client

9.2.3 Basic design

9.3 Bedrooms and service
9.3.1 Bedrooms
9.3.2 Public rooms
9.3.3 Technical study Hotels
9.4 Let Us Sum Up

9.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter this you will be able to :

 Understand the role of space management in Hotels, Offices and other areas.
 Identify the flexibility in planning and future expansion.
 Calculate the sizes of different areas such as hotels and offices.
 Explain about Basic design, Standards and Cost considerations.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Space management is the management of an organization's physical space inventory.

This involves tracking how much space an organization has, managing occupancy
information, and creating spatial plans.

 Space Planning Principles.

 Make the highest and best use of land and building resources - Continually
modernize.
 Organize campus space in a way that strengthens a sense of place- Centralize spaces.
 Place a priority on students - Balance space requirements for social and academic
needs.
  There are three basic elements to space management: Speed control. Lane
positioning. Communication.

9.1.1 Space Standards

1.01 Precise space Standard* may be established by the brief otherwise the following may
for Very Preliminary sketches. estimates only; they may well revised during detaileddesign
stages. This is particularly true or the given for cooking. Which must be treated with caution.
It is made clear in technical study HOTELS 4 that old rule- appropriate in View of the
revolution in cooking and eating methods and habits. However, architects must, sometimes
prepare rough design sketches based on incomplete client information, and these figures are
included for their benefit.

More detailed information on many of these spaces is contained in appropriate sections of the
AJ Metric handbook' and othermaterial from the AJ Information Library.

1.02 Food and beverage department

Food service areas

Dining rooms (Luxury) – 1.7m2 to 1.9m2 per seat’

Coffee shops and reasonable restaurant standard – 1.3m2 per seat

Lounge and bar - 1.1m2 to 1.4m2 per seat

Banquet – 0.9m2 to 1.3m2 per seat

Staff canteens – 0.7m2 to 0.9m2 per seat

Service facilities
Kitchen for dining and coffee shop (exclusive of stores) - 60 per cent of dining room and
coffee shop or 0.9 m2 to 1.0 m2 per seat
Kitchen for coffee shop only- 45 per cent of coffee shop or 0.6 m2 per seat
Food and liquor and China storage - 50 per cent of kitchen or 0.5 m2 per seat in dining room
and coffee shop; or 0.3 m2 per seat were coffee shop only
Kitchen or pantry to banquet rooms -20 per cent of banquet facility or 0.24 m2 per seat

Banquet storage - 8 per cent of banquet area or 0.05 m2 per seat.

 Rooms and service departments

Guests Bedrooms - Sizes vary enormously. Double room plus bathroom and lobby could be
about 20 m2 to 24 m2. Minimum standards for bedroom only (British Travel Association
Memorandum) are:
Single: 5.57 m2
Double 8.36 m2:

Twin-bedded: 10.22 m2
Bathrooms – Allow about 3.8 to 4.2 m2 if calculated separately from bedroom.

 Offices normally required

Areas will vary between about 7.5 m2 and 20 m2 or more depending on number of guest
bedrooms and other facilities. Exact standards are difficult to define: the areas given below
are therefore roughly grouped to give an indication only.

Group A: 7.5 m2 to 9.5 m2

Group B: 9.5 m2 to 11.5 m2

Group c: 11.5 m2 to 14.0 m2

Group D: 14.0 m2 to 18.5 m2

Group E: 18.5 m2 to 23.0 m2

Administrative 100 Rooms 250 Rooms

Manager

Executive assistant or
assistant manager
Budget and control director
or analyst
Secretaries' offices (possibly
two, each)
Sales and catering
Purchasing
Personnel manager, hiring
room, auditing
General office

Food and beverage

Food and beverage manager

Food and beverage manager
Chef, steward Banquet
manager and banquet head
waiter
Room service

Housekeeper
Receiving clerk, timekeeper
Engineer

 Other spaces
Cloakrooms
Fixed rows of hooks - Allow 0.1 m2 per user (includes allowance for staff circulation and for
public space around counter)

Hooks plus seating or lockers- Allow 0.2 m2 to 0.3 m2 per user

Public assemblies
Conferences - Allow 0.5 m2 to 0.6 m2 per person plus allowance for stage, translation booth.
etc; or overall average of 0.7 m2 to 0.9 m2
Dances - Allow 0.6 m2 to 0.9 m2 per person exclusive of band space which may be up to 12
m2 for six-piece band.

Swimming pool(internal or external)- Can be any size or shape. For serious swimming
smallest pool size is 25 m x 12.5 m (depth 0.9 m to 2 m, but up to 3 m or more if for diving).
Plus, surround (min 2 m), changing rooms

Sports and recreations - Depends on facilities offered; e.g., badminton needs space 16.5 m x
8.5 m x up to 9.15 m high; table tennis 9 m x 3 m per table
Circulation and reception areas

Overall allowance for general circulation areas - 2.3 m2 to 2.8 m2 per person
Waiting areas (per person) - 0.5 m2 to 1.4 m2 depending on number of seated people and
cross flows. The lower figure is for 100 per cent standing with no cross flows

9.1.2 Car parking and access

2.01 Planning requirements vary according to the size and type of hotel and its situation.
Required provision must be sought from planning authority. Typical provision is: one car
space for every two bedrooms in the residential area, one car space for every 10 m2 in the
public rooms, or one car space for every ten persons using the public rooms. But apart from
any regulations, the hotel itself may determine the number of parking spaces-e.g., a motor
hotel on the outskirts of a large town or city may need one car space for every bedroom,
although some experience suggests that 60 per cent to 65 per cent car spaces per bedroom is
adequate. Inside London fewer car spaces are needed per bedroom but the requirement for
conference parking may be greater. As a rough guide, between thirty-two and thirty-six cars
can be manoeuvred and parked in a space 27.5 m x 30.5 m.

2.02 While the car park will almost always be reached through a separate entrance and is
often some distance from the reception area, provision must be made for passengers to alight
safely and conveniently at the main hotel entrance whether from taxi or private car. In the
latter case it should also be made easy for the driver to return from the car park direct to the
reception area.

2.03 In an urban area, the need for car parking space may pre-empt the use of basement or
roof area of low-rise buildings and, in turn, the siting of boiler plant and mechanical services
tends to be displaced to the sub-basement or upper storeys of the building.

Access
2.04 An important consideration of planning control is the potential risk of traffic congestion
and obstruction. Pedestrian and vehicular access to the hotel needs to be determined and
agreed at an early stage. Commercially, the position of the hotel entrance is usually a critical
feature. which then determines the location of the main frontage.
2.05 Secondary access is required for goods and service vehicles with adequate provision for
turning, unloading, and loading. A separate staff entrance is usually provided with direct
access to changing and service rooms.
2.06 It is necessary to make separate provision for receiving and handling different types of
goods, considering their nature and storage requirements. Main divisions are:

Goods Stores
Beer, wines, spirits Beer cellars, wine and spirit stores, crate
storage.
Food Cold stores, Vegetable stores, dry goods
stores.

Laundry and soft furnishings Linen stores

Crockery and cutlery stores. Cleaning

General equipment stores. Storage for maintenance
plant, furniture, and general goods.
Oil storage tanks and/or solid fuel
Fuel enclosures.

Refuse
2.07 Provision must be made for refuse storage and collection, including the temporary
accumulation of empty containers, which often tends to be under-estimated. This is a
potential source of nuisance due to decomposing residues of food and rubbish, rats, and flies.
Properly covered bins and containers are essential, and these should be sited in an impervious
enclosure equipped with means of hosing down and drainage.

9.1.3 Basic layouts

3.01 Various relationships between the two sorts of accommodation-bedrooms and public
areas.

3.02 Choice between a high or low building depends on site value and any limitations
imposed on the development. In a rural setting of relatively low land value, planning and
construction costs usually favour a low building. There are substantial savings in foundation
and structural work; lifts are not obligatory up to three storeys and there may be economies in
the use of pumping equipment. Maintenance is usually easier and cheaper. But long corridors
with more staircases are needed and there is an appreciable increase in engineering services
costs-heating, insulation, plumbing and drainage.

3.03 In an urban location an expensive site may be justified only by a tall building. Generally,
a compromise must be reached considering planning limitations. on the average numbers of
floors which may be constructed over the plot, rights of light and other legal restrictions:
protecting nearby property. The most common arrangement is a tall bedroom block over a
much larger area of low public rooms 4.

3.04 High costs of site purchase in a city centre may be recompensed by letting high value
frontage space at ground floor level, and above, as shops and other com- metrical activities
unconnected with the hotel. It may be advantageous to provide hotel accommodation above
office or shop development, on the upper floors of a tall building. In a provincial town having
limited demand for hotel accommodation, a combined residential development including self-
contained flats might be commercially attractive.

General planning considerations

Public rooms
3.05 These areas should be as free from restriction as possible and the structural framework is
essentially based on large span units. Public rooms generally need to be sited at or near
ground level for convenience, although restaurants may also be provided at the top of the
building to command a view.

Apartments
3.06 The bedroom areas are formed from relatively small cell-like units divided by separating
walls, and interspaced with ducts which convey soil, waste, and other services.
3.07 For economy the shape of the bedroom block is usually based on two parallel rows of
bedrooms, with or without inner bathrooms, served by a central corridor, 5a. If the width of
the block is restricted or if it is intended to confine the bedrooms to one frontage to enjoy a
view-a single row of bedrooms may be used with a corridor along one. side 5b. An alternative
layout to limit the overall width, may consist of a central corridor between two rows of
bedrooms which are separated by bathrooms. In this case bathrooms are usually arranged in
pairs with one on the outside and the second adjoining the corridor 5c. It is possible to
economise in the ventilation of bathrooms with an outer wall, but there may be little else to
be said for this plan.

3.08 On plan the block forms an elongated rectangle which may have straight or curved
walls, be joined at each end to form a rectangle or circle or be linked at one end to give an L,
T or Y shape 6.
3.09 Initially the arrangement of the bedroom block will depend on size and shape of site and
nature of surroundings but, in preparing subsequent details, structural framework and vertical
services (e.g., soil, waste, mains and lifts) must be related to layout of public areas
underneath-which have a quite different structural requirement. The structural module for the
bedroom block is determined by sizes of rooms concerned. Similarly, positions of vertical
ducts also depend on room sizes and their arrangement.
3.10 The length of each wing of the bedroom block is usually limited by the maximum
distance the occupants must travel to reach a staircase in the event of fire namely, 30 m
(incombustible floor). For practical and identification purposes lifts and staircases are
normally placed together. Stairs and landings should be separated from bedroom corridors by
self-closing doors to stop smoke. Every part of the building occupied by guests or staff
should have two independent escape routes in case of fire.

Fire escape routes must also satisfy specific requirements of fire authorities as to:
1. Fire resisting construction;
2. linings and use of combustible materials;
3. protection of route and approaches;
4. exits and safe outlets;
5. signs and notices.
official guidance on fire in hotels is now drafted. An information sheet will be issued in the
Architects' Journal when the official document is published

Orientation
3.11 Restrictions imposed by site, particularly in a town, may determine the buildings'
orientation regardless of other considerations. Account, however, must be taken of the aspect
from various rooms and effects of sunlight. Bedroom blocks with the long axis nearer north-
south than east west will normally be preferable. Kitchens and rooms used for storage of food
and wine should, if possible, be sited on the north or north-east side to facilitate temperature
control.

9.1.4 Circulation
4.01 Routes taken by resident guests, non-resident diners, and staff follow distinct patterns
and these establish clear relationships between the hotel's various parts. Layout and planning
of the hotel must facilitate movements of people and, as far as possible, provide for the
separation of guests, staff, and maintenance personnel. This is important not only to avoid
disturbance and annoyance of the guest but also to enable service facilities to be designed for
efficient use.

4.02 Secondary circulation is often desirable to separate resident and non-resident guests-e.g.,
by providing direct access to restaurants and banqueting halls. This has a dual purpose in that
resident's needs can be given exclusive attention at the reception area, without unnecessary
congestion, while people entering and leaving both areas can be better controlled and
supervised.

4.03 Having determined the sequence of movement, the relative positions of rooms and their
ancillary services can be located. A diagram of the main circulations is given in 7. This is not
necessarily a suitable layout for any hotel. It is included merely to give some idea of possible
circulation patterns and interrelationships.

9.2 PRELIMINARIES AND DESIGN PRINCIPLES

9.2.1 Dimensionalco-ordination

 Recommendations for horizontal and vertical control ling dimensions for hotels are
contained in BS 4330:19682. Recommendations for horizontal controlling dimensions
are illustrated in 8 and table III, and vertical controlling dimensions in 9. The
complete should be consulted.

9.2.2 Type of client

 Property developer
Will usually be developing a site for occupation by, or in participation with, a hotel
operating organisation. Architect will prepare feasibility sketches to explore and
illustrate site's potential. After agreement on financial principles or terms, project will be
developed further, incorporating detailed requirements of hotel operator. Division of
financial participation in project should be defined at this stage: e.g., development
company to provide shell or structure finished to a certain limit, hotel company to finish
off, fit and furnish. Developer's and architect's roles and responsibilities must be clearly
defined. Hotels are planned to suit specific requirements, and as these vary considerably
for different operators, inherent dangers in planning or building hotels speculatively
must be recognised
 Hotel operating company

Will commission architect to investigate a site, prepare sketches and pursue project to
conclusion. Operators will usually have an accommodation brief prepared within their
 own organisation. This may be supplemented by a manual of standard operating
procedures, finishes, space requirements and so on. Scope of architect's responsibility
should be defined, e.g., does it include layouts for catering equipment, interior design?
 Joint developer/hotel company
The many permutations possible within this system, make it most essential for architect's
role and responsibilities to be firmly established at the earliest stage

9.2.3 Basic design

 Type of hotel
Commercial; residential (permanent residents); transit; resort; motor hotel or motel;
service rooms or suites (with or without restaurant); combination of above.
 Feasibility study
Operator's market and financial feasibility studies will answer and amplify many of the
design criteria to be established later in the brief.
 Standards
Standard of luxury and service required will affect space allocations, services provision,
costings, and so on. In some countries, hotel ratings and financial grants are determined
by statutory regulations defining standards

 Accommodation and operational requirements

Detailed accommodation schedule, with interrelationship of spaces, should be obtained
from operator. Operator's individual method of operation and management policy has
profound effect on planning

 Cost considerations:
Financial feasibility study will have been based on a building cost determined by
professional advisers. Alternatively, market and financial studies might limit or expand
the finances available for a particular project. Bedroom rates will have been determined
for a particular market; this will be reflected in finances available, and therefore in
standard of comfort.

Budget costs should be broken down into construction costs, and fittings and furnishings.
These must vary in detail for each project, and are of particular importance in a
landlord/tenant situation. In checking through the brief, individual items should be
classified as either 'construction' or 'fittings etc'. Relationship between capital cost,
maintenance and taxation should be considered.

 Time programme
The following factors must be agreed: starting date of building works after stabilisation
of plans with minimum foreseeable alteration of requirements by operator; actual
building period; integration of decor, fittings and furnishings; pre-opening training and
'shakedown' period; seasonal or peak business period-to be avoided or sought; earlier
opening date possibly offsetting increased costs for shorter building time; possible
employment of project managers to oversee and integrate the entire project: in
complicated exercises this saves a great deal of time.

 Flexibility in planning and future expansion

Bedroom layouts are normally stable, but changes in policy or management might affect
planning of public areas later. Loadbearing walls and 'hard' decor are therefore
sometimes a disadvantage. If by design or circumstance expansion is necessary after
completion, a built-in 'expansion factor' in services, structure and communication must
be considered. Disturbance of guests during building is to be avoided, and for this reason
vertical expansion of bedroom accommodation is least desirable.

 Specialist advisers
Appointed by either architect, developer, or hotel operator.

 Client liaison
The complexity of hotels demand that decisions by client or operator should be clear and
speedy. One person should be delegated to make decisions

 Baggage handling
Define guest and baggage routes and methods of handling baggage-special entrance or
baggage room. Consider mass arrivals of baggage if hotel accepts tours. Establish degree
of mechanisation, conveyors, and so on.

 Reception, number of staff, equipment:

Establish exactly how guests will be received and shown to rooms, and how they and
their accounts will be handled during a stay. Number of staff required

Reception and number of staff: Receptionist, cashiers, reservation clerks (may be

remote), secretarial and clerical staff
stationery and record store: Type of records kept and location of store

 Offices:
Basically, there are three departments. There will usually be some overlap. Establish
whether access by the public is required to any room. Cashier, reception, reservation,
housekeeper's department Food and beverage, steward’s department, mechanical
Accountancy etc.

 Telephones:
type of system Manual (PMBX) or automatic (PABX)
type of telephone Whether coin box or separately metered; cubicles or hoods.
house 'phones Connected to hotel switchboard for internal use by guests
  Reception lobby:
shops: Can vary from a full-scale shop to a small kiosk, according to space available and
policy at hotel. Usually let as concessions; detailed briefing may be given by
concessionaire
number, type, and position: e.g., Newspapers and books; boutique (souvenirs,
accessories, etc), chemist, florist, chocolates, sweets, pastries, tobacco, fruit. Some of
these may be combined
size: Complete built-in shops or freestanding kiosks
access: Entrance from street and foyer, or only from foyer
display: Windows in street as well as in foyer. Display cases without sales facilities.
Policy on showing name of concessionaire
times of opening: In relation to after-closing display requirements and automatic
vending machines
times of opening: In relation to after-closing display requirements and automatic
vending machines
staff: Number in each shop. Self-service
delivery of goods: To hotel delivery bay or separately, through foyer, from street
storage: In shop only or bulk storage facilities elsewhere in hotel
travel agents: Travel, theatre tickets, car hire. Closer connection with hotel staff than
shops. The concessionaire will give detailed briefing. Facilities required for display
hairdressers: Consider plumbing

Check Your Progress-1

1) What are the space standards in facility Management?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

2) Explain the preliminary and design Principal?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

9.3 BEDROOMS AND SERVICE

9.3.1 Bedrooms: The trend is away from large, individually designed and finished
apartments towards smaller rooms fitted with standard units of furniture, which allow
economies in both capital outlay and space. Standards of design must be high- the reputation
of a hotel depends largely on comfort and convenience of bedrooms
  Bedroom accommodation:
Singles
Doubles
Suites
Dressing-rooms
Meeting-rooms

Establish details of types and sizes required. Proportion of single to double beds will be
decided by feasibility study. In all new hotels, a bathroom and we unit adjoining the
bedroom will always be provided.
Studio layout: Consider convertible bedrooms used as sitting-room (or for business
meetings) during the day

Furniture Establish policy for built-in and loose furniture. Built-in, but not loose, furniture is
covered by grant in UK. Allow cost of building-in and attendance.
Cupboards: Establish guests' probable length of stay; this may determine sizes of cupboard.
Control panel: For communications, environmental control and so on,
Internal environment: Discuss methods.

Entrance door: Establish door number and key suiting policy; locking system (remote
control by guest?) and so on
Wall finishes: Discuss maintenance factor with operator

Automatic dispenser: Liquor and refreshment dispenser can be provided in bedrooms; sales
can be centrally recorded

Guest bathrooms: in all new hotels, a bathroom and we unit should adjoin each
bedroom
Bath: establish size-6ft (1800 mm to 1900 mm) with shower usually preferred
Shower: Establish whether required

Drip-dry rails or lines: Line can be on spool

Loudspeaker extension:

 Service rooms
Room service: Check whether there is to be full room service (requiring central pantry), or
partial room service (usually requiring only floor pantries). Establish also whether maids are
to have separate service rooms or share, say, one large room per floor Lift sizes are related to
room service trolleys.
Linen storage: Establish how many days' supplies of linen is to be stored (usually one/two
days' supply in each housemaid's cupboard)
Linen chutes:
Staff lavatories:
Maids' changing, canteen: Separate, or shared with other staff

9.3.2 Public rooms

 Lounge: To be revenue-earning the lounge must be part of the bar, or cater for special
functions, e.g., entertainment, business conventions.
 Bar lounge or 9 Bar: Establish function of lounge: type and number of seats and tables;
motif or name (if any)
Capacity and function: If catering is subcontracted kitchen, changing-rooms and so on must
be separate from those belonging to hotel

Public
Service: External access for heavy equipment and exhibition material (e.g., cars, boats) is
very important

Ante-rooms: liquor service if required

Dance floor: Removable carpet

Changing-rooms for staff: Male and female temporary staff may both serve at one function
Food and liquor service system: To main rooms and ante-rooms

Ciné projection: May require separate projector room

Theme: Motif or names

 Public cloakrooms and lavatories

Attendants: For men's and women's lavatories, and for cloakrooms if separate. Attendants'
stores
Cloakrooms: Women prefer generally to collect their coats from within a
cloakroom/lavatory, men from outside

Powder room for women:

Shoe cleaning and toiletries for men

 Special accommodation: Chauffeurs' or other staffrooms; day nurseries (especially

in resort hotels); sick bay (house doctor or nurse); businessmen's secretarial facilities
or offices; gymnasium; Turkish or sauna bath; cinema; simple meeting rooms; press,
interview and lecture rooms; casino and card rooms; changing rooms and cabanas for
swimming pools; night clubs; kosher kitchens and dining-rooms; manager's flat;
service flats or suites; VIP rooms; chapels or other religious facilities
 Service Rooms
 Laundry and linen rooms
Linen provision: Is linen to be hired, or own linen? If own, is it to be sent to laundry, or
laundered on premises? Establish how many days' supplies of clean linen needs to be stored
(usually three days); establish frequency of delivery

Control and issue: How is clean linen issued, and soiled linen returned? Use of chutes,
trolleys, lifts
Linen rooms:Establish whether there is to be one on each floor

Valet service: Pressing, sponging and dry cleaning

 Kitchens
Specialist: Consult at early stage
Extent of food service: Banquets, bedrooms, staff and so on this will determine type of
kitchen

Wash-up system: e.g., Conveyor belt, refuse disposal

Cold rooms: Structural or package units?

Chef's office: Supervision

Power: Gas or electricity

 Staff canteen
Food preparation and cooking: Off main kitchen, or separate
Method of dispensing: Consider vending machines

Number of staff:
Executive dining-room: Determine whether this is required.

Staff lounge:

 Housekeeper: Function is to supervise guest bedrooms and bedroom staff, linen and so
on
Accommodation: Is housekeeper to live in? Will there be any assistants?

 Staff changing:
Type of staff:Kitchen, managerial, secretarial, etc
Numbers per shift
Size of rooms
Lockers

Showers, lavatories etc

 Engineering staff: Number of staff, their functions and requirements

 Maintenance: Consider whether workshop required, e.g., separate furniture shop
 Storage generally: Get full details of all storage requirements as early as possible and
beware of common tendency to underestimate.

Supervision: Is all storage under supervision of storeman, or are there separate stores for
liquor, vegetables, dry storage, crockery, meat, fish, dairy produce and so on?

System of issue: Affects circulation in building

 Timekeeper/ security: Discuss supervision, security.

 Corridors
Room numbering: Establish operator's system; tie up with telephone system and with lift
system
Vending machines: Ice, mineral waters, cigarettes

 Service yard/ loading bay

Staff entry:
Stacking space: For crates, beer bottles and so on if required

 Parking and other external areas

Number of cars to park: Covered parking. Lock-up.
Attendant: Any charge for public use?

Flag poles: Diplomatic flags, conference flags and so on

Signs: Illuminated and non-illuminated

Swimming pool: Consider public changing-rooms

9.3.3 Technical study Hotels

Hotel catering

 Technical and design problems

Growth of technology
Between the hotel or restaurant operator and the architect is a growing body of technology,
scientifically approaching both customer needs and efficient production. In large hotel
companies, particularly outside the UK, these technologies are organised within each
company under various titles and include marketing, project management, development,
work study, layout and planning, and operations analysis. The small company cannot afford
such organisations and has to rely on catering consultants, some of whom cover some of
these expertise. In the main, catering consultants in the UK have tended to specialise in one
or other aspect which may be relevant to a particular caterer's problems but not to an
integrated approach to restaurant design. This should start with diagnosing customer needs at
conscious and subconscious levels and end with calculating the amount of shelving required
in the dry goods store.

 Technical evolution
Since the war the revolution, particularly in high street catering, has progressed swiftly, partly
through improved methods of food preservation (enabling, for example, vegetables to be
available all the year round, or labour to be saved by the use of freeze dried powdered soup),
partly through farm rearing of what was previously wild life, offering wider choice at lower
cost (e.g. scampi and prawns, and now guinea fowl, pheasant, lobster); but mainly through
catering establishments now being numerous enough to permit specialisation centred round
the most popular dishes steaks, roasts, bacon and eggs, hamburgers, drinks and so on.

The caterer's obsession has been to reduce food preparation and storage space and hence
increase revenue earning space. He has also been concerned to reduce staff and the level of
skill required, and to improve cost control of the use of raw materials. These objectives have
been achieved by severely limiting the number of cooking processes. Even adding omelettes,
for example, to a popular hamburger menu means employing one additional skilled member
of staff per shift and allowing space for preparation.

 Space requirements
Recent legislation requiring greater provision of lavatories, staff changing-rooms and so on
has increased the pressure to compensate by reducing other non-revenue earning space. This,
in turn, is forcing hoteliers to pay more attention to concepts and designs that will reduce
labour. Thus, the old formulae relating customer seating areas to kitchen and storage areas are
no longer applicable.

 Space requirements are determined by: 1 type of service and associated methods of
preparation; 2 variety offered on the menu in terms of number of cooking processes
involved; 3 volume of custom at different times of day; 4 peak rates of customer
throughput; 5 how long the average customer takes over each meal; 6 proportion of
different sized groups served daily; 7 elaborateness of service, e.g. cooking at table,
use of trolleys or plated service (vegetables already on the dish) affect width of
corridors; 8 seating and service plan; 9 shape of space for whole operation.
  Examples show how variable the space ratios have now become. The ratios are of
revenue-earning customer space to non-revenue-earning space-kitchen, storage,
public lavatories, staff lavatories, chefs' offices and so on. Thus, functional non-
revenue-earning space in the first case is six times the requirement for similar space
with the simpler hamburger operation. In addition, 100 seats could occupy 80 per cent
more space in one case than another, to allow room for cooking at the table.

Importance of atmosphere

 The other main revolution has been the recognition by some successful caterers and
hoteliers that 'living atmosphere', of which interior design is the main component, is
the most important element in enjoyment of a meal, closely followed by the
sensitivity and skill of service. Customer acceptance of standard foods or drinks will
vary enormously with variations in these two elements. Also, a choice of atmosphere,
menu and service within an establishment generates more custom.

Centralised production

 Although central off-site food preparation has now existed for almost half a century,
broadly speaking the economics of distribution of frozen foods are such that only
fairly expensive dishes, involving a high degree of chef's skill, will offset the
additional distribution costs. (Exceptions may, in time, be proved in abnormal cases
such as school meals.) Nevertheless, many caterers, in the absence of a detailed
knowledge of all the costs, are pursuing this course of development. In fact, certain
types of meat do not stand up well to the processes involved and, at the moment,
national food manufacturers are making only five or six haute cuisine items that are
acceptable. These items are essentially wet entrées such as sole bonne femme, coq au
vin and similar dishes, which form only one of the categories of choice of main dish
on a traditional menu.
 Recently there has been a move in hotels and multistrand establishments to centralise
certain aspects of the production processes within the building. But care must be taken
to choose only those parts of the process which can be amalgamated without
destroying the basic motivations of the workers concerned. Many of these
developments simply result in poorer communications, lack of motivation, and
increased frustration leading to increased staff turnover and hence to increased costs
of recruiting and training new staff. This in turn leads to lower standards of
performance. If what is centralised can be seen as a whole business (e.g., central
storage) having an input, process and output that can be accounted for in monetary
terms, then there may well be a case for centralisation, but not otherwise.

Innovations in equipment

 Apart from labour saving devices such as electric mixers, pop-up toasters and so on,
the only innovations this century have been refrigerators, dish washing machinery,
microwave and forced air convection ovens and pressure cooking. Infra-red radiation
 has some application in keeping dishes warm and to a lesser extent in reheating frozen
foods. Recent developments have been concerned with automatic timing devices
intended further to reduce the skill required. Extensive research, both in this country
and the US shows that microwave ovens, while invaluable for reheating a limited
number of items, are strictly limited as to what they can do well, their rate of output
and the very precise state in which raw materials have to be put in the oven if they are
all to complete the process at the same temperature. As far as reconstitution of frozen,
pre-prepared meals is concerned, it is fairly well established that the convection. The
high-speed convection oven is perhaps the most revolutionary innovation: it has the
same capabilities as a conventional oven but bakes or roasts in two-thirds of the time.
Although developed for airlines, it is now produced in various sizes for static units
and could spell the death of the conventional oven.

Catering cost control

Proportioned food

 Efforts to improve the control of raw material costs have led to the use of
proportioned raw materials such as steaks supplied cut to size. Not unnaturally, such
developments are resisted in the kitchen. The last bastion of defence is now haute
cuisine, but even there (historically the focus of innovation and experiment)
developments are taking place. The cost of employing a pastry chef to make a few
gâteaux is prohibitive, particularly if there is a high-class local baker/confectioner
who can employ his staff full time. The same reasoning applies to butchery because in
a large city a hotel can always specify and buy whatever cuts it requires. Obviously,
these considerations have a major impact on space and labour requirements on site.

Cost of breakfast service

 A survey by the Hotel and Catering Economic Development Council Service in hotels
(HMSO, 5s 6d) showed that the labour cost of serving breakfast in bedrooms was
about two-thirds the cost of providing it in the restaurant. Many Continental hotels
have recognised this and do not open the restaurant before lunch. Some American
hotels do not serve meals at all and guests have breakfast in the nearest drugstore.
Publication of the report may produce a trend in this direction in future UK hotels.
 In addition to labour cost, space is an important factor. In a city centre hotel as few as
5 per cent of resident guests may eat lunch or 20 per cent to 30 per cent may eat
dinner in the hotel, but nearly 100 per cent want breakfast. Also, experience in
different situations shows that 50 per cent of residents will converge at the peak of
breakfast: the combined seats of the restaurants should therefore equal half the
number of beds. Clearly, to determine maximum seating requirements by the
uneconomic service of breakfast is irrational. The simplest solution is to provide floor
pantries with adequate cooking facilities to provide full English breakfast for the
proportion of guests who require it. This, in turn, requires a flexible approach to
staffing which some of the major companies are now adopting. In a large hotel which
may have a twenty-four-hour coffee grill operation, those who require full English
 breakfast can be encouraged to take it there, or it can be delivered from there to the
room. Sufficient storage is, of course, required in floor pantries to provide Continental
breakfast in the rooms.

Vending machines

 Vending has, of course, made an appearance on the hotel scene, including machines
suitable for vending drinks in each room. Records of use can be transmitted directly to
the customer's account. Machines capable of selling draught or bottled beers are
available with timing devices to enable sales to be limited to licensed hours. Some of
the more popularly priced hotels, which are not large enough to have a twenty-four-
hour coffee grill service, provide beverage vending machines on bedroom floors to
avoid the costly provision of room service. In general, these machines are not
designed to blend with the surroundings.
 The problem of the guest who checks out of the hotel immediately after a full
breakfast can now be overcome by the use of machines which transmit a copy of the
bill to the accounts office to be quickly added to the guest's account.

 Changing customer needs

Customer needs, of course, vary according to the basic situation: he may be on
holiday at a resort for two weeks; he may be on a touring holiday spending only a
night in each hotel; he may be on business requiring an overnight stop. Or the
restaurant customer may be local, enjoying an evening out and not using the hotel as
such. Whatever the basic situation, the customer needs should be researched or at
least carefully thought through.

The 'meal experience'

What the customer purchases in a restaurant is a 'meal experience' which is a unique
combination of 'living atmosphere', service, choice of food and drink, and other facilities (of
which the most important are the lavatories).

Growth of freedom

 People now want greater freedom of choice of menu, compatible with their powers of
decision making and with the time they have available. They want to have as many or
as few courses as they please, the vast majority preferring à la carte to a set meal.
There has been increasing reluctance, partly a result of increased travel, to eat at
traditional meal times, and in high streets about 70 per cent of eating (mainly snacks)
takes place between traditional meal times. There is increasing demand for choice of
type and speed of service (some 90 per cent of motorway customers prefer self-
service to table or counter service). Finally, people prefer a choice of atmosphere,
varying in degree of informality with their mood and with their powers of
discrimination (correlating broadly with occupational level) and with how much they
are prepared to pay.
Pressures of time
  In general, there has been a gradual shift away from formality and the grand
restaurant to informality and smaller restaurants seating perhaps sixty to eighty
people. This is partly because people do not have time to change their clothes to fit
every occasion. Also because of lack of time, meals involve fewer courses-a reduction
from five or seven courses in the Middle Ages to an average of 21 in the UK today.
America has almost become a one-course nation, drink replacing the first course.

Growth of affluence

 With increasing affluence in the western world, domestic standards of interior design
are rising and the hotelier must recognise that his standards have to be ahead. With a
fashion cycle of five to seven years, this means an interior design approach which
recognises replacement after a limited marketing life. American experience shows
that there is a correlation between what the average customer spends and the life of
the concept. Operators who serve cheap food quickly allow for a marketing life of
three to five years; expensive restaurants, where the other customers matter more than
the décor, average fifteen years before a new interior concept is required.

Subconscious needs

 Research shows that 90 per cent of customer needs when eating out are subconscious
and relate to their mood (determined by the basic situation), to their powers of
discrimination (broadly related to occupational levels), to their age, and to the price
they are prepared to pay. Different colours and combinations of colours, different
layouts and shapes of tables, and different textures can meet many of these needs.
Different occupational levels for example, prefer different hues, the lower preferring
bright primary colours, the upper something more delicate, tending towards neutrality.
Predominance of colours towards the red end of the spectrum, plus brightness,
increases sociability, blood circulation and muscular activity. Colours towards the
violet end induce withdrawal, reduced blood circulation and hence the danger of
indigestion. (This, apart from the indigestion, is, of course, the requirement for an
escapist mood in a night club or for sound sleep in a bedroom.)
 The crucial need, however, is to avoid monotony, and colours and textures in a
restaurant must convey a 'price feel' which must equate with the real price level of the
restaurant. To eat an expensive meal in a 'cheap' environment is to experience poor
value for money, while an expensive looking environment may frighten away
customers however cheap the meal may be.

The speciality restaurant as a solution

 Smaller speciality restaurants, carefully designed to a scientific brief, can meet most
of the customer's changing needs at present, but future designs for hotel restaurants
must recognise the increasingly frequent necessity for changes in concept.

3 Basic situations in hotel catering

I. Resorts
Traditionally, a resort hotel, at which guests might stay for a week or two, had to provide a
home from home. The restaurant was designed to cater for the residents' needs to eat in at
breakfast and dinner and to eat lunch out (possibly packed meals). Thus, the restaurant relied
largely on chance custom at lunch and rotated the limited choice dinner menu to relieve
boredom, as at home.
With increased mobility and increased demand for freedom, guests may want to eat lunch or
dinner in a building different from the one in which they sleep. The main requirement is for
leisure activities, and resort developments have to be viewed as a total leisure complex.
Recent developments, mainly abroad, have incorporated leisure activities (e.g., skiing,
bathing) into a complete village including houses, shops, hotel accommodation with separate
restaurants, bars and dancing nearby in the village. Generally, the houses may be sold off to
individuals, or a consortium of companies may buy them for letting on a weekly basis.

Each hotel may add to the number of restaurants in the village by having one itself. If it does,
the restaurant must be so designed as to attract customers from elsewhere in the village, a
very different concept from that of an enlarged domestic dining-room. There cannot therefore
be a set meal time, the basis must be à la carte.
Developers of individual hotels must realise that the accommodation side of their business is
virtually separate from the eating side. There is, however, an important sector of the popular
market, catering for tour operators, which may require dinner, bed and breakfast in the same
establishment. This must then be designed essentially on a banqueting basis, requiring a
kitchen layout totally different from an à la carte kitchen. The hotel's marketing policy must
be quite clear about reliance on tour operators because the decision irrevocably affects the
design and type of service.

II. Transient passengers

This type of trade provides for overnight stops at airports when changing planes, at seaports
where guests may have driven some distance before arriving, and on trunk roads where the
driver may not wish to enter a large town to seek accommodation.

III. Air passengers

It is essential to recognise that, depending how far they have travelled, international
passengers may arrive (relative to their point of starting) feeling that it is breakfast time or
dinner time, or, as far as they are concerned, the middle of the night, even though local time
is 11.00. Such an hotel has to organise itself on a twenty-four-hour basis and the menu, which
can be mainly functional, has to contain items relevant to breakfast, lunch, dinner, or snacks.
These will have to be served in a restful elegant atmosphere, since the traveller has literally
nowhere else to go. A bar, serving light snacks and salads, can offer a choice of both
atmosphere and food and drink.
If the hotel is very large, it can provide an haute cuisine restaurant for travellers who want to
overcome monotony by dining pleasurably, but such an hotel must offer other entertaining
ways of killing time. Something of a national flavour should be deliberately incorporated in
the design, e.g., in England a traditional pub.

If the airport handles international traffic, it immediately provides a convenient venue for
international conferences and exhibitions. A large hotel should incorporate banqueting,
conference and exhibition facilities for both small and large international gatherings. The
main market is for a capacity of about 500 guests. Larger conferences gravitate to capital
cities offering other diversions.

The main market will be the solitary customer, so table arrangements must try to overcome
the problem of loneliness. But any international airport is usually a small city in terms of the
number of ground and aircrew staff in the vicinity. The haute cuisine restaurant will therefore
also appeal to airline captains and senior members of staff.
One of the problems in airport hotels is the sudden cancellation of flights caused by poor
weather. Improvements in blind landing equipment should shortly eliminate this cause of
violent fluctuation in demand.

Main trunk roads

The motorist nearing his destination, which may be a large town, may be too tired to enter the
town with its attendant traffic and parking problems to look for an hotel. In America, a
complex of motels and restaurants tends to grow on the outskirts of a city or at principal
intersections of main highways. There may be twenty or thirty motels in the complex and
enough restaurants (usually run by nationally known chain operators) to match the
accommodation and meet the needs of passing traffic. The motel is traditionally
accommodation only, usually one unit per car, and able to accommodate, if necessary, a
family of four plus baby. If space is costly the motel may extend to two storeys, but each
upper room should have a staircase to the car, and at least the boot of the car must be
protected from the weather.
A motor inn, in America, is a motel with a restaurant plus guaranteed parking, and is really
just an hotel for motorists. Sometimes the restaurant and reception are combined in one
building with covered access to the rooms. More often it is just a three- or four-storey hotel
with plenty of parking space around it.

Holiday Inns is an American company which develops and builds motor inns which it offers
on franchises to operators. It actually creates 125 new inns a year with an average of 500
rooms each. Quite a number are now being developed in Britain and on the Continent. Each
inn is built to a formula, the room having two double beds with a cot available. Each hotel,
even in a city centre, has a swimming pool, sometimes on the roof. The idea originated in
Florida and the Southern holiday states where motels were not satisfactorily designed for the
travelling holidaymaker. Restaurants in smaller inns have an all-day menu which enables
snacks to be served between main meals. The larger inns, which are being built in Britain,
will have a deluxe restaurant for lunch and dinner only and a coffee shop open all day.
In Britain, the term motel has been misunderstood and what have been built are, with two or
three exceptions, all motor inns. The Automobile Association has just introduced a
classification (March 1970) of motels and motor inns in the American sense, much to the
annoyance of the so-called motel operators; motel complexes have not yet appeared in this
country.

Since motor inns in Britain are built mainly on the outskirts of large towns, they cater also for
local dining out. Part of their custom comes from local business and some operators, like
Esso Motels, include banqueting in their range of facilities. The restaurant, if well sited and
combined with a petrol station, and with a coffee/grill shop type of operation will also attract
passing motorists.

Most motels in America provide equipment in each room to enable the occupants to provide
themselves with early morning coffee. Guests can call for breakfast at a restaurant on their
way out of the complex. If the complex is large there will usually be a home food type
restaurant, run by a national chain such as Howard Johnson, and some speciality restaurants.
If small, there may only be a 'Howard Johnson'. Car ferry travellers

Many people drive considerable distances, from Scotland or the Midlands, to a port from
where the car can be ferried to the Continent. Traffic conditions make precise timing difficult
and travellers may prefer to spend the night in or near the port to be sure of making the
sailing time next day. Thus, motor inns exist outside and, in such towns,

Check Your Progress-2

1) What are the technical and design problems in Space Management?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

2) New trends in hotels and offices which have been introduced to space Management?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

9.4 LET US SUM UP

Various relationships between the two sorts of accommodation-bedrooms and public

areas.Planning requirements vary according to the size and type of hotel and its situation.
Required provision must be sought from planning authority.
Choice between a high or low building depends on site value and any limitations imposed on
the development. In a rural setting of relatively low land value, planning and construction
costs usually favour a low building.
Between the hotel or restaurant operator and the architect is a growing body of technology,
scientifically approaching both customer needs and efficient production. In large hotel
companies, particularly outside the UK, these technologies are organised within each
company under various titles and include marketing, project management, development,
work study, layout and planning, and operations analysis. The small company cannot afford
such organisations and has to rely on catering consultants, some of whom cover some of
these expertise.
UNIT10 ERGONOMICS

Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Defining Ergonomics
10.2.1 What is Ergonomics?
10.2.2 Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of ergonomics
10.2.3 Modern Ergonomics Vs Traditional Ergonomics
10.3 Need for Ergonomics
10.3.1 Ergonomics& Safety Environment
10.3.2 Ergonomics &Person’s Productivity
10.3.3 Ergonomics & Person’s Wellbeing
10.4 Office Ergonomics
10.4.1 Introduction
10.4.2 Goal of Office Ergonomics
10.4.3 Role of workplace conditions
10.5 Advantages of ergonomics
10.5.1 A better safety culture
10.5.2 Ergonomics improves quality.
10.5.3 Ergonomics Practices & Employee Retention
10.5.4 Ergonomics reduces costs
10.6 Furniture in ergonomics
10.6.1 Role of Furniture
10.6.2 Reducing the risk of musculoskeletal problems
10.7 Technology in ergonomics
10.7.1 Role of Technology
10.7.2 Healthy and safe workplace
10.7.3 Interface design with high technology
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.9 Clues to Check Your Progress

10.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 understand ergonomics and its concept

 analyze office ergonomics and its implications
 discuss the contribution of workplace conditions toward employee productivity; and
 describe the role of technology in the ergonomics field

10.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous units, we discussed facility management and infrastructure development

which established the importance of ergonomics to any organization. The term "ergonomics"
is derived from the Greek terms "nomos" and "ergo," which mean "rule" and "work,"
respectively. Ergonomics may create "rules" for a more forward-thinking, future-oriented
design approach. Future ergonomics, in contrast to "possible remedial ergonomics," is based
on applying ergonomic recommendations while also considering business profits. As per
Schneider, S. 1995, “Ergonomics is the skill of appropriate tasks to employees rather than
compelling employees to adapt tasks to them.”This unit also discusses the implications and
futuristic role of ergonomics in the workplace to achieve better productivity and employee
retention.

10.2 DEFININGERGONOMICS

“Ergonomics is the study of how people work. Human factors, such as human beings, were
involved, constraints in terms of human safety and well-being, as well as total human well-
being performance in specific work environments” (International Ergonomics Association,
IEA 2000).
10.2.1 What is Ergonomics?

Ergonomics’ main purpose is to create a good fit between employees and their tasks to
maximize worker comfort, safety, and health, as well as productivity and efficiency.
Previous ergonomic research has related workstation design to worker efficiency and safety,
it also helps remove dangers and align job demands with worker competencies, ergonomic
principles are then included in the strategy of tasks and workspaces. The hazards assessment
and verification aspect of the risk assessment process is described in the ergonomics
process. Employees who are in good health can be roughly three times more productive than
those who are not. Such advantages for employees and companies are both obvious and
quantifiable. Employee turnover, poor quality, and other expenses of neglecting these basic
principles could be incurred." (Shengli Niu, 2010)

10.2.2 Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of ergonomics

Employees who are compelled to work under inhumane conditions are likely to be less
productive. This could be the case because employees must cope with numerous challenges
that risk their protection, such as excessive noise, operating hazards, and working in
hazardous surroundings. A noise disturbance was also linked to job frustration and
dissatisfaction with the environment, for many companies, increasing employee productivity
has long been a top priority. It’s because higher employee productivity benefits the company,
the person, and the personnel as a whole. Increased productivity, for instance, helps to
promote revenue performance, huge profits, and social progress. It is challenging for an
individual to remain productive while they are physically uncomfortable. Productivity can be
impacted by any office features (such as furniture arrangements, noise levels, workstations,
lighting, temperature, workstation design, etc.) that make employees uneasy over the course
of a short or extended amount of time. Many research studies have shown how an ergonomic
office layout inspires workers to perform better, and also urges employee involvement
whenever workplace furnishings or environmental improvements are required.

10.2.3 Modern Ergonomics Vs Traditional Ergonomics

Modern ergonomics entered its development phase in the early 1960s. As science and
technology advanced, ergonomics had more opportunities for progress. Compared to
traditional ergonomics, which focused on choosing and training a specific person to adapt to
the needs of the profession, modern ergonomics places greater attention on the design of
mechanical equipment. This is done to ensure that machine operation does not go beyond the
capabilities of humans and the second difference is to incorporate the practical application
closely. The specific apparatus and equipment are created through a variety of carefully
thought-out experimental studies and it should be user-friendly.

10.3 NEED FOR ERGONOMICS

When an employee is at comfortable, they are better able to concentrate on the task at hand.
Ergonomics lessens discomfort, strengthens muscles, and enhances blood flow. These
things improve brain clarity when taken together. Its goal is to improve an employee's
performance, comfort, and safety in environments like offices. .The study and practice of
ergonomics are not domain-specific, even though many specialists specialize in certain
economic sectors, industries, or application domains. Ergonomics is a user-centered, cross-
integrating subject. Because the challenges discussed are often globally applicable, it
employs a holistic, comprehensive approach to design and evaluate tasks, jobs, services,
surroundings, and processes by methods, concepts, and data from a variety of fields.
Musculoskeletal, psychological, social and technical, organizational, environmental, and
other important elements, as well as interconnections between individuals, the environment,
tools, products, equipment, and technology, are all considered.
10.3.1 Ergonomics& Safety Environment

A direct association between ergonomics and psychological stress is expected to be

discovered. To put it another way, the existence of ergonomic techniques minimizes stress
perception. Furthermore, through the intervening variables of person-environment fit and
control, an indirect, negative link between ergonomics and psychological stress is expected.
The term "person-environment fit" refers to a workplace that is tailored to the demands of the
employee. As a result, the presence of ergonomic practices promotes a good perspective of
one's fit in the environment Ergonomics has been a more crucial health and financial practice
in work in recent years. Despite the mental benefits, ergonomic programs are becoming more
popular among businesses as they want to reduce medical costs,Workplace organization,
working time arrangements, a variety of work schedules, working hours, and overtime can all
be detrimental to workers' health. Changes in work schedules are connected to variations in
well-being. Because it focuses primarily on physical features of employment, such as force,
repetition rate, and posture, ergonomics is commonly misconstrued. Psychosocial issues are
frequently overlooked and misinterpreted. Superficial modifications in management, societal
climate, organizational dedication, and job stress all have an impact on employees' health.
Addressing these apprehensions at work will enhance employees' well-being and have a long-
term impact on company results. Many studies have mentioned the affiliation between work
environment features and job performance and effort inspiration was explored.Work
atmosphere factors have been discovered to have a substantial impact on job performance

10.3.2 Ergonomics & Person’s Productivity

Productivity can be impacted by any office features (such as furniture arrangements, noise
levels, workstations, lighting, temperature, workstation design, etc.) that make employees
uneasy over the course of a short or extended amount of time. It also encourages employee
involvement whenever workplace furnishings or environmental improvements are required.
This is due to the possibility that employees inside an organization may develop
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) in a setting where there are no ergonomic inputs.
Employees have a working design because they are resolute to put their hands, brains, and
heart into it. To obtain extraordinary consequences, work should be well designed to afford
the objectives of the employee. Job development gives variety in jobs and can be functional
for employee education, job revolution takes employees from one particular duty to another,
and job enhancement provides accomplishment, gratitude, accountability, inspires work, and
vertical loading of tasks. As a result of these methods, an effective amalgamation of
activities, tasks, and aims for employees can be attained, allowing them to establish goals that
are matched with company goals. Employees that are engaged and motivated are less likely
to be absent from work and spend their time doing things that are significant to them. They
stay with the company for extended periods and become valuable assets in the long run. On
the other hand, if the job does not align with the employee's psychological perceptions, it will
be difficult for the organization to engage them in work. They become dissatisfied and
demotivated. These employees tend to stay with companies for shorter periods and leave at a
higher rate, resulting in a greater employee turnover cost. Employee turnover costs firms a lot
of money if they don't engage and encourage their employees.

10.3.3 Ergonomics & Person’s Wellbeing

Workplace well-being encompasses all facets of daily operations, including employee

attitude toward their jobs, working conditions, workplace culture, and work structure. It also
includes the physical environment's quality and well-being, numerous studies have found a
connection between employee productivity and general health and satisfaction (International
Labour Organization, 2015). Some businesses succeed because they put people first. Other
businesses are starting to pay attention to employee well-being as it becomes clear that many
workplace issues are caused by a disregard for their employees' needs. Stress, conflict,
drunkenness, and mental health problems can result from a lack of understanding of the
importance of improving workers' well-being Entry-level employees will have a terrible
physical and psychological state if they are bullied at work. Entry-level employees' views of
well-being are significantly diminished as a result of workplace harassment and unfavorable
working. In recent years, work-related stress has become a worldwide epidemic. Workplace
design, content, and training, as well as career systems, opportunities, and a participatory
team, workplace design, content, and training, decision-making involvement, and an ethical
corporate culture Employees who are contented with their professions are more probable to
be healthy and motivated to work.(Healthy Workplace Framework and Model; WHO,
2010).

Check Your Progress -1

1) How would you define ergonomics?

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2) What is the difference between modern ergonomics and traditional ergonomics?
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3) What is the need for ergonomics?
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10.4 OFFICE ERGONOMICS

Many researchers have intended to evaluate how office comfort affects occupant
productivity. According to the findings, there is a link between an office's physical comfort
and its occupants' productivity, there is a sufficient sign to support the claim that workplace
comfort boosts efficiency. However, it was discovered that there is no universally accepted
definition of workplace comfort, and there is no consensus on how to assess workplace
comfort. Employees and organizations can gain directly from the use of ergonomics
principles in the workplace by easing physical and psychological loads, reducing the risk of
acquiring occupational diseases and accidents, and increasing job productivity. Workplace
elements such as the substance of work, the distribution of working time, working conditions
(workplace adaptability, safety, and the removal of disruptive forces), and career possibilities,
among others, all have an impact on employee satisfaction. It's important not to disregard the
following factors: which prevail in an organization's working environment, relationships at
work, and treatment of individuals at work.

10.4.1 Introduction

Many people are unaware of the potential dangers that a poorly constructed computer
workstation and/or unsatisfactory work practices might have on one's health. The back, neck,
shoulders, hands, and wrists can all experience discomfort as a result of bad design or habits,
in addition to headaches and eyestrain. Fortunately, there may be an easy fix. Uncomfortable
working conditions can be eliminated, and they can even be avoided, with the right
workstation layout and work procedures! Making small changes to office equipment can have
a dramatic impact on how productive and comfortable work is.

10.4.2 Goal of Office Ergonomics

Preventing soft tissue injuries and musculoskeletal diseases (MSDs) brought on by extended
or abrupt exposure to stress, vibration, repetitive motion, and uncomfortable posture is the
aim of ergonomics. Expert ergonomists advise designing jobs, work areas, controls, displays,
tools, lighting, and equipment to take into account employees' physical capabilities and limits
in order to create an ergonomically sound workplace. Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) at
work should be addressed through long-term health promotion, education, and prevention
strategies, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). The goal of these treatments
should be to change pain and health-related behavior. Aside from improving working
conditions. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggests a "healthy workplace
framework and model" that includes a broader view of workplace health, such as treating
physical and mental difficulties, as well as increasing access to healthcare resources and
community help. This paradigm is thus crucial for any organization that wishes to maintain
its people healthy and productive, particularly when it comes to MSDs, which are multi-
factorial and spreading. In addition, the model has been utilized as a business tool and
scientific guide to promoting healthy workplace activities around the world. A comparable
approach was created by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the US,
which also includes a list of comprehensive and integrated solutions to meet the needs of
every employee. Programs, regulations, rewards, environmental protection measures, and
connections to the local community are some of these strategies. (CDC, 2013).

There are two primary areas of emphasis in the field of ergonomics, which frequently
overlap:

1. Industrial ergonomics, also known as occupational biomechanics, is the study of the

physical requirements of the workplace, including force, posture, and repetitive motions.

2. Human elements the psychological elements of employment, such as mental health

and decision-making, are examined by ergonomics.

The following are some of ergonomics' objectives:

 Lessen illness and accidents at work

 Reduce the expenditure of employees' compensation for industries

 Improve workplace efficiency

 Boost the caliber of the work

 Lessen absences

 Aid businesses in adhering to workplace regulations established by the government

10.4.3 Role of workplace conditions

It is critical to design anti-harassment rules in a company, integrate anti-harassment-related

courses into educational training, and plan for a comprehensive harassment-reporting
process.To recruit and retain employees, the hotel business must provide a quality of work
life (QWL).The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that workplace
musculoskeletal illnesses (MSDs) be addressed through long-term health promotion, training,
and prevention measures. The goal of these treatments should be to change pain and health-
related behavior. Aside from improving working conditions.

This paradigm is thus crucial for any organization that wishes to maintain its people healthy

and productive, particularly when it comes to MSDs, which are multi-factorial and
spreadingIn recent years, research has focused mostly on the organizational environment,
which includes both internal and external contextual elements, Inner context refers to
structural and cultural elements including size, leadership, and organizational climate,
whereas outside context takes into account inter-organizational impact, the environment, and
politics, Lack of information and awareness about workplace safety, as well as poor health
and safety policies, are key contributors to the occurrence of occupational-related accidents,
infections, and diseases, yet these are readily solved problems.

10.5 ADVANTAGES OF ERGONOMICS

Ergonomic issues at the workplace, as well as poor work organization, are contributory
potential risks to occupational health and safety issues. Using control measures, on the other
hand, is advantageous not just to workers. The advantages to companies are also substantial.
Employees who are in good health can be roughly three times more productive than those
who are not. Such advantages for employees and companies are both obvious and
quantifiable. Employee turnover, poor quality, and other expenses of neglecting these basic
principles could be incurred.

10.5.1 A better safety culture

An organization's dedication to health and safety management, as well as its style and
competency in that sector, are determined by its health and safety culture, which is made up
of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and behavioral patterns.
Communication-based on mutual trust, agreement on the importance of safety, and
confidence in the efficacy of preventative measures are characteristics of positive safety
cultures.

Good communication between staff members at all levels: In a successful workplace, talks
about health and safety should be routine. The opinions of employees should be actively
listened to by management, who should also take their opinions seriously. For this, active
participation in workshops, risk analyses, plant design, etc., may be necessary. A company
with a strong culture will have everyone working together to keep everyone safe, according
to management and workers alike.

10.5.2 Ergonomics improves the quality

Understanding and putting ergonomics into practice, which is based on knowledge of human
features, skills, and requirements, is essential to delighting people, whether they be
customers, users, or employees. In this sense, ergonomics and quality can be seen as
comprehensive strategies or philosophies that take into account humans in the planning and
organization of things. There has recently been more attention paid to the potential
advantages of an integrative strategy because of the conceptual similarities and the fact that
various indicators suggest that poor ergonomics may result in quality shortcomings.
Workplace well-being encompasses every facet of daily work life, from the physical
environment's quality and safety to the attitudes of employees toward their jobs, working
conditions, workplace culture, and organizational structure. By confirming that employees
are secure, healthy, content, and motivated at work, occupational well-being evaluations are
supposed to supplement occupational health and safety. An important factor in a company's
long-term success is employee satisfaction. According to numerous studies (International
Labour Organization, 2015), there is a link between employee productivity and overall health
and happiness. Because they understand that their most valuable resource is their human
capital or their employees, more progressive businesses understand the need to put their
workers' well-being first. Other businesses are starting to pay attention to employee well-
being as it becomes clear that many workplace issues are caused by a disregard for their
employees' needs.

10.5.3 Ergonomics Practices & Employee Retention

As the global tourism industry grows, it will need an effective safety and health (OSH)
system to protect its health and well-being at work. Many organizations, including
inexpensive hotels, have neglected to address occupational health and safety (OHS) issues.
The many verticals have been missing accident and health records, which can be used to
assess risk, measure safety performance, improve, and discover safety patterns or trends,
resulting in less information on occupational safety. According to (ILO, 2015), Lack of
information and awareness about workplace safety, as well as poor health and safety policies,
are key contributors to the occurrence of occupational-related accidents, infections, and
diseases, yet these are readily solved problems, employees generally receive low wages, are
female, migrants or members of racial or ethnic minorities, and experience a high percentage
of precarious employment. They frequently lack significant job security due to short-term,
seasonal, and other part-time contracts, and the industry's high turnover rate deters many
workers who might otherwise invest in bettering their working circumstances.

Employees do not have the opportunity to form solid social interactions with their co-workers
because the industry is characterized by a high level of intense work and rapid staff turnover.
Because many employees are employed temporarily, the situation at their workplaces
changes frequently and many temporary employees do not feel like they are part of the
organization. According to (Seifert,2006) the precariousness of the job, as well as the
intensification of work, has a skewed influence on working relations and can produce social
difficulties among employees, who seek self-protective tactics, sometimes at the expense of
their co-workers. The high absence rate, for example, can cause stress among co-workers
because the surviving co-workers must take up the jobs of the absent workers. According to a
review conducted by Bello et al. (2009) for their study, the incidence of asthma and asthma-
like symptoms has increased among hospitality workers over the last decade, and
epidemiological studies support the hypothesis that the development or aggravation of
respiratory disorders, including asthma. Because of the high intensity of the task (due to time
constraints, frequent staff shortages, and so on. Employees who are not part of the regular
workforce (such as outsourced, subcontracted workers) are at risk of being excluded from
their workplace's society, However, it was discovered that there is no universally accepted
definition of workplace comfort, and there is no consensus on how to assess workplace
comfort. Sanders, 1993 also said Employees and organizations can gain directly from the use
of ergonomics principles in the workplace by easing physical and psychological loads,
reducing the risk of acquiring occupational diseases and accidents, and increasing job
productivity. Kopelman et al.1990 mentioned Workplace elements such as the substance of
work, the distribution of working time, working conditions (workplace adaptability, safety,
and the removal of disruptive forces), and career possibilities, among others, all have an
impact on employee satisfaction. It's important not to disregard the following factors: which
prevail in an organization's working environment, relationships at work, and treatment of
individuals at work.

10.5.4 Ergonomics reduces costs

These criteria are frequently sufficient rationale for the use of ergonomics because several
studies demonstrate that adapting work processes, tools, and environments to users' abilities
enhances their performance, comfort, and health. There is, however, a dearth of information
on the financial advantages of ergonomics as a result of this qualitative rather than
quantitative approach, as well as the as-of-yet-limited industrial implementation of
ergonomics. Because of the current focus on production efficiency, design rationalization,
and cost-benefit analyses of alternative designs and processes, the field is ill-prepared to
address claims that ergonomics has no financial value or even to present data showing
economic benefits to support the inclusion of an ergonomist on a design team.

An ergonomics intervention may occasionally lower some of these actual costs, one increase
in output per worker, two decreases in errors, three decreases in accidents, illnesses, and skill
requirements, four decreases in training time, five decreases in skill requirements, six
decreases in maintenance time, seven decreases in absenteeism, and eight decreases in
turnover are among the personnel advantages. 1. A rise in productivity per worker.
Oftentimes, innovations that increase output per worker can be a huge advantage.
Improvements in workspace design, hardware product design, software design, and work
system (macro ergonomic) design can increase production per worker.

Reduced mistakes can also improve performance in quantifiable ways. This metric is
frequently used to assess ergonomic software redesign. Reduced errors typically result in
higher production because fixing errors takes time. In other circumstances, lowering errors
results in fewer accidents, which in turn results in less equipment damage, fewer worker
injuries, and lower expenses. Fewer mishaps, illnesses, and injuries. One of the advantages of
ergonomic interventions that are most typically observed in production, maintenance, and
administrative units.

10.6 FURNITURE IN ERGONOMICS

Numerous types of research have emphasized the significance of office furniture since it may
increase employee productivity and organizational efficiency. However, office furnishings
must be ergonomically sound since this will help employees adapt to the working
environment. The use of ergonomically sound furniture improves employee morale and
lowers the likelihood of accidents. As a result, employee motivation directly affects
performance, which improves organizational performance. The chair has a significant impact
on how well people perform their jobs because, in most industrialized nations, 75% of office
work is completed while seated. In order to alleviate tension and effort while working, a
suitable chair that can support the back, legs, buttocks, and arms optimally is required. A
good chair is vital to encourage employee performance since proper posture will reduce stress
on the employee's buttocks, back, and arms. Sitting posture is also related to comfort and
stress reduction. These findings appear to be accurate because prolonged use of office chairs
may lessen musculoskeletal activity and benefit individuals who do so.Additionally, a good
ergonomic chair must have an adjustable seat and armrest because both of these features
differ from person to person and considerably enhance the comfort of workers. According to
research by Noshin et al. (2018), adjustable chairs are favoured in offices because they can be
modified to fit a variety of physical structures. A system's maintenance requirements are
frequently reduced as a result of ergonomic changes to occupations, workplaces, machinery,
or work systems, necessitating a reduction in the number of maintenance employees. To
generate financial gains, these savings on maintenance personnel can be converted into salary
and benefit savings. It is common to observe a decrease in turnover rate when ergonomic
interventions enhance the quality of work life, which can have a significant positive financial
impact.

10.6.1 Role of Furniture

Therefore, organizations must take the necessary measures to invest in workplace solutions
that support workers' physical health rather than compromising on safety. When creating
ergonomic furniture, the working environment is taken into account. The user's body is
maintained in a secure and upright position with ergonomic chairs, as opposed to standard
office furniture, to lessen stress on the spine, neck, and hips. This is made possible with the
aid of a backrest that encourages the spine's natural bend as well as a headrest that supports
the neck and shoulders. These fundamental characteristics can prevent cervical spondylosis
(neck arthritis) in later life. The participants in the year-long study also reported
improvements in their musculoskeletal issues and felt less fatigued and more engaged when
using height-adjustable workstations, according to the British Medical Journal. In fact,
although most Swedish companies have made sit-stand desks the norm, Denmark has made it
a requirement for firms to provide them to their employees. The risk of pain, injuries, and
cardiovascular illness is reduced by up to 40% when using a sit-stand desk, which comes in a
range of sizes, shapes, and mechanics. Standing at work increases muscular activity by
roughly 2.5 times, which significantly lowers the possibility of suffering a workplace injury.

10.6.2 Reducing the risk of musculoskeletal problems

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that workplace musculoskeletal

illnesses (MSDs) be addressed through long-term health promotion, training, and prevention
measures. The goal of these treatments should be to change pain and health-related behavior.
Aside from improving working conditions. as well as increasing access to healthcare
resources and community help. This paradigm is thus crucial for any organization that wishes
to maintain its people healthy and productive, particularly when it comes to MSDs, which are
multi-factorial and spreading. In recent years, research has focused mostly on the
organizational environment, which includes both internal and external contextual elements,
Inner context refers to structural and cultural elements including size, leadership, and
organizational climate, whereas outside context takes into account inter-organizational
impact, the environment, and politics. To remove dangers and align task demands with
worker capabilities, ergonomic principles are then included in the design of tasks and
workspaces. The hazards assessment and verification aspect of the risk assessment process is
described in the ergonomics process. It is an increasingly essential problem to address risk
assessment in occupational contexts in which the physical workload and Musculoskeletal
disorders (MSDs) develop through a relationship between the workplace, leisure time
activities, and individual factors.

10.7 TECHNOLOGY IN ERGONOMICS

The terms "user-machine" and "user-system interface" are also used in the literature to
describe this ergonomics technology. In the third decade of our profession's history, this third
concentration started to take shape. It symbolized a change in the nature of work from being
physical and perceptual to being cognitive. The invention of the silicon chip and the
subsequent work on computer systems played a significant role in the development of this
new focus. The design of systems has become more and more dependent on how we
understand things as we've worked on computers and computer-based systems. Despite
having only been around for a short while, user interface technology has grown dramatically
in both development and adoption. Many computer-based systems now benefit greatly from
the functional utility of ergonomically designed software structures, which are based on
human factors and an understanding of how humans absorb and use information. Health and
safety technology is improving communications since it can now measure biometrics, allow
video and phone calls, scan barcodes, and detect exposure to harmful substances or situations.
Employee health and working conditions have improved thanks to workplace safety
technology, which has also made businesses safer and more productive, In order to ensure the
health and safety of their employees, businesses must reduce and avoid work-related
accidents and injuries, which is something that new technologies are helping organizations
do. Thanks to workplace safety technology, employees are happier and more productive as a
result of their improved health. Companies that utilize safety technology experience increased
productivity rates, happier staff members, and better work environments as a result of its use.
10.7.1 Role of Technology

The original goal of ergonomics was to increase people's safety and productivity, but because
to advancements in technology, the field has expanded to include daily lives. Businesses are
working to develop goods that offer customers distinctive and worthwhile experiences.

 Wearable Sensors That Adjust Ergonomics

Sensors that inform employees when their posture is incorrect while they are working can
prove invaluable in reducing injuries and sprains. Some are designed to determine force
application and some can actually warn employees of exposure to risk factors, such as
harmful noise levels, toxins, and high temperatures.

Also, wearable sensors can determine activities that can increase the risk of upper or lower
back pain and alert the wearer well before the discomfort sets in and becomes a permanent
problem. Plus, some technologies can use smart technology to measure the time and effort of
each activity and the data can be used by managers to manage their workflow.

 A Desk That Adjusts With the Employee

The longer we sit behind our desks, the more damage our body sustains. Even standing for a
few hours each day can significantly reduce our risk of developing heart disease and chronic
back pain. Asking employees to walk around a bit after every half hour is a temporary
solution. Desks that are made specifically to prevent health issues offer lasting results. Office
layouts that support employees' skills and capabilities have a significant impact on
productivity and enhance the work environment for staff. Scientists and academics have
sought to enhance how people engage with technology in light of this. Adopting ergonomic
technology improvements is a crucial component of office design. Seating should be viewed
as an investment that improves worker happiness, health, and productivity. These advantages
could yield a significant return on investment for the business.

10.7.2 Healthy and safe workplace

According to International Labour Organization (2015), Lack of information and awareness

about employee health and safety are key contributors to the occurrence of occupational-
related accidents, infections, and diseases. Few studies have been conducted on the
occurrence of pain among hotel housekeepers. The prevalence of asthma and asthma-like
symptoms has increased among cleaning employees over the last decade. Interventions aimed
at preserving job ability and reducing musculoskeletal discomfort and sick leave among
housekeepers should be introduced by organizations.

The most typical ergonomic risk factors

Computer-related jobs may have ergonomic issues if they have one or more of the
following risk factors:

Repetition: repeatedly performing the same actions, such as clicking the mouse

Awkward Body Postures: Keeping a fixed or awkward position that is not supported,
such as bending the wrist, leaning forward to operate a computer, or sitting unbalanced.

For example, leaning on the wrist to control the mouse, grasping the mouse hard, or
bracing the phone handset between the neck and shoulder are all examples of applying
force to any area of the body while working.

Contact Stress: pressure on the body's soft tissues, such as the wrist when a person leans
against a desk or chair's front edge.

Workplace ergonomics is gaining a lot of attention around the country as a result of a sharp
increase in musculoskeletal disorders including carpal tunnel syndrome. These workplace
mishaps frequently lead to several operations, excruciating pain, the incapacity of an
individual to work, time off, and ultimately higher costs for the company. Work surfaces that
are too low, uncomfortable chairs, shelves and bins that are out of reach or too high, awkward
hand tools, and other elements all raise the risk of musculoskeletal injuries and reduce
productivity.

Ergonomics aims to lessen physical stress on a person's body and eliminate many potentially
significant, crippling work-related musculoskeletal illnesses by customizing jobs,
workstations, tools, and equipment to fit the individual. Workers may incur physical stress,
strain, and overexertion if job tasks and equipment are not designed with ergonomic
principles in mind. This includes exposure to vibration, uncomfortable postures, strong
exertions, repetitive motion, and heavy lifting.

10.7.3 Interface design with high technology

The term ergonomics is derived from the words “Ergo” and “nomos” and roughly translates
to “laws of the workplace.” Ergonomics is essentially a workplace science applied to
optimize the working conditions for the employees and applied in designing products to suit
the users better. The study of human body parts, their dimensions, and their strength and
range of movements help to design products that naturally become an extension of the human
body. Besides the convenience in usage, Ergonomics also improves the chances of avoiding
injuries and health hazards associated with tools. For example, body posture is one of the
significant areas of focus. The product’s dimensions and weight should be decided only after
analyzing the possible postures that the user would be in when using the product. A product
not optimized for body posture would create physical stress and drain energy faster.

Check Your Progress -2

1) What is the role of technology in the ergonomics field?

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2) How would you define a healthy and safe workplace?
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3) What are the common risk factors?
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10.8 LET US SUM UP

An effective ergonomics program benefits both the employer and the employee. When the
employer follows our recommendations, production increases, but so does employee
satisfaction. Work should be well-designed in accordance with the employee's objectives if
extraordinary outcomes are to be obtained. Through the use of these ergonomics strategies, it
is possible to create for employees an effective mix of initiatives, assignments, and goals that
will enable them to set objectives that align with those of the business. As a result of an ideal
job design, a highly motivated and content employee gets dedicated to the company and feels
like a part of it, and corporate goals become his or her objectives.

10.9 CLUES TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress - 1

1. See section 10.2.1 and frame your answer

2. See section 10.2.3 and frame your answer
3. See section 10.3.0 and frame your answer

Check Your Progress - 2

1. See section 10.7.0 and frame your answer

2. See section 10.7.2 and frame your answer
3. See section 10.7.2 and frame your answer
UNIT 11 BUILDING FACILITIES- I
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Basic Terminologies
11.3 Source of Electricity
11.4 Types of Electricity
11.5 Source of Lighting (Decorative Lighting)
11.6 Maintenance of Light Outputs
11.7 Let Us Sum Up
11.8 Further Readings
11.9 Key Words
11.10 Clues to Answers
11.11 Activities

11.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:

 know the basic terminology used in electrical network and able to understand the
sources and types of electricity.
 know the sources of lightning and maintenance of decorative lighting fixtures.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

India is the third largest producer of electricity in the world. The national electric grid plays a
vital role in supply & distribution of electrical energy in the country. Approximate 58% of
electrical power generated by using fossil fuel for e.g. coal, lignite, gas & diesel, 11% by
hydro, 29% by wind & solar, 2% by nuclear.

Electricity can be supplied where you want it, as long as you have enough outlets. You can
install new power points or move existing ones yourself.

Appliances and devices may require different electric-energy sources. Small buildings may
have very limited electric-energy capabilities, while larger buildings (hotels, institutional
buildings, and health-care facilities) may provide several electric-energy sources.

11.2 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

  Conductor: A conductor is a substance through which electricity flows freely, e.g.
copper, aluminium, water or the wiring system of a building.

 Insulator: An electrical insulator is a material in which electric current does not flow
freely.

 Voltage: This term denotes the pressure exerted by the electricity supply. Volt
measures the pressure of flow of an electric current. Before electricity can flow
through a wire, the electric pressure at one end of the wire must be greater than at the
other end: this is known as “potential difference”.

 One volt: One volt is defined as potential difference necessary between the ends of a
conductor whose resistance is 1 ohm, to produce a current of 1 ampere. 220 volts is
introduced as the standard for domestic use and 415 volts for industrial use
throughout the country.

 Ohms: it measures the resistance of a conductor to the flow of a current. All

conductors offer some resistance, but the lower the resistance the better the conductor.
A thin wire offers more resistance (causing voltage drop) than a thick cable of same
material, and therefore long runs of the former should be avoided when planning the
electrical wiring of a building.

 Ohm’s Law: The Ohm’s Law defines the relation between the above three
parameters of the electric circuit as follows:
o “The voltage drop across the load resistance of the circuit is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it; provided the physical
parameters viz. length, cross-section, temperature and material of the load
resistance remains same.”
Mathematical representation:
o VI
o = [R] * I[where R is a constant of proportionality and known as ‘Resistance’
responsible for energy waste]
Unit of ‘V’ expressed in Volts.
Unit of ‘I’ expressed in Ampere.
Unit of ‘R’ expressed in Ohm unit.
The ‘V.I.R.’ triangle easily recalls the circuit parameters.

Illustration : If the domestic AC supply is at about 240 Volt & the safety limit for an
electrical appliance is set at 15 Ampere then the minimum resistance for that circuit will be
R=V/I = 240/15 = 16 Ohm’s

 Ampere: it measures the rate of flow of a current, i.e. the amount of electricity that is
passing through the circuit. If an electric wire using 10 amps is plugged into a 5 -amp.
Socket, the demand will overstrain the circuit and should blow the fuse.
 One Ampere = 1Coulomb /second = 1 / 1.6x10-19 electrons /second = flow of
6.25x1018 electrons /second.
 Watts: The work that electricity does is measured in watts. It measures power-
that is to say, the amount of electricity used by an appliance.
One thousand watts equals to one kilowatt & electricity consumed over a period of
one hour is called a kilowatt hour.
1000 watts = 1 kilowatt (“kW”)
 One B.T.U.: It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Pound (lb
represents Pound) of water through 1 degree Fahrenheit.
Simple Relationship Between Volts, Ohms, Amperes and Watts
There is a simple relationship between volts, ohms, amperes and watts that can be
expressed by the following equations:
1. volts / ohms = amperes
For example: when the voltages of the main supply is 240 volts and the wire and other
connections leading to a socket outlet have a resistance of 20 ohms, the socket outlet
is able to supply 12 amps.
2. watts = amperes x volts
For example: a 15 amp. Socket using a current of 440 volt can supply an electrical
appliance rated at 6,600 watts
3. amperes = watts / volts
For example: four 100- watt lamps using 220 volts could be safely supplied by a 2 -
amp plug.
The abbreviations used by electrical engineers are: E= volts, I= amperes, R = ohms,
W = watts.
 Electric Circuit is path of an electric current. The term is usually taken to mean a
continuous path composed of conductors and conducting devices and including a
source of electromotive force that drives the current around the circuit. A circuit of
this type is termed a closed circuit.
 Open circuit in which the current path is not continuous or current flow is interrupted
is called an open circuit.
 A short circuit is a closed circuit in which a direct connection is made, with no
appreciable resistance, inductance, or capacitance, between the terminals of the source
of electromotive force. No serious damage is likely to be done beyond the blowing a
fuse.
 Series connection A series circuit is one in which the devices or elements of the
circuit are arranged in such a way that the entire current (I) passes through each
element without division or branching into parallel circuits. When two or more
resistances are in series in a circuit, the total resistance may be calculated by adding
the values of such resistances.
 R = r1 + r2 + r 3

 Parallel connections If the resistances are in parallel, the total value of the resistance
in the circuit is given by the formula:
Formula of Electric Circuit and Precautions
Quantity Formula Notations
Electric current I = Q/t I is the current
Q is the charge flow
T is the time
Resistance R = ρ (L/A) R is the resistance
Ρ is the resistivity of the wire
L is the length of the wire
A is the area of the wire
Voltage V = IR V is the voltage; it can also be potential
difference
Power P = E/t P is the power
E is the energy gain or loss
t is the time
Series circuit Req = R1 + R2 + R3 Req is the equivalent resistance of the circuit
+… R1, R2,… are the resistances placed in the
series circuit
Parallel circuit 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + Req is the equivalent resistance
1/R3 +… R1, R2,… are the resistances placed in the
parallel circuit

 Capacitor A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field by

virtue of accumulating electric charges on two close surfaces insulated from each
other. It is a passive electronic component with two terminals. The effect of a
capacitor is known as capacitance.
 Choke In electronics, a choke is an inductor used to block higher-frequency
alternating currents while passing direct current (DC) and lower-frequencies
alternating current (AC) in an electrical circuit.
 Coil in an electric circuit, one or more turns, usually roughly circular or cylindrical, of
current-carrying wire designed to produce a magnetic field or to provide electrical
resistance or inductance.
 Transformer A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy
from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits.
 Color Code To enable wires to be easily and safely identified, all common wiring
safety codes mandate a colour scheme for the insulation on power conductors.
 Fuses These are safety devices and provided at every distribution board. They take
the form of a short piece of thin wire which melts or blows, thus disconnecting the
supply, if the current load becomes too heavy. Most common types of fuses are as
follows:
(A) Rewirable Fuses In these fuses a length of wire is screwed to a porcelain carrier;
blown fuses are repaired by replacing the wire, which should be properly secured
 under the washer or screw head. Kit- kat type of fuse is most commonly used fuse
device in domestic installation.
(B) Cartridge Fuses are self contained units with the link wire bedded in unburnable
powder; they cannot be repaired; they usually give a visual indication when
blown. Cartridge fuses are safer, as they smother the arc that is momentarily
formed when the circuit breaks.
(C) H.R.C. Fuses consist of outer ceramic body, sealed at both ends by metallic caps.
To these caps are welded a number of silver wires in parallel. The space
surrounding these wires is filled with compacted quartz sand which acts as a
quenching medium. To the end caps are fixed tags for the purpose of fixing the
fuses.
(D) Circuit Breakers consist of an electro-magnetic trip which breaks the circuit
automatically when there is an overloading of, or a defect in, the circuit. They can
be reset by hand to restore the current. If, however, the fault persists; an automatic
device prevents resetting until the cause of the trouble has been remedied. Circuit
breakers can be used either in place of fuses or for the earth –continuity circuit in
buildings where it is difficult to obtain an effective earth connection.
 Earthing: The risk of shock can arise from damage to insulation, the presence of
water, or the working looses a connection. Electricity always takes the path of least
resistance to the earth. It will therefore pass through the body of a person who is in
effective contact with the earth, e.g. by touching a metal pipe or stone floor.
 Switch: Switch is manually operated device for closing, opening or changing the
connection in a circuit.
 Surface or Tumbler Type Switches project out of the switch board and are
most commonly used.
 Flush Switches Flush switches are some time also called as piano switches or
tiny switches and mounted with only its face exposed and with its sides and
surrounded by a box or case.
 One Way Switches have two terminals and are connected in series with the
points.
 Two Way Switches have four terminals two of them are connected inside.
These switches are used in controlling one point from two places such as in
stair case wiring,.
 Two Pole Switches are actually two single way switches linked together
which control both live and neutral wires simultaneously. These switches are
used as main switches for domestic installations.
 Push Button Switches used for electric bells, table lamp and bed on-off
switches.
 Ceiling Rose It forms the tapping point from electrical installation for supplying
power to fans, pendants or tube lights by means of flexible cords.
 Lamp Holder Lamp holder connects the filament lamps to the electrical installation.
These may be of brass or bakelite type.
 Edison Screw Type Holder has centre contact which is connected to the live wire
and outer or screw contact is connected to the neutral wire.
 Bayonet Lamp Holder may be pendant type, bracket type or batten holder straight
type or batten holder angle type.
 Socket Outlets and Plug Tops Portable appliances are connected to electrical
installation by means of these. These may be surface type of flush type.
 Two Pin Type Sockets and Plug Tops are used for feeding portable appliances
having al insulated body such as garden standard lamp. For feeding portable appliance
having metallic body it becomes necessary to earth the metallic body which ensures
safety to operating personnel.
 Socket Outlet and Plug Top are used for feeding such appliances have necessarily to
be one of three pin type. Two pins are of equal size. These are connected to live and
neutral wire. The third pin is thicker and longer than other two pins and is connected
to earth wire in case of any leakage from the element of appliance to the metallic
body; heavy current will flow through earth wire.
 Thermal Effect: The flow of electric current produces heat and causes rise of the
temperature of the resistive conductor.
 Luminous Effect: Due to the thermal effect at high temperature the resistive
conductor radiates light.
 Magnetic Effect: The current flow in a conductor always accompanies with the
production magnetic lines of force.
 Chemical Effect: Electric current flowing through electrolytes (water solution of
salts) or molten salts causes a chemical change.
 Cables: Several conductors, each with its separate insulation, can be combined with
additional insulation to form a cable. Cables must be protected against physical
damage such as pressure, cutting, rubbing, dampness or attack by rodents. One
method is to cover them with a strong, protective sheath.
 T.R.S. (Tough rubber sheathed) also known as cab-tyre sheathed (C.T.S.) - because
of outer sheath of tough rubber or cab- tyre. These wires are used in 400/ 230 V
grades only. It is cheap, easy to install, and fairly strong.

 L.A.S. (Lead- alloy sheathed) – neat and convenient for earthing, but vulnerable to
damage.

 M.I.C.S. (Mineral insulated copper sheathed) – very strong, will withstand

extremes of heat, moistures, and fumes, etc; fairly expensive.

 Aluminium – light and stiff, self supporting on bends.

 P.V.C. (Polyvinyl chloride) these cables resist successfully the action of acid, alkali
ultraviolet radiations, ozone, sun etc and are Very flexible and waterproof. These are
very difficult to ignite. These wires are made in both 400 /230 V and 1100/ 600 V
grades.
 V.I.R (Vulcanized Rubber Insulation) is applied over tinned copper wires to
prevent attack of sulphur in the vulcanized rubber over bare copper. Although
vulcanized rubber is relatively strong, it is further covered with cotton tape with
braiding spun on its top. The cable is then dipped in the solutions of bitumen or wax
to make it moisture proof. These wires are made in both 400 /230 V and 1100/ 600 V
grades. These wires are used in casing capping and conduit wiring.
  Ducts consist of shallow tubes or channels in the concrete, can be incorporated in the
floors of a building at the construction stage.
 Conduits can be fixed to the surface of walls, floors or ceilings, or buried in plaster or
other finishing material. Because of its poor appearance, surface fixing is not
recommended for the public parts of a hotel building. Ducts and conduits have
junction boxes at intervals to enable the electric cable to the inserted or withdrawn as
required, thus facilitating repairs.
 Steel Conduit it can be either light – gauge or heavy – gauge. Light gauge, with joints
clipped together, is cheap but not very reliable from the point of view of earthing,
heavy- gauge, with screwed joints, is strong, easy to re-wire, and has good earthing
qualities.
 Plastic or Fibre Conduit can also be used. It should be firmly fixed to give rigidity
and usually requires a separate earth – continuity wire.

Electronics Symbols

Wires Symbols

Symbol Name Description

Electrical Wire It is the symbol that is used to represent a wire.

Connected Wires This Symbol represents the wire connected crossing.

Not Connect This Symbol shows that wires are not connected on
Wires crossing.

Switches Symbols

Symbol Name Description

 SPST Toggle It is the symbol of a switch that disconnects current
Switch when open.

SPDT Toggle This Symbol of switch selects between two

Switch connections.

It is a symbol that denotes Momentary switch -

Push Button (N.O)
normally open.

Push Button This denotes the symbol of a Momentary switch -

Switch (N.C) normally closed.

It is the symbol of the DIP switch which is used for

DIP Switch
onboard configuration.

Relays

Symbol Name Description

This shows the symbol of relay that close connection by

SPST Relay
an electromagnet.
 This shows the symbol of relay that open connection by
SPDT Relay
an electromagnet.

Earthing

Symbol Name Description

This Symbol is used for zero potential reference and

Earth Ground
electrical shock protection.

Chassis This symbol shows the wire Connected to the chassis of

Ground the circuit.

Digital Ground It refers to the reference voltage of digital-analog if.

Inductors

Symbol Name Description

Symbol of a Coil / solenoid that generates a magnetic

Indicator
field.
 Iron Core It is the symbol of the iron core Inductor Which
Inductor Includes iron.

It is the coil or solenoid that has a Variable magnetic

Variable Inductor
field.

Motor and Transformer

Symbol Name Description

Symbol of motor, which changes electric energy to

Motor
kinetic energy.

Transformer changes AC voltage from high to low or

AC Transformer
low to high.

Electronics Symbols

Resistance

Symbol Name Description

Variable
It is the symbol of an adjustable resistor which has 2 terminals.
Resistance

Potentiometer It is the symbol of an adjustable resistor that has 3 terminals.

 It is the symbol of a trimmer which is also known as a Preset
Trimmer Resistor
resistor.

It is the symbol of a Thermal resistor that changes the resistance

Thermistor
when temperature changes.

It is the symbol of Photo-resistor - change resistance with light

Photo resistor
intensity change.

Diode

Symbol Name Description

Diode allows current flow in one direction only - left (anode) to the
Diode
right (cathode).

It allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow in the
Zener Diode
reverse direction when above breakdown volt.

Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with a low voltage drop.

Varicap Diode This represents the varicap diode. Variable capacitance diode.

Light Emitting
LED emits light when current flows through it.
Diode

This is the symbol of Photodiode that allows current flow when

Photodiode
exposed to light.

Capacitor
Symbol Name Description

Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as a short circuit

Capacitor
with AC and an open circuit with DC.

Variable
The Symbol represent the adjustable capacitance.
Capacitor

Sources

Symbol Name Description

It is the symbol of a voltage Source which

Voltage Source
generates constant voltage.

It is the symbol of a current Source which

Current Source
generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source This symbol shows the AC Voltage Source.

It is the symbol of single cell use to generate

Battery Cell
constant volt.

It is the symbol of a battery which is the

Battery
combination of two or more cells.
 It is the symbol of a constant voltage Source
Controlled Voltage Source
that gives controllable voltage at the output.

It represents the controlled Current source

Controlled Current Source which gives controllable current at the
output.

Meter Symbols

Symbol Name Description

It is the symbol that shows Voltmeter which is

Voltmeter
used to measure the voltage.

It represents the ammeter whose work is to

Ammeter
measure the current in the circuit.

It is the symbol of the ohmmeter which is needed

Ohmmeter
to measure the value of a resistor.

This represents the power meter which shows the

Wattmeter
power consumption.

Converter and Amplifier Symbols

Symbol Name Description

 Operational Amplifier This operational gives Amplify input signal.

This is the symbol of ATD converts analog signal

Analog to Digital Converter
to digital numbers.

This is the symbol of DTA converts digital

Digital to Analog Converter
numbers to analog signals.

Transistors Symbols

Symbol Name Description

It allows current flow when the high

NPN Bipolar Transistor
potential is at the base (middle).

It allows current flow when the low potential

PNP Bipolar Transistor
is at the base (middle) of the symbol.
 It is made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has
Darlington Transistor
total gain of the product of each gain.

Symbol of JFET N-channel field effect

JFET-N Transistor
transistor.

This is the symbol of JFET P which is a P-

JFET-P Transistor
channel effect transistor.

This is a symbol of Mosfet N-channel

NMOS Transistor
MOSFET transistor.

This is a symbol of Mosfet P-channel

PMOS Transistor
MOSFET transistor.

Utility Symbols

Symbol Name Description

Produce a buzzing sound when current flows through

BUZZER
it.

This is the symbol of Bell which Rings when

Electric Bell
activated.
 The fuse disconnects when current above the
Fuse threshold---used to protect a circuit from high
currents.

The bus symbol contains several wires. usually for

Bus
data / address.

Loudspeaker Convert electrical signal to sound waves.

Microphone Converts sound waves to the electrical

Microphone
signal.

This is the
symbol of a
Lamp/Light Bulb lamp that glows
when current
flows through it.

Source: Wondershare Edraw Max, retrieved on 20-Nov-22 @ 5:00 pm.

Check Your Progress-1

1) Define the following terms:

 Potential Difference
 Ampere
 Power
 Circuit
 Earthing

2) Write SI units of following:

 Power
  Current
 Voltage

3) Differentiate between the following:

 Open circuit & closed circuit
 Series & parallel connection

4) Find the equivalent resistance if 3 resistance of 3ohm, 4ohm, 5ohm are connected
in series & parallel?

5) If the domestic AC supply is at about 220 Volt & the safety limit for an electrical
appliance is set at 10 Ampere then what will be the minimum resistance for that
circuit?

11.3 SOURCE OF ELECTRICITY

Earlier, electricity is produced by using non- renewable sources of energy such as natural gas,
nuclear energy & coal. But now-a-days electricity is also produced from renewable sources
such as wind, hydropower, solar power, biomass, wind, and geothermal. The various sources
of electricity are:

 Natural Gas- Natural gas combustion alone, or as part of a furnace/boiler system,

propels turbines to create energy.

 Coal- Most power plants use coal-fired steam turbines to generate power, though a
few convert coal to a gas before using it in turbines.

 Petroleum- Petroleum can also be burned to produce combustion gases or steam to

power turbines.

 Nuclear Power- With nuclear power, nuclear fission produces the energy-generating
steam necessary to spin turbines and generate electricity.

 Hydropower- Hydropower from dams and other setups power turbines via flowing
water.

 Wind- Like giant pinwheels, turbines capture energy from the wind for conversion
into electricity.

 Biomass- Derived from plant and animal waste, materials are burned directly and
used as other fuels to power turbines or internal combustion generators.

 Solar- Energy from the sun is captured in photovoltaic solar cells, heating fluids to
produce steam and drive turbines.

 Geothermal- Heat from within the earth is harnessed to for heating water into steam
to power turbines.
  Hydrogen Energy- Hydrogen is a great source of energy and can be used as a source
of fuel to power ships, vehicles, homes, industries, and rockets. It is completely
renewable, can be produced on demand, and does not leave any toxic emissions in the
atmosphere. Hydrogen is available with water (H2O) and is the most common
element available on earth. Water contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found
in combination with other elements. Once it is separated, it can be used as a fuel for
generating electricity.

 Tidal energy- Tidal energy uses the rise and fall of tides to convert the kinetic energy
of incoming and outgoing tides into electrical energy. The generation of energy
through tidal power is most prevalent in coastal areas. Tidal energy is one of the
renewable sources of energy and produces large energy even when the tides are at low
speed.When there is an increased height of water levels in the ocean, tides are
produced, which rush back and forth in the ocean. In order to capture sufficient power
from the tidal energy potential, the altitude of high tide needs to be at least five meters
(around 16 feet) greater than low tide.

11.4 TYPES OF ELECTRICITY

There are mainly two types of electricity.

1. Static Electricity
2. Current Electricity

1. Static Electricity Static electricity is when electrical charges developed on the surface of
the material. It is usually caused by friction when two or more than two materials rubbed
together. Then, as a result, static electricity builds up and due to this these objects may be
attracted to each other or may even cause a spark.

2. Current Electricity Current electricity is the flow of electric charge across an electric
field.It is produced by moving free electrons and it is measured in amperes (A). There are
two main types of electric current:

 Direct current (DC)

 Alternating current (AC).

Direct Current Direct current provides a constant flow of amperes when a constant voltage
is impressed on the amperes. Amperes change only if the electrical load changes or if the
impressed voltage changes. Direct change is used in some security systems and for limited
emergency energy use for selective devices, such as exist lighting.

Alternating Current Around the world a large percentage of the electrical energy used is
generated by alternating current generators. It is therefore necessary to understand the
principles of electricity and magnetism as they apply to alternating current. The extensive use
of alternating current has not eliminated he use of direct current. There are many applications
where direct current essentially be used or it performs better than alternating current.
 Differentiation between AC and DC

KEY WORDS ALTERNATE CURRENT (AC) DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

Amount of energy Safe to transfer over longer city distances and Voltage of DC cannot travel very
that can be carried can provide more power. far until it begins to lose energy
Cause of direction of Rotating magnet along the wire. Steady magnetism along the wire.
Electrons
The frequency of alternating current is 50Hz or The frequency of direct current is
Frequency
60Hz depending upon the country. zero.
It reverses its direction while flowing in a It flows in one direction in the
Direction
circuit. circuit.
It is the current of magnitude varying with time It is the current of constant
Current
magnitude.
Electrons keep switching directions - forward Electrons move steadily in one
Flow of Electrons
and backward. direction or 'forward'.
Obtained from A.C Generator and mains. Cell or Battery.
Passive Parameters Impedance. Resistance only

Check Your Progress-2

1: Write 2 examples of renewable & non-renewable sources of electricity each?

2: Enlist five sources of electricity?
3: Differentiate between the following:
 Static & Current Electricity
 Alternate Current & Direct Current

11.5 SOURCE OF LIGHTING (DECORATIVE LIGHTING)

NATURAL LIGHTS
Natural sources of light include sunlight, the stars, volcanoes, meteorological lightning and
biochemical sources. These types of light are naturally occurring and do not necessarily need
humans to create light. Sunlight is one of the most obvious and prominent sources of natural
light for humans. It is constantly present in the Earth and provides a large amount of light for
people to see by on a daily basis. It is also the largest source of light available to humans.
Starlight is similar to sunlight in that it comes from stars that are within the galaxy and
beyond, although these stars are much smaller and further away than the sun.
Natural Light Sources and Types Daylight is the natural light sources which are obtained as
daylight directly or through various openings in building like windows, door, glass roofs and
atrium.
Day lighting is the practice of placing windows, other openings, and reflective surfaces so
that sunlight (direct or indirect) can provide effective internal lighting. Particular attention is
given to day lighting while designing a building when the aim is to maximize visual comfort
or to reduce energy use. Provisions of day lighting can be made by adding below features to
the building:
 Window Windows are the most common way to admit daylight into a space. Their
vertical orientation means that they selectively admit sunlight and diffuse daylight at
different times of the day and year.
 Clerestory Windows These are high, vertically placed windows. They can be used to
increase direct solar gain when oriented towards the equator.
 Sawtooth Roof It is a vertical roof glass facing away from the equator side of the
building to capture diffused light. The sawtooth roof's lighting concept partially
reduces the summer "solar furnace" skylight problem, but still allows warm interior
air to rise and touch the exterior roof glass in the cold winter, with significant
undesirable heat transfer.

Figure-1: Sawtooth Roof as a source of natural light

Source: https://build.com.au/sawtooth-roofs; retrieved on 20-11-2022 @ 5 pm.

 Atrium An atrium is a large open space located within a building and is used to light
a central circulation or public area by daylight admitted through a glass roof or wall.
Atria provide some daylight to adjacent working areas, but the amount is often small
and does not penetrate very far. The main function of an atrium is to provide a visual
experience and a degree of contact with the outside for people in the working areas.
Figure-2: Natural Lighting brings an outdoor feel to interior atrium
 Source: https://www.ledsmagazine.com/company-
newsfeed/article/14173311/lighting-brings-an-outdoor-feel-to-interior-atrium;
retrieved on 20-Nov-22 @ 5 pm

 Translucent Walls Walls made of glass brick are translucent to transparent.

Traditionally, they are hollow and grouted with a fine concrete grout, but some
modern glass brick walls are solid cast glass grouted with a transparent glue.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS
Artificial light, as opposed to natural light, refers to any light source that is produced by
electrical means. Artificial lighting has many different applications and is used both in home
and commercially. Artificial lights are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, colours of
light emitted, and levels of brightness.
There are several different types of artificial light sources. Some of these sources are
incandescent bulbs, halogen lamps, metal halide, fluorescent tube, compact florescent light,
and LEDs.
Artificial Light Sources and Types
Artificial light sources are categorized by the technology used to produce the light. There's
dozens of sources, with a few common in household applications and others more suitable for
industrial uses. The five most common light sources are as follows:
 Incandescent Lamp: Until recently the most common electric light source was the
incandescent lamp. This is still widely used, although its relatively low energy
efficiency is leading to its replacement by other more efficient lamps such as the CFL.
 Compact Fluorescent Lamp: The compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) was designed as
a more efficient replacement for incandescent lamp. It is supplied with the same
fixing system (screw or bayonet), and can be used in many light fittings designed for
incandescent lamps.
 Fluorescent Tube: Fluorescent tubes are the main form of lighting for offices and
commercial buildings. They are a form of gas discharge lamp, and are formed in a
long thin glass cylinder with contacts at either end that secure them to the fitting (or
luminaire) and provide the electrical connection.
  Discharge Lamps: Discharge lamps work by striking an electrical arc between two
electrodes, causing a filler gas to give off light. Different metals and filler gasses can
be used to provide a range of colour and brightness. Discharge lamps provide high
luminous efficacy combined with long life, resulting in the most economical light
source available.
Figure-3: Discharge Lamp

Source:https://www.shutterstock.com/search/mercury-vapor-
lamp?image_type=illustration; retrieved on 20-Nov-22 @ 5 pm.

 Light Emitting Diode (LED): LEDs use semi-conductors to convert electrical energy
directly into light. They are only recently becoming available as a light source for
lighting purposes, and are highly efficient and long lasting. LED torches are becoming
very popular, as they provide a far longer battery life than other.
Figure-4 : LED Bulb

Source: https://shop.bajajelectricals.com/Home-Essentials/Lighting/LED-Lights/c/m-led-
lights;
Retrieved on 20-Nov-22, @ 5 pm

Types of Decorative lighting fixtures (on the basis of function)

There are five basic types of light fixtures according to the function or aim of using it as
follows:
 Ambient Lighting/ General Lighting -Ambient lighting provides an area with
overall illumination., it radiates a comfortable level of brightness without glare and
allows safety. Ambient lighting is often provided by traditional pendant type fixtures,
down lights, chandeliers, or ceiling mounted fixtures etc. The general decor and
aspect of the room will affect the amount of general lighting required. Having a
central source of ambient light in all rooms is fundamental to a good lighting plan.
  Task Lighting/ Directional Lighting -As the name suggests these lights are aimed
at a specific task, provide more light on a specific area to perform a task that requires
more light than the ambient fixtures can give. It can be provided by recessed and track
lighting, pendant lighting and under cabinet lighting, as well as by portable floor and
desk lamps. Task lighting should be free of distracting glare and shadows and should
be bright enough to prevent eye strain.
Figure-5: Task Lighting/ Directional Lighting

Source:https://www.architonic.com/en/product/amos-design-lighthouse-system-hotel-
signage-emergency/1186584; retrieved on 20-Nov-22,@ 5 PM.

 Accent Lighting: Accent lighting is also a sort of a directional lighting that adds
drama to a place by creating visual interest. As part of an interior design scheme, it is
used to draw the eye to houseplants, paintings, sculptures and other prized
possessions. It can also be used to highlight the texture of a brick or stone wall,
window treatments or outdoor landscaping. To be effective, accent lighting requires at
least three times as much light on the focal point as the general lighting surrounding
it. Accent lighting is usually provided by recessed and track lighting or wall-mounted
picture lights.

Figure-6 : Accent Lighting

Source: https://in.pinterest.com/pin/792703971888705179/; retrieved on 20-Nov-22, @ 5 Pm

  Informational Lighting / Guidance Lighting -It is designed to help us see our way
safely for example: The light in closet, by doorbell, and night lights. Path lighting and
motion lights are all examples of informational lighting. Informational lighting can be
beautiful as well as functional, and can create dramatic statements. Lights inset on
stairs can create pathways that enhance architecture, while outdoor informational
lighting can create.

 Decorative Lighting: Strips, pendants, chandeliers, and sconces are all examples of
light fixtures that draw attention to themselves and add character to the place being
lighted.

11.6 MAINTENANCE OF LIGHT OUTPUTS

Lighting fixtures accounts for an estimated 20 percent of the total energy used in commercial
buildings. Most of the commercial and residential buildings in India do not have detailed
lighting maintenance policy other than replacing burned-out bulbs. Poor lighting maintenance
can lead to visual degradation, reduce worker productivity, and contributes to higher energy
costs. Having an effective lighting maintenance schedule can include many things including
scheduling, policies, and inventory control. A lighting maintenance policy is a set of written
procedures designed to serve as a guideline, not only for everyday maintenance practices, but
for optimizing lighting systems on a year-round basis. Elements of an effective maintenance
policy include:

 Blueprints of the facility

 Fixture and lighting controls schedule
 Equipment and service provider sources and contacts, including utility contacts
 Fixture cleaning and re-lamping schedule with service tracking log
 Procedures for re-lamping, re-ballasting, and cleaning fixtures
 Procedures for the adjustment of controls and occupancy sensors
Following practices are recommended to adhere while maintenance of lighting fixtures:
 Never clean an incandescent bulb while it is turned on. If the cloth is damp, the
cooling effect of the liquid may shatter the hot bulb.
 Replace lenses if they appear yellow.
 Clean or repaint small rooms every year and larger rooms every 2-3 years because the
dirt collected on these surfaces could reduce the amount of light they reflect.
 Consider group light replacement. Common lamps lose up to 30 percent of light
output over their service life.
 Replacing all the lamps in a lighting system at the same time saves labour, keeps
illumination high, and avoids stressing ballasts with lighting maintenance policies.

Check Your Progress-3

1. Write in brief about Natural & Artificial Lighting?

 ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
2. Enumerate various sources & types of Natural & Artificial Lighting?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

3. Explain types of Decorative lighting fixtures on the basis of their functions?

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

4. Write a short note on Maintenance of Light Outputs?

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

11.7 LET US SUM UP

This chapter has considered the fundamentals of Building Facilities-I focusing on the
electrical engineering, lighting & electrical safety aspect and it is not expected that students
of facility management need to become electrical engineers but however, they must have
sufficient knowledge of the subjects dealt in this topic to enable them to understand source of
electricity, familiarization with the electrical fixtures & types of lighting, illumination &
maintenance of light output. A careful examine of your expenditure on electricity may give
you an insight to perceive in better manner about your decisions. The best understanding of
the topic will help you to develop in planning safe and secure building facilities.

11.8 FURTHER READINGS

Basic Electrical Engineering- by C.L. Wadhwa, 2006

Publication - New Age International (P) Limited

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering- by Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, 2010

Publication - Pearson Education

Objective Electrical Technology- by V.K. Mehta, 2008

Publication - S. Chand Publishing
Modern Control Systems- by Richard C. Dorf, 1967
Publication - Addison-Wesley Publishing Company

Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers- by Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne

Beaty1968
Publication - DA Information Services

Practical Electrical Engineering- by Reinhold Ludwig, 2016

Publication - Springer International Publishing

A Textbook of Electrical Technology – Volume I (Basic Electrical Engineering)- by B.L.

Theraja, 2005
Publication - S. Chand Publishing

Principles of Electrical Engineering- by V.K. Mehta, 2008

Publication - S Chand & Co Ltd

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits- by Matthew N.O. Sadiku, 1999

Publication – MCGraw Hill Education Limited

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits - Charles K. Alexander&Matthew N.O. Sadiku, 2004

Publication – MCGraw Hill

The Complete Guide to DIY & Home Maintenance, Edited by- Mike Lawrence, 1987
Publication – Orbis Publishing Ltd.

11.9 KEY WORDS

Decorative Light: A light fixture that is decorative in nature or design. The term. 'decorative
lighting' covers all the traditional kinds of light fittings. (floor lights, pendants, chandeliers,
etc)
Electricity: a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as
electrons or protons), either statically as an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a
current.
Light: the natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things visible.
Light Output: Light Output means the luminous flux (measured in lumens) emitted by a
Lamp or Luminaire.
Maintenance: The technical meaning of maintenance involves functional checks, servicing,
repairing or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinery, building infrastructure,
and supporting utilities in industrial, business, and residential installations.
Source: a body or process by which energy or a particular component enters a system.
Terminology: the technical or special terms used in a business, art, science, or special
subject. Nomenclature as a field of study.

11.10 CLUES TO ANSWERS

Check Your Progress-1

1: For details refer to 11.2

2: For details refer to 11.2
3: For details refer to 11.2
4: Equivalent resistance in series connection is
R = r1 + r2 + r 3
R = 3+4+5
= 12 ohm
Equivalent resistance in parallel connection is

1/R = 1/3+1/4+1/5
1/R=60/37
R = 1.62 ohm
5: R=V/I
= 220/10 = 22 ohm.

Check Your Progress-2

1. For details refer to 11.3

2. For details refer to 11.3
3. For details refer to 11.4

Check Your Progress-3

1. For details refer to 11.5

2. For details refer to 11.5
3. For details refer to 11.5
4. For details refer to 11.6
11.11 ACTIVITIES

 Visit a mall and identify sources of natural lighting and how they using natural and
artificial light together for appropriate/decorative lighting in the premises.
 Visit the lighting showroom/shop and collect catalogue for different decorative lights.
 Conduct an interview with an electrical engineer / project manager/ site manager and
discuss on Electricity conservation practices need to be adhered.
UNIT 12 BUILDING FACILITIES-II
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Plumbing Terminology
12.3 Sanitary Fitting and Water System
12.4 HVAC System Operation & Maintenance
12.5 Factors Influencing Building Comfort
12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 Key Words
12.8 Clues to Answer
12.9 Further Readings
12.10 Activities

12.1 INTRODUCTION

An unlimited supply of water on tap is assumed by most of us to be a basic service and, apart
from exceptional circumstances such as drought, we barely give a thought to its source and
distribution system. Cast iron pipes, buried deep below the surface take water from the
reservoirs through the municipality authorities are very common in India. A communication
pipe links the main to the boundary of each building and it is at this point the responsibility of
the building owner for own water supply begins. Being an integral part of our life: to ensure
source of water and its distribution by using up-feeding and down-feeding techniques
become our responsibility as a facility manager.
This unit highlights various plumbing and sanitary fittings and fixtures, potable water
delivery ( distribution system) , and heating and cooling (HVAC) system.

12.2 PLUMBING TERMINOLOGY

Plumbing: Plumbing is derived from the Latin word for lead, plum-bum, because lead pipes
were the first practical pipes used during the Roman era.Any system that transports fluids for
a variety of purposes is considered plumbing. To transport fluids, plumbing uses pipes,
valves, plumbing fittings, tanks, and other equipment.
Air Gap: A device mounted at the back of certain plumbing fixtures allowing discharge
water to move freely into a drain pipe, but preventing contaminated water from back
siphoning.
Air Lock: The blockage of liquid flow of liquid due to an air bubble in the line.
Anti-Siphon: A device helping to prevent back-flow, for example on sprinklers, sump
pumps; Prevents water from reversing back into the feed supply.
Back Flow: When water travels from one system back into any part of the main distribution
system; generally caused by siphoning.
Back Flow Preventer: A device used to prevent backflow into a potable water supply.
Back Pressure: Pressure that resists the flow of fluid in a pipe system.
Back Siphoning: Negative pressure that causes backflow conditions.
Backup Sump Pump: A secondary sump pump, usually powered water pressure or battery
power.
Bernoulli's Law: The principle that a stream of liquid or gas gives off less sideways pressure
while it is in motion than while it is at rest. Consequently, fluids appear to be drawn into a
stream, but in reality are pushed in by the higher outside pressure.
Braided Tubing:- Flexible pressure tubing encased in braided threads of steel. The braiding
protects the tube from damage due. They are often used in water supply lines for fixtures like
toilets, sinks, or water heaters
Bushing:-A pipe fitting that is used to join different sized pipes.
Cast Iron:- Metal made from casting on moulds, covered with a porcelain enamel coating.
Used to make fixtures like sinks or tubs.
Centrifugal Pump:-A pump that transports water via centrifugal force created by the rapid
spin of an impeller, which forces the water through a discharge outlet.
Check Valve:- A device installed in a pipe system that allows water to flow in only one
direction used to prevent backflow.
Cock:- A faucet or valve used to stop or regulate liquid flow.
Compression Fitting:- A type of tubing or pipe connection, in which a nut and sleeve are
placed over a copper or plastic tube, compressing tightly around the tube as the nut is
tightened, which creates a positive grip and seal without soldering or gluing. Also refers to a
flexible connector with a nut and gasket that attaches to a SAE standard compression thread,
without using a sleeve or ferrule.
Compression Valve:- A type of valve used for water faucets that activates by raising or
lowering a horizontal disk by a threaded stem. Compression valves are used in compression
fittings.
Corrosive Water:- Low pH water that has the ability to corrode metal plumbing fixtures and
pipes.
Cross-Connection:- Any connection that could allow wastewater to enter the potable water
supply.
Discharge Tube:- Tube that connects sump pump to the drain line.
Dope:- Lubricant paste used for sealing pipe threads.
Dynamic Pressure:- The water pressure while water is flowing.
Elbow:- A fitting that has 2 openings, allowing a pipe line to change direction. Elbow are
often referred to by their angle.
Elevation:- The vertical distance between the level at which fluid enters a pipe and the level
at which it leaves the pipe.
Female Fitting:- A fitting into which a pipe or another fitting gets inserted.
Female Threads:- Threads that are on the inside of a fitting.
Ferrule:- A metal reinforcement insert that prevents the compression of a pipe as it enters
fittings.
Fitting:- A pipe system component that joins together two sections of pipe. Examples
include: elbows, couplings, bushings, bends, or tees.
Flexible Connector:- A braided hose connecting a faucet or toilet to the water supply stop
valve. It is usually reinforced hose made from stainless steel, PVC, or polyester.
Float Ball:- A ball-shaped float that rises or falls with the water level in a tank or sump pit.
Floor Drain:- Drainage fitting that is positioned flush with the floor. It is used in basements
and showers.
Flow Control Valve:- Device that reduces water flow to a plumbing fixture typically used to
improve efficiency and lower water costs.
Flow Rate:- The rate that liquid flows, typically in gallons per minute (GPM) or gallons per
hour (GPH).
Flux Paste:- It is applied to copper pipes and fittings before soldering takes place, in order
to help the fusion process, while preventing oxidation.
French Drain:- A covered ditch that contains a layer of stone or other type of permeable
material.
Friction Loss:- The loss of water pressure resulting from the turbulence created in water
while it travels through a pipe.
Frost Line:- The depth that frost penetrates to, in the ground.
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI):- A device that cuts off the flow of electricity
when a short circuit is detected.
GPH:- Gallons Per Hour.
GPM:- Gallons Per Minute.
Grey Water:- Waste water from sinks, showers, and bathtubs, although not toilets.
Ground Water:- Water that naturally rises in the ground from the water table.
Hanger:- A device that helps to support a pipe.
Hard Water:- Typically water hardness is a measure of calcium or dissolved solids,
measured in parts per million. Hard water usually ranges from 100 to 250 ppm.
Head:- Water or steam pressure in a closed system - the difference in gravitational force
exerted by a liquid at two different heights.
Hydraulic Pressure:- Pressure in a system that contains non-compressible liquid.
Hydrostatic Pressure:- Pressure exerted by liquid at rest. Typically pertains to water
pressing inward against walls, foundations, or floors.
Inside diameter (ID):- Pipes are specified by their inside diameter.
Impeller:- A spinning wheel with vanes that is used inside a centrifugal pump. As it spins, it
draws in fluid and moves it to the discharge outlet.
Integral Vacuum Breaker:- A device that keeps water from back-flowing into the fresh
water supply.
Laundry Tub:- A deep sink found in a laundry room.
Male Iron Pipe Connection (MIPC):- External threads on pipe or fittings.
Main:- The primary water supply or drain artery of a system.
Male Fitting:- Fitting that gets inserted inside another fitting.
Non-Potable:- Water that is not suitable for drinking.
O-Ring:- Round rubber washer used to make a watertight seal.
OD:- Outside Diameter of a pipe.
Outlet/Discharge:- The opening that water exits a pump through.
PEX Cross:- Linked polyethylene tubing that has become increasingly used for water
supply lines.
PSI:- Pounds per Square Inch
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride:- A rigid white or cream-colored plastic pipe that is used in non-
pressure systems, for example, in drainage, waste, or vent systems.
Perforated Pipe:- A pipe that discharges water through small, closely spaced holes or
nozzles for irrigation.
Pipe Dope:- Pipe-joint compound used to seal threaded fittings.
Pitch:- The slope of a drain pipe.
Potable Water:- Water suitable for drinking.
Pressure Head:- Pressure in a plumbing system.
Pressure Loss:- Measure of the loss of pressure that occurs whenever water moves through a
pipe or when water moves uphill against the force of gravity.
Pressure Reducing Valve:- A valve that automatically reduces water pressure to a specified
pressure.
Pressure Regulator:- A device used to maintain a uniform pressure.
Reducer:- Fitting connecting different sized pipes.
Scale:- A coating or layer, often of calcium, that can prevent heat transfer.
Schedule Numbers:- Specifies the thicknesses of pipe wall.
Sediment:- Substance that settles at the bottom of a water tank.
Solder:- A metal alloy, melted to fuse a joint between metal pieces.
Static Discharge Head:- Vertical distance from a pump to the highest outlet point in the
water system.
Static Lift:- The vertical distance between the water level at the source and discharge of a
pump system.
Static Pressure:- The pressure when water is not flowing.
Suction Head:- The head measured at the suction side of a pump. This is then subtracted
from the discharge head to get the head being produced by the pump.
Sump:- A pit for draining or collecting water.
Sweating:- It refers to either soldering or condensation being formed on the outside of pipes
or toilets.
Teflon Tape:- A fluorocarbon polymer used to wrap pipe threads to create a seal.
Vacuum Breaker:- An device that prevents siphoning and backflow. Keeps contaminated
water from flowing backward into the water supply system.
Valve:- A device that regulates the flow of liquid.
Venturi:- A tube that is tapered in the middle, creating an increase in the flow velocity of a
liquid and a corresponding decrease in its pressure. Used to creating suction in a vacuum
pump.
Water Hammer:- A loud banging noise that is caused by the hydraulic shock from abruptly
shutting off a water supply.
Water Hammer Arrestor:- A device that absorbs the hydraulic shock caused by a sudden
water shutoff.

12.3 SANITARY FITTINGS

Sanitary fittings are clamping tools used to hygienically seal two ferrules together. They are
also referred to as sanitary clamps or hygienic clamps.
Sanitary fittings are made with cleanliness and sterility in mind and are used in the food,
beverage, medical, pharmaceutical, and biological industries. These kinds of fittings are made
of components that guarantee sterility both before and after use.

Types of Water Pipes Used in Building

1. PVC Pipes:- PVC pipes are used for internal and external water supply system in
buildings.
2. Copper Pipes:- Copper pipes of heavy gauge and light gauge are used for better
grade houses and where ground-water is highly corrosive to steel pipes.
3. Galvanized Iron Pipes:- These pipes of heavy, medium and light grade are
extensively used for water supply and drainage in building construction as they are
economical.
4. Lead Pipes:- These pipes are highly corrosion resistant and flexible. Taps and stop-
cocks in buildings are available from iron, brass and chromium plated varieties.
5. Soil Pipes and Waste Pipes:- These pipes remove sewage and grey water from and
are connected to the common drainage system. They are generally fitted to the
exterior of the building.
6. Vent Pipe:- Vent pipes are attached to the top of soil and waste pipe for the release of
bad odours.
7. Rainwater Pipes:- These pipes are attached to the roof or open area above building
for the removal or collection of rainwater.
8. Anti-Siphonage Pipes:- These are connected to the outlets of toilets which are
provided to maintain water seal to prevent entry of foul gases of the sewer lines into
the toilets and bathrooms.
Fig 12.1: Different Types of Pipes

Source: www.thespruce.com (retrieved on 16/11/2022@15:15)

Types of Commonly Used Pipe Fittings Used In Buildings
 1. Galvanized Iron Pipe:- It is made of galvanized steel and in used to convey
water from source to the point of use.
2. Galvanized Iron Socket Or Bushing:- They are small pieces of G.I. pipes with
internal threads at both the ends to suit the outer threads of the pipes. For
extension the pipes are screwed on both the ends of the socket. The pipes joints
are made with cord and binding paste on the screw threads while fixing to check
leakage.
3. Galvanized Iron Reducing Socket:- We require a reducing socket when a
particular section pipe is to be joined with a different section pipe. The two ends
of the socket are suitably sized and threaded to accommodate the two different
sections of pipes.
4. Galvanized Iron Bend:- Bends are used for smooth change of the direction of the
pipes. Commonly used bends are 90o angle.
5. Galvanized Iron Elbow:- are modified sockets with a sharp bend at the middle.
Elbow is used when the pipe is extension requires sharp change in direction. The
commonly used elbows are of 45 and 900 angle.
6. Galvanized Iron Tee:- tee is a modified socket with an extension socket at 900 in
the middle. It is used when we have to tap an extension branch, off the main
running pipe at right angle.
7. Reducing Tee:- is required when a smaller section extension pipe is required to
branch off a larger section pipe.
8. Galvanized Iron Cross:- is a modified Tee when two extension pipes in opposite
directions are to be branched off at the same point of the main pipe. Crosses are
available to accommodate large section main pipe and small sections of branch
pipes.
9. Galvanized Iron Union:- unions are essential for facility of fitting and
dismantling pipes at single or double bends zones of the pipe run. A cheaper
alternative to union is running socket arrangement.
10. Galvanized Iron Cap:- cap is an internally threaded socket with one end closed or
blocked. They are screwed on the open end of a pipe threads to check water
wastage.
11. Galvanized Iron Plug:- are externally threaded solid blocks with a square-tightening
end. They are screwed in the open socket ends of pipe to check water wastage
when replacing taps etc.
12. Gate Valves:- Are used as on/off valves. They are operated either in completely
closed or opened positions. Their resistance to water flow is minimal. These are
used as shut-off valves on water mains.
13. Angle And Globe Valves:- are used for variable water flow. They have a high
resistance to water flow when partially opened; thus, they restrict water flow.
When completely opened, they have moderate resistance. These are used in
bathtubs, showers, sinks and lavatories.

Fig 12.2: Different Types of Pipe Fitting

Source www.linquip.com (retrieved on 16/11/2022@16:00)

Types of Sanitary Fittings used in Buildings

1. Hand Wash Basins:- A bathroom fixture with taps, used for washing the face and hands.
2. Sinks (glazed or stainless-steel sinks):- A sink is a large fixed container in a kitchen, with
taps to supply water. It is mainly used for washing dishes.
3. Bath Tubs:- A bathtub, also known simply as a bath or tub, is a container for holding
water in which a person or animal may bathe
4. Water Closets:- A room containing a flush toilet.
5. Urinals:- a bowl or other receptacle, typically attached to a wall in a public toilet, into
which men may urinate.
6. Flushing Cisterns:- Flushing cistern means a cistern with a discharging apparatus for
flushing a water closet, slop sink, urinal or drain.

Fig 12.3: Different Types of Sanitary Fitting

Source www.depositphotos.com (retrieved on 17/11/2022@12:25)

Check Your Progress-1

1) Enumerate the following terms:

a. Tap b. Trap c. Galvanized Tee d. Plumbing e. Sanitary
2) Differentiate between any two of the following:
a) Flushing Cistern and Water Closet
b) Galvanized Iron Cross and Galvanized Iron Union
c) Rain Water Pipe and Vent Pipe
WATER SYSTEMS
Sources of Water
Chemically, water is hydrogen oxide (H2O). It is available on earth in all the three phases of
matter. It participates in practically every ecosystem process and is vital for the living world.
Total earth water available covers about 71% of the earth’s surface. The total quantity of
water on earth is estimated at about 1400-mega cubic kilo-meter or 1.400x109 cubic km.
Expressed in liters 1.4x1018 cubic meter or 1.4x1021 liter or 1.4x1021 kg approximately.
The main approximate distributions of the water on earth are mentioned below:
• Oceans: 97.0%
• Ice caps and Glaciers: 2.2%
• Under-Ground reservoirs: 0.6%
• Lakes, rivers, Soil moisture Biosphere, Atmosphere: 0.2%
Total 100.0 %
Drinking Water Sources
The drinking water sources can be divided mainly as:
• Ground Water sources: rivers and big lakes constitute the main ground water sources.
This being the reason those big ancient civilizations settled near riverbanks and perennial
lakes.
• Under ground water sources: Ancient people had the knowledge about the
underground water. They tapped it by digging shallow wells. With advancement of time and
technology new and better types of wells were designed which could pump out large
quantities of water from deep underground water reservoirs. The water from deep
underground is plentiful, more clean, pure and potable. These days deep bore tube wells are a
common arrangement for water supply.
Qualities of Potable Water:
• Should be free from turbidity and sparkling transparent. Turbidity should not be more
than 5ppm.
• Should be colorless, absence of metallic oxides.
• Should be odorless, absence of organic and decomposed organic matter.
• Should be cool to drink, desirable temperature should be between 5* to 13*C.
• Should be tasteful to drink. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide gases make water
tasteful. This explains why boiled water is tepid (tasteless).
• Should be free from harmful dissolved chemicals.
• Should be free from dissolved foul and harmful gases e.g. hydrogen sulfide, ammonia.
• Should be free from dissolved inorganic matter such as fluorides. Excess of fluorides
caused softening of bones.
• Should be free from water transmitted bacteria and pathogens.
• Should be free from radioactive impurities.
• Should be free of insecticides.
• Should not be hard.
• Should contain electrolytic salts in permitted quantity.
• Ph value should be 7, i.e. should be neutral.
Methods of Disinfecting Water:
• By Boiling.
• Lime Treatment.
• Bromine Treatment.
• Chlorine Treatment.
• Iodine Treatment.
• Ozone Treatment.
• Silver Treatment.
• Ultra Violet Treatment.
• Potassium per Magnate Treatment.

Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their

concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.
Water Systems
A water system is also known as water distribution system’s primary job is to provide water
from the treatment facility to the consumer. Additionally, distribution systems might offer
storage in addition to proper flow and pressure for fire prevention. Water is most important
amongst all and generally water provides by a public utility similar to electrical energy.
Hospitality industries are totally dependent on supply of potable water and sanitary drainage
network system.
Proper supply of clean water is becoming a global issue now a days and every country is
putting their efforts to ensure supply of safe, hygienic and clean water to their citizens.
Water has become a very important energy resource. As we are aware that primary source of
fresh water are lakes, rivers and ground water and because of pollution, rivers and lakes are
polluted so there is an only one source remains that is underground. Extraction of water from
the ground also becoming a serious problem because label of water in most of the areas are
falling down, so there is an immediate need of recycling of water and its conservation.
Water must be treated to make it potable, that is, safe for human consumption. Treatment
process depends on amount of water to be treated and on quality of extracted water.
Fig 12.4: Water System
Source www.cdc.gov (retrieved on 17/11/2022@17:15)

Stages in Water System

1. Water Abstraction and Raw Water Transfer:- A water resource's raw water comes
from a surface water source or a groundwater source located inside the water shed. The raw
water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, covered
tunnels or underground water pipes.
2. Water Treatment:- Water treatment is the process of removing all those substances,
whether biological, chemical, or physical, that are potentially harmful to the water supply for
human and domestic use. This treatment helps to produce water that is safe, palatable, clear,
colourless, and odourless. Water also needs to be non-corrosive, meaning it will not cause
damage to pipe work.
3. Water Distribution Network:- A water distribution system is a part of a water supply
network that includes components that transport potable water from a central processing plant
or well to consumers to meet residential, commercial, industrial, and fire fighting needs.
4. Water Network Maintenance:- Maintenance of water supply system is defined as the
art of keeping the structures, plants, machinery and equipment and other facilities in an
optimum working order and proper functioning without any interruption.
There are two types of maintenance:-
Preventive Maintenance constitutes routine works and precautions to be taken periodically
to prevent the system from mal-functioning by mechanical adjustments, repairs, corrective
action and planned maintenance.
Corrective Maintenance involves carrying out works related to break down, which has
actually occurred by replacements, correction of defects etc.
5. Sustainable Water Supply:- Sustainable water supply means finding reliable and
resilient solutions to a range of human water needs that do not deplete water sources, local
economies, or have long-term negative impacts on the environment.
6. Optimizing The Water Supply Network:- Water Distribution Network optimization
involves designing a reliable, efficient and cost-effective distribution network that meets the
required water demand while maintaining adequate head pressure. This is important not only
to conserve water resources, but also to reduce energy needs and maintenance costs.
7. Sustainable Development:- Sustainable water resource development means reducing
water consumption and reusing wastewater for various uses such as purification,
manufacturing and agricultural irrigation to ensure that future generations' water needs are
not compromised.

Water Distribution System

There are several water –distribution systems used in a facility depending on its size and area
of the building, capacity, purpose and requirement:
1. Up-Feed System
It is most commonly used water distribution system when the pressure of water is sufficient
to force water throughout a building of six floors or less in height. The maximum number of
floors can be feeded with this system depends on pressure, resistance of pipe and the height
of the building.
Fig 12.5: Up-Feed System

2. Up-Feed System with Circulating Pumps

This system is used when water pressure is inadequate and a circulating pump along with a
return pipe is installed to increase water pressure and water to flow constantly throughout the
system. This is frequently used on hot –water lines to provide an adequate supply of hot
water by making a provision of water heater.

Fig 12.6: Up-Feed System with Circulating Pumps

3. Down-Feed System (cold water only)

In this system first of all water is forced or pumped to a storage tank ( over head tank) located
on the top floor of the building and when water is required, it flows by gravity from the
storage tank to the tap. This system is used in very tall buildings.
Fig 12.7: Down-Feed System

4. Down-Feed Circulating System

It is very similar to the circulating puffed system. This technique is frequently used with hot
water to ensure adequate amounts of hot water at each fixture.

Fig 12.8: Down-Feed Circulating System

5. Combination System
It is a combination of up-feed-down-feed system. The up-feed system is used for the lower
building levels and the down-feed system for the upper building levels. This system is
probably the most efficient distribution system for multiple –floor hotel building because
water –main supply pressure is utilized to the full extent and additional pressure is generated
by pumps to reach water on water storage tank located on top floor of the building.
Fig 12.9: Combination System
Check Your Progress-2

1) Enlist four sources of water.

2) Explain two techniques used in disinfecting water.
3) Enumerate various stages of water system.
4) Explain up feed water distribution system.

12.4 HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) SYSTEM OPERATIONS

AND MAINTENANCE
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, or HVAC, are three services that an HVAC system
might offer in a single installation. With heating and cooling systems to control temperatures,
air is circulated by bringing in new; temperature-adjusted air from the outside and removing
stale air back out.
At the most basic level, an HVAC system takes in air, cools or heats that air, and blows it into
an indoor space. That space could be a specific room or an entire building or structure, such
as a house, office, school, airport, or even a submarine.
HVAC maintenance involves checking, cleaning, testing, and maybe even repairing and
replacing individual system parts in order to maintain the heater or air conditioner. You may
avoid worse troubles with your HVAC system by investing in routine maintenance.
HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) Terminology
1. Heat Flow:- Heat always flow from a warmer to a cooler substance. Heat causes some
solids to become liquids or gases.
2. Cold:- It means low temperature or lack of heat. It is the result of removing heat.
3. Absolute Zero Temperature:- It is that temperature where molecular motion stops. It shows
that there is no more heat in the substance at this point.
4. Pressure:- Pressure is the force per unit area, and it is expressed in Pascal (pa) and in
kilopascals (Kpa).
5. Pascal’s law:- It states that: pressure applied upon a confined fluid is transmitted equally in
all directions. It is the basis of most hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
6. Humidity:- The word humidity refers to water vapour or moisture in the air. Air absorbs
moisture (water vapour). The amount depends on the pressure and temperature of the air. The
higher the temperature of the air, the more moisture it will absorb. The higher the pressure of
the air, the smaller amount of moisture it will absorb. A relative humidity of 50% indicates
the air has 50% as much as it will hold at that particular temperature and pressure.
7. Area measurement:- The measurement of area involves the measurement of two
dimensional spaces.
For example : if width of a table top is 20 cm and length of the table is 30 cm then area of the
table top is 20 x30 = 600 square cm.
8. Volume measurement:- The measurement of area involves the measurement of three
dimensional spaces (cubic). The volume of an object is determined by multiplying the width
by the length by the height.
9. Evaporator:- It absorbs heat and must be located in the space that is to be cooled. It can
maintain temperature as low as the boiling point of the refrigerant.
10. Compressor:- There are two purpose of compressor:
a. To pump the refrigerant gas out of the evaporator
b. To increase refrigerant pressure.
11. Condenser:- The purpose of condenser is to release the refrigerant heat that was absorbed
in the evaporator and during compression.
12. Expansion valve:- It is primary system control and activates the compressor. When the
valve allows refrigerant to flow into the evaporator, it permits the compressor to operate;
when the valve closes, it stops the compressor.
13. Tons of refrigeration:- A ton of refrigeration represents the rate of cooling when a ton
(approximately 907 K gm or 2 000 lb ) of ice melts during one 24- hour day.
14. Ambient temperature:- It means the temperature of the air surrounding a motor, a control
mechanism, or any other device. It is not usually constant and may change day to day and
hour by hour, depending on sunshine, space and many other factors.
15. Critical temperature:- The critical temperature of a substance is the highest temperature at
which the substance may be liquefied, regardless of the pressure applied upon it. The
condensing temperature for a refrigerant must be kept below its critical temperature.
Otherwise, the refrigerator will not operate.
Fig 12.10: Basic HVAC System

Source www.pharmaguideline.com (retrieved on 20/11/2022@13:15)

HVAC Steps For Preventative Maintenance:-
• Clean the condenser or heat pump
• Check the filter
• Regular or annual professional check-ups
• Clean the drain lines
• Keeping the outdoor unit clear
• Get a smart air conditioning controller or a smart thermostat

Air Conditioning System

According to the plant the air conditioning systems can be broadly divided into the following
categories:-
1. Window Types Units: .Window type air conditioning units: are completely self
contained units, with the compressor, condense, evaporator, refrigerant piping and air
filter all assembled in a very compact assembly and fitted with an attractive frontage
to harmonize with the interior of home or office. The window units are usually of half
to two-tons capacity, and fitted with 230 volts motors up to 3 horse power.

2. Floor Mounted Package Units:- Floor mounted package units these units are
functionally very similar to window models but are much bigger in size and therefore
arranged at a suitable position on the floor of the conditioned space. These units are
fitted flush with the window on the interior. The bulk of the unit hangs on the exterior
of the window with support on brackets.

3. Central Plant System:- Central A.C. plant with air ducting: A central plant with full
ducting is best suited for air conditioning of large buildings, such as theatres, halls and
un-partitioned offices those having interiors which do not have an outside exposed
wall. The conditioning plant consists of two or more heavy compressors including the
attached essential components. These are located at central place preferably usually
on the ground or basement level of the building. The conditioned air is delivered
through a ducting system to all parts of the building. A duplicate ducting system is
required to lead back the return air from the inside to the plant to be humidify/de-
humidify and recharged with fresh air to be circulated again.

4. Chilled Water System:- Chilled water system are unit coolers in each room with
independent fresh air inlet. This system overcomes the difficulties encountered of the
above system. Water is used as the transfer medium to carry the heat absorbed in the
rooms back to the central cooling plant where the water is cooled again. Individual
heat exchanging units are provided in each room and chilled water is piped into the
units. The cool water absorbs the room heat and is diverted back to the cooling plant.
Refrigerants
In refrigerating systems fluids which absorb heat inside the cabinet and release it outside are
called refrigerants. These fluids, in their liquid form, under a pressure, absorb heat in the
evaporator and, in absorbing heat, change to a vapour form, the fluids are taken into the
compressor where the temperature and pressure are increased. This allows the heat that was
absorbed in the evaporator to be released in the condenser, and the refrigerant is returned to a
liquid form. These are the members of halocarbon family and are non-toxic, no corrosive,
nonexclusive, and non-flammable. Refrigerants have a relatively low specific volume.
Properties of Good Refrigerants
1. It should be non-poisonous and non-irritant.
2. It should be non-inflammable and there should be no fire or explosion hazard.
3. It should be chemically stable and should not dissociate in extremes of temperature
and pressure.
4. It should be non-corrosive, should not react with the working pars of the compressor,
evaporator and radiator.
5. It should have no objectionable odour.
6. Could be easily and reliably detected in case of leakage.
7. The latent heat of vaporization be large to minimize the quantity of refrigerant.
8. The volume of vapour for a given weight should be low to reduce the size of the
compressor.
9. The cost should be low.
Terminology of Refrigeration System
.
1. Extracting:- This process extracts heat from a body or space and transferring it
somewhere else will cool or lower the temperature of the desired body or space.
2. Refrigeration:- Is the process of cooling by extraction or pumping heat out of a body or
space and transferring it to another with higher heat capacity.
Methods of Natural Cooling or Refrigeration:
1. Conduction:- A body is cooled by extraction of heat though conduction mode on keeping
it in contact with another conducting body of lower temperature.
2. Convection:- A hot body is cooled when surrounded by a cool fluid. The cool fluids
absorb and displace the heat away from the body by convection currents, thus the body looses
heat and cools down.
3. Radiation:- A hot body when kept isolated in an evacuated cool space will continuously
loose heat and gets cooled neither by conduction or convection but by a process known as
Radiation.
4. Evaporation:- When a liquid evaporates it cools down on account of extraction of the
latent heat of evaporation from its own mass and as result of this it gets cooled till the
evaporation process continues, subsequently it can cool any object kept in contact with the
evaporating liquid.
5. By dissolving salts:- Certain salts (ammonium chloride or ammonium nitrate) when
dissolved in water the temperature of the solution is lowered. The cool solution in turn will
cool the object in contact with it.
6. Chemical reaction:- Certain chemical reactions are endothermic, and are able to extract
heat from the surrounding and lower the temperature.
7. Cooling by refrigeration:- Refrigeration is a cyclic process of extracting heat out of a
closed space and transferring the heat to a space of higher temperature. The method depends
on the absorption of the latent heat of evaporation of a working fluid. The vapours are then
compressed and allowed to lose heat in a the warmer space and get condensed the condensed
fluid is again used to absorb heat by evaporation and the cycle of operation is repeated.
Basic Refrigeration Cycles
Two systems of refrigeration are common in use:
1. Vapour Absorption System: This system does not involve any mechanical system. It
cools a space by directly using the heat of an external source. The use of electricity for
heating is optional.
2. Vapour Compression System: it is based on the electro mechanical process; the use of a
compressor is essential.
Working Of The Vapour Absorption System:- It functions on the principle of vapour
absorption principle. It consists of a highly concentrated water solution of ammonia or
lithium bromide gas, which acts as the cooling medium or refrigerant. When the
concentrated solution is heated the gas is liberated at high pressure. The high-pressure gas on
cooling in the radiator liquefies into high-pressure liquid. The high-pressure liquid
refrigerant is sprayed in the evaporating chamber. The sprayed refrigerant absorbs the latent
heat of evaporation in the cooling chamber. After cooling, the low-pressure gas is reabsorbed
in the leftover weak solution and turns into concentrated solution to repeat the cycle.

As already told it does not contain any mechanical moving parts. The heating arrangement
need not be electrical; a wick type lamp may be used as the heat source. (See Fig 12.11)

It basically consists of the following sections and working stages:

 Generator: it is a strong tank, which contains the highly concentrated solution of
refrigerant. On heating the concentrated solution, refrigerant gas is liberated at
high pressure. The weak solution is diverted and collected in the weak solution
reservoir.
 Radiator: the high-pressure refrigerant gas (ammonia) is directed to the radiator,
where it loses its’ heat and changes to high pressure liquid refrigerant.
 The liquefied high-pressure refrigerant is directed to the cooling chamber where it
is sprayed. The liquid refrigerant spray readily evaporates and in the process it
absorbs its latent heat of vaporization, necessary for change of state. As a
consequence of this the evaporator is cooled and the cooling is used for further
cooling of the desired closed space.
 Absorber: the low-pressure vapours are then directed to the absorber tank. The
absorber tank is also connected to the weak solution reservoir from where it
collects the weak solution. The gas is dissolved in the weak solution and turns it
 into concentrated solution. The concentrated solution is then directed to the
Generator through a heating tube to repeat the cycle.
 Heating source: the heat source may be a wick type kerosene lamp or an electric
filament heater.

(fig.12.11)
ABSORPTION SYSTEM OF REFRIGERATION

Vapour Compression System:- This is electro-mechanical system, which makes use of

temperature, pressure and latent heat of a suitable refrigerant, for pumping heat from a lower
temperature to higher temperature level. In this system heat is absorbed by the by the
refrigerant at a low temperature, and is discharged at a high temperature level into the
atmosphere. That is why it is termed as ‘Heat pump’.
Basically the system consists of the following four parts: (See Fig 12.12)
 (Fig 12.12)
1. Compressor:- It has two fold function:
 It extracts the refrigerant gas from the evaporator or cooling chamber coils, as fast
as they are formed at a low-pressure of 35 lbs/square inch.
 It compresses and delivers the gas to the condenser at a pressure of about 136
lbs/square inch. Because of the rapid high compression the gas becomes hot.
 The high-pressure gas is diverted to the radiator tube.

2. Radiator or condenser:- The hot high-pressure refrigerant gas is received at the

upper end of the radiator tubing. The hot gas loses its heat across the radiator tube to
the atmosphere and liquefies on the bottom side of the tube. The radiator tube may be
cooled by air or water.

3. Expansion valve:- The high-pressure liquid refrigerant is diverted to an expansion

valve just at the inlet of the evaporator chamber tubing. The function of the
expansion valve is to control and regulate the flow of the high-pressure liquid
refrigerant and allow it into the evaporator tube at low pressure.

4. Evaporator:- This constitutes the cooling unit, in which the liquid Freon
(refrigerant) under a low pressure of about 35 lbs/square inch is sprayed in the cooling
tubes. In doing so it quickly absorbs its quota of latent heat of evaporation and
evaporates, thereby cooling the space medium surrounding the cooling coils.
The efficiency of the system depends mainly upon two factors:
 Compression efficiency: which is directly proportional to the compression
ratio (high-pressure / low pressure)?
 The difference between the cooling coil temperature and the temperature at
which the heat is rejected out of the radiator.

Care and Maintenance of Refrigeration System

 Do not place refrigerated equipment near sources of heat or near window area
where the sun’s rays will strike any portion of the unit.
 Keep the condenser clean and open to allow air to circulate around it.
 Dirt accumulations on the condenser serve as insulators and reduce the rate of
heat transfer from the condenser to the environment.
 Ensure periodic vacuum cleaning of air cooled condenser.
 Kitchen grease may have to be removed by washing.
 Use best quality of insulation and must have a low thermal conductivity rating.
 Serious thought should be given to increasing thickness of insulation.
Air-Conditioning System
 Ensure correct ventilation system in a building.
 Air filters should be cleaned or changed at frequent intervals.
 Motor and fan bearings should be proper greased or oiled.
 Ensure insulation of ducts.
  Check interiors of the ducts periodically.
 If belt driven connections are used between the fan and motor, belt slippage must be
to keep a minimum.
 An energy management system may also include ventilation control.

Energy Management Systems for Refrigeration Cycles

By introduction of computer controlled energy management system, considerable savings can
be made by the owner of the property. This system continually monitors temperature of
compressor, condenser, evaporator, and cooled space. As temperatures are continuously
monitored in the cool areas an undesirable high temperature could activate an alarm if stored
products are in potential danger. The system can control expansion devices and compressor
operating times. The same system can be installed food chillers or freezer entrances by
personnel. A well qualified refrigerator engineer or mechanic can quickly review
temperatures and identify if a refrigeration cycle is operating efficiently. The EMS will also
control performance of cooling tower and regulate the flow of water or air. A well designed
and maintained computer EMS can reduce energy consumption by 20% or more, reduce the
cost of spares, maintenance cost, and equipment –down time, reduce product spoilage etc.

12.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING BUILDING COMFORT

In contrast to commercial buildings, residential buildings typically place less emphasis on
comfort assessments. Despite having more control than in offices, residents can still have
health and comfort problems in their homes due to unfavourable environmental conditions,
which can lead to adjustments that may increase energy consumption in buildings.
1. Personal factors:- Factors such as height and weight, age, fitness level, and gender
can all affect mood, so thermal comfort should always be considered when
considering other factors such as temperature, humidity, and wind speed. It is
necessary to consider the physical characteristics of a person. Are all constant.

2. Health and Wellbeing factor:- Comfort is closely related to wellbeing, which was
defined by Dodge et al (2012) as ‘…when individuals have the psychological, social
and physical resources they need to meet a particular psychological, social and/or
physical challenge’. Wellbeing incorporates other factors such as employment and
relationship status, rather than just physical comfort within an environment.
2 Health issues which can occur to a human body are:-
a) Building related illnesses (BRI) are allergic reactions or infections which can be
directly attributed to being in the building.
b) Sick building syndrome (SBS) relates to symptoms of acute health and/or comfort
effects for which no specific cause can be found but that can be attributed to time
spent in a particular building.
3. Thermal Comfort Factor:- Thermal comfort is a state of mind that expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment. The human body can be thought of as a
heat engine where food is the input energy. The human body gives off excess heat to
its surroundings, allowing the body to continue working. Heat transfer is proportional
to the temperature difference. In cold environments, the body gives off more heat to
the environment, and in hot environments, the body does not give off enough heat.
Both hot and cold scenarios cause discomfort. Maintaining this standard of thermal
 comfort for the occupants of buildings and other enclosures is one of the most
important goals of HVAC designers.
4. Indoor Air Quality Factor:- Most pollutants affecting indoor air quality come from
sources inside buildings, although some originate outdoors.
5. Visual Comfort Factor:- A suitable amount of natural light (and, secondarily,
artificial light), effective glare reduction, and availability of views of the outdoors are
the hallmarks of visual comfort.
6. Noise Nuisance Factor:- The word noise is derived from the Latin word ‘Nausea’,
which means sickness in which one feels the need to vomit. Noise and nuisance
together can be considered as the unpleasant and undesirable sound which leads to
discomfort in human beings. The intensity of sound is measured in decibels (dB). The
faintest sound that the human ear can hear is 1 Db. Due to increasing noise around the
civilizations; noise pollution has become a matter of concern. Some of its major
causes are vehicles, aircraft, industrial machines, loudspeakers, crackers, etc. When
used at high volume, some other appliances also contribute to noise pollution, like
television, transistor, radio, etc.
7. Ergonomics Factor:- Ergonomics factor (also known as human factors) uses theory,
principles, data, and methodologies to design in order to maximise human well-being
and total system performance. Ergonomics is the study of how humans interact with
other components of a system in favour of their comfort.
Check Your Progress-3

1) Explain with the help of neat diagram vapour compression cycle.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..
2) Write three characteristics of good refrigerant.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..
3) Discuss factors influencing building comfort.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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……..

12.6 LETS SUM UP

Comfort is the most important aspects of a human life. This chapter highlights about the
elements of comfort conditioning inclusive of temperature control, humidity control, flow of
air and air treatment by using HVAC system. Supply of potable water in all the corners of a
facility also discuss in this unit. Terminology plays an important role in facility management
and it helps to understand the facility manager about various parts, processes and building
systems. Maintenance of plumbing fixtures and HVAC along with energy management
systems are given due weightage and emphasis in this unit. The best understanding of the
topic will help you as an efficient and effective facility manager.

12.7 KEY WORDS

Absorption:- The process of a liquid, gas or other substance being taken in.
Abstraction:- A general idea not based on any particular real person, thing or situation.
Arrestor:- A thing that stops or checks motion,
Distribution:- The act of giving or transporting something to a number of people or places.
Encountered:- To experience something.
Flexible:- Able to bend or move easily without breaking.
Galvanized:- To cover iron or steel in a whitish metal (zinc) to protect it from being
damaged by water (rusting).
Influencing:- To have an effect on or power over somebody/something so that he/she/it
changes.
Optimizing:- Make the best or most effective use.
Sanitary:- Connected with the protection of health.
Thermal:- Connected with heat; Made to keep you warm in cold weather.

12.8 CLUES TO ANSWER

Check Your Progress-1

1) For details refer to 12.2
2) For details refer to 12.2
Check Your Progress-2
1) For details refer to 12.3
2) For details refer to 12.3
3) For details refer to 12.3
Check Your Progress-3
1) For details refer to 12.4
2) For details refer to 12.4
3) For details refer to 12.5
12.9 FURTHER READING

1) Plumber practical 1st edition by Manish sharma

Publisher - Neelkanth publisher’s private limited 2021
2) Basic plumbing revised edition by Howard C. Massey
Publisher:- Craftsman Book Company 1994
3) Plumbing by R. D. Treloar
Publisher:- Wiley-Blackwell 2011
4) Water supply engineering by Dr. B. C. Punmia, Er. Ashok Kumar Jain, Dr. Arun
K. Jain
Publisher:- Laxmi Publications 2008
5) Water supply engineering by Santosh Kumar Garg
Publisher:- Khanna Punishers
6) Sanitary Plumbing and Drainage by John W. Hart
Publisher:- Forgotten Books 2018
7) Comprehensive HVAC System Design by N.C. Gupta
Publisher - MV Learning
8) HVAC Engineer’s Handbook by F. Porges
Publisher:- Taylor & Francis Ltd 2000
9) HVAC And Refrigeration Preventive Maintenance by Eric Kleinert
Publisher:- Mcgraw Hill 2014
10) Basics of HVAC System for Beginners by Kaylynn Lawson
Publisher:- Independently Published 2021

12.10 ACTIVITIES

1. Visit and observe an under-construction building and see how they are planning
plumbing and drainage.
2. Visit and observe the how the water distribution system and water treatment is done in
your locality.
3. Observe type of water supply system is mostly being used in your locality.
UNIT 15 OPERATIONS IN FACILITIES MANAGEMENT

Structure

15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Defining In-House and Outsourcing of Services
15.3 Facilities Management Services In-House Versus Outsource
15.3.1 In-House Facilities Management Services
15.3.2 Outsourcing Facilities Management Services
15.4 Contracts
15.4.1 Classification of Contracts
15.4.2 Importance of Contracts in Business World
15.4.3 Essential Elements of Any Contract
15.4.4 Difference Between Service Agreement and Contract
15.4.5 Commercial Lease
15.5 Franchise agreements
15.5.1 Elements of Franchise Agreement
15.6 Maintenance
15.6.1 Definition of Maintenance
15.6.2 Types of Maintenance – Preventive and Repair maintenance
15.7 Customer Services
15.7.1 Customer Need
15.7.2 Shift from Product-Centric to a Customer-Centric
15.7.3 Benefits of a Customer- Service Excellence
15.8 Conclusion
15.9 Key Concepts
15.10 References and Further Reading
15.11 Activities

15.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

 Define in-house and outsource services.

 Identify difference between In-House and Outsourcing of services in facilities.
  Understand different types contracts and importance of contract.
 Explain different types of maintenance
 Identify importance of customer services in facilities

15.1 INTRODUCTION

Facility management services are crucial for any organisation. Manging building or facility
might not sound that complicated or looks easy but its actually key to productivity, cost
saving and employees wellbeing. Traditionally facility management services focus on
physical elements of the organization such as HVAC maintenance, building management,
housekeeping, waste management, food services, landscaping, fire safety, property
management and other critical elements of operations management. Now facility
management is also concerned with the safe environment, implement newer technology and
optimizing an office space as well. In all facilities employees spend eight to nine hours of
their productive time, so providing best environment will help employees satisfaction and
getting high output from the employee. Hybrid work culture or more flexibility at work is
growing, so organizations are now considering outsourcing these duties.

15.2 DEFINING IN-HOUSE AND OUTSOURCING OF SERVICES

In-house is an activities or operation that is performed within an organization or a company

instead of relying on outsourcing. The organization hire and uses its own employees to
perform all business activities.

Outsourcing is the business practice of hiring a company or outside party to perform services
or create goods that were traditionally performed in-house by the organization by their own
employees and staff. Outsourcing in company can take as a practice usually for cost cutting
measure.

Few categories of outsourcing include –

 Manpower Outsourcing – Manpower outsourcing includes housekeeping, legal,

purchasing, billing and accounting or administrative support services. Due to the
possibility of significant cost savings, this type of outsourcing is one of the most
widely used.
  Information technology or technology outsourcing – IT outsourcing is to take care of
all parts and business’s IT needs with wide range from software development,
management, maintenance and support. For small companies, it ends up being less
expensive to contract a third-party management team than to build an in-house one.
 Manufacturing outsourcing–Are usually industry specific for example automobile
outsource few parts of the vehicle models, which help in significant cost reductions
and quicker assembly time.
 Project outsourcing – Organizations outsource their projects either a portion or
complete project where they don’t have expertise or willing to complete on time.
 Process outsourcing – Organization outsources any part of the process outsourced for
example restaurant outsource the delivery of package food.
 Operational outsourcing - Organization outsource either complete business, any
specific department or part of the department.

If an organization is outsourcing first time, should asked these following questions - what
should, who should, when should, what should and where should I outsource?

15.3 FACILITIES MANAGEMENT SERVICES IN-HOUSE VERSUS OUTSOURCE

Facilities management is about maintaining and performing day to day operations of the
organization and its buildings. The overall goals are to improve efficiencies, sustainable, cost
effective and a safe and comfortable environment that improve employee experience and
ultimately the bottom line. Traditionally and in-past facilities management was a largely
inhouse affair. Organizations directly employed cleaners, security guards, maintenance
engineers, handymen and catering staff, only turning to contractors for specialist work such
as lift or air-conditioning maintenance. Facility management services are typically managed
by a facility manager, further organizations can opt to outsource their services to outside
facility management service provider or alternatively manage in-house by assigning different
duties to different teams.With the changing workplace demands, increase competition,
technology and internet of things(IoT) facility management services are beyond simple
facility services management. Making the decision to outsource or keep your facilities
management in-house is a complex one.
Facility managers are responsible for occupancy tracking, project management, asset
management and preventive and predictive maintenance in addition to supporting employees.
It also depends on the factors like the type of facility you run, the size of your maintenance
budget, and existing team. Now 69% of the organizations outsources more than half of their
facilities services. Although there remain examples of organizations retaining in-house
services critical to their business, such as security in a banking environment,

Facilities management services are essential to the success of any business. The field of FM
has been viewed as multidisciplinary and requires specialization; Because the profession is so
broad, it is expected that each one will specialize in a particular area. Although it may not
like much, effective facility management is essential to employee well-being, cost savings,
and productivity. As a result, businesses require facility services that are well managed more
than ever. Numerous businesses continue to debate whether to outsource or retain in-house
services.

15.3.1 In-House Facilities Management Services

There are advantages and disadvantages of In-house facilities management services

Advantagesof In-house services:

Oversight:You have complete control over what's going on and can make decisions about
how you and your team will react in a split second. In-house facility managers are in better
position to collect actionable analytics, improve space utilization and make better decisions
that impact long term sustainability and operating costs of an organization.

Control: Performing all business activities by in-house employees may allow the business to
exert higher levels of control by keeping the services and personnel under direct control.
Internal employees may have a better understanding on the business functionality, handling
core activities of the business.

Cost control:You can, to a certain extent, control how much the repairs cost by stocking up
on supplies or comparing prices when you need something. Additionally, you are paying your
staff at your rate, not the contractor's rate.

Planning ahead: You can use preventive maintenance to manage upgrades and cut back on
unexpected breakdowns. Ideally, this helps with budget forecasting too. Having an in-house
team can help connect the dots between systems across the company, so everything is
accounted for when budgeting.

Collaboration:You can collaborate with Finance to determine the best time to replace
equipment based on performance and depreciation if you keep your team in-house. This
maximizes tax credits while cutting down on unnecessary spending.

Disadvantageof In-house services:

Expensive: In-house operations can be more expensive, like small companied might not have
enough work to justify to hire full-time employee.

Specialized skills:Maintenance work gets more and more specialized with technology.
Because you won't have a guy for everything, it's hard to put together a team with the right
core skills. Because of this, outsourcing is almost a necessity.

Waste: You can potentially wind up having a ton of unused equipment and expertise in your
team just to fix a few highly specialized assets. Seeing expertise and equipment not being
used doesn’t bode well for you.

Lots of management:It takes time to put together the right team and hire the right people to
do the job, and constant supervision is required. You no longer just manage facilities. You are
now expected to lead and develop others as a people manager. In addition, you will be in
charge of managing contractor relationships and the possibility of requiring additional
insurance.

15.3.2 Outsourcing Facilities Management Services

In order to maximize value creation, organizations are evaluating their operating model.
However, they evaluate the appropriate combination of in-sourcing and outsourcing based on
capability, cost, and coverage prior to outsourcing facility management to third parties. The
equation is being altered by several factors. Adoption based on the industry can be the basis
for outsourcing. Outsourcing soft services like landscaping and janitorial is preferred by
manufacturing companies. Hard services like the upkeep of utility equipment are typically
still outsourced. Retail, banking, and other non-manufacturing industries, on the other hand,
are attempting to balance in-sourcing and outsourcing to first optimize their operating model.
On the off chance that the advantages they accomplished are not huge, a few players in these
enterprises have selected to re-appropriate office the executives completely. Elements to
assess on the off chance that the association ought to seek after a game plan with a re-
appropriating integrator:
1 Cost: Are costs higher than benchmarks for peers? Outsourcing need to improve business
bottom lines through reduced operational costs.
2 Geographic portfolio: Does the company have a diverse geographic footprint?
3 Property portfolio: Is the property portfolio diverse?
4 Organizational capability: Does the facility function have limited capacity or capability?
5 Deadlines: whether company can meet the deadlines of project or product?
6 Minimal supervision: Whether work can be completed within limited supervision.

The advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing facility management services are

Advantages of Outsourcing services:

More robust:facility management may be able to offer more robust services and
specializations than companies can afford in-house. Get access to best and latest technology.

Manpower: Get trained manpower, which can cover 24 x 7, while inhouse can be more
expensive. Streamline the current processes from professional and skilled services. Improve
processes also improve customer satisfaction.

Cost savings:The most common advantage of outsourcing facilities management is reducing

expenses. When you outsource, you don't have to pay for employees on your team who might
not be needed every day and work around the clock.

Less risk:Reduce your liability and risk in the event of an error. Another organization bears
the risk when outsourcing. Always do your homework and work with a team you can rely on.

Flexibility:Bringing in the experts with their highly specialized equipment as needed rather
than trying to do it yourself, which could result in additional damage or cost you expensive
resources. You cut costs and time.

Disadvantagesof Outsourcing services:

Manpower: outside facility management manpower would not have same knowledge of
processes follow in the organization that in-house team can offer.

Sense of belonginess: Employees working on outsourced role don’t have sense of

belonginess which inhouse team can offer.
More expensive:Outsourcing facility management services may not be as cost-effective as
anticipated in the long run. Ironically, costs can spiral out of control when companies
outsource. There are times when you might have multiple vendors working on the same issue.
You are left with multiple invoices to pay, and you have little control over the work and who
is delivering on what. It is possible that the goal of outsourcing is not to save money. Your
best defense in this situation is to have great partners who communicate well.

Requires internal management:Vendors provide manpower and even manage facilities but
still need from internal team member to keep track of the work, doing right work and
inventory, etc.

When making decisions between outsource facility management services and in-house
services best way to keep the focus on staff, right skill (competence), quality and right
service, not achieving short term cost saving. One area where does not have control is the
skilled manpower, making a trained and skill personnel always have long-lasting effect. For
some facility manpower, the answer is always outsourcing because that their core expertise,
also work is for limited time period.Examples are few organizations kept contracting out
operations manpower, but retained management manpower in-house. In other organizations
there is mix of outsourced and in-house staff.

The common key services in any of the facility which can be outsources are Call center
services, Food services, Data entry services, Software development services, housekeeping
services, Engineering services, Finance and accounting services, Research and analysis.

15.4 CONTRACTS

Most of the people generally honour majority of their promises as a matter of principle,
however, situations do arise where conflicting interests lead to dispute, and then an
established system of some sort is needed to resolve the problems and to attempt to prevent
injustice. Generally, the type of promise w hich the law enforce is where something is to
gained on each side, such as goods for money, goods for goods, or exchange of services,
although other less obvious bargains may be enforceable.

The voidable contracts and void agreements come under the Indian Contract Act, 1872.
Contracts play a vital role in business law. A contract is “a promise enforceable by law”.
Contracts and agreements are essential to the operation of a business, regardless of its size.
Contracts are made in many ways and it is difficult to frame rules that can be applied across
a broad spectrum. A contract is a written or orally, can be made by letter, fax or email, it is
anagreement between two parties stating that both parties are legally obligated to carry out
certain tasks or not carry them out at all in accordance with the terms of the agreement. This
term is frequently used to describe any kind of transaction, including sales, services, the
transfer of property ownership, or a combination of these types. An individual, business
association, or government office can go into an agreement with someone else. There may be
more than two parties involved in a contract. Most of the time, parties to a contract only have
rights and obligations that come from that contract if they participate in it.

What agreements are contracts- According to the Section 10 in The Indian contract Act,
1872, all agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties component
to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly
declared to be void. (The Indian contract Act, 1872)

15.4.1 Classification of Contracts

Contract may be classified on the basis of their (a) validity, (b) formation, or (c) Performance.

(a) Contract according to validity

 Valid Contracts - A valid contract is enforceable by the law and if a contract is not
valid it may lead to obstruction of business and unlawful and insincere dealings.
 Void Contract – “A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes void,
when it ceases to be enforceable".
 Void agreement: "An agreement which is not enforceable by law either of the parties
is void ".No legal right or obligations can arise out of a void agreement, for example,
an agreement without consideration or with a minor.
(b) Contract classified according to formation
 Express Contract – An express contract can be made verbally or in writing. Two
parties engage in conversation about the agreement's terms and commitments during
interactions that result in an express contract.
 Implied Contract - Based on the actions, conduct, or circumstances of one party, one
or more parties have a legally binding obligation in an implied contract. An express
contract, which is a contract entered into by two or more parties voluntarily and
verbally or in writing, has the same legal force as this type of contract. Then again,
 suggested agreements are ventured to exist, however they need not be affirmed
recorded as a hard copy or verbally.
 Quasi-contracts - A quasi-contract is an agreement made in the past between parties
who never had any obligations to one another. It is ordered by a judge to set things
right when one party gains an advantage over another.
 E-com contracts / contracts over internet: The parties enter into these contracts via the
internet. Through EDI (Electronic Data Interchange), various parties in electronic
commerce construct networks that are connected to other networks. This makes it
easier to conduct business transactions electronically.
(c) Contract classify based on performance
 Executed contracts: Executed contracts are signed contracts that establish contractual
relationships between the parties. After the agreement has been fully signed, both
parties commit to upholding the legal obligations outlined in the contract.
 Executory contracts: In an executory contract, both parties have yet to fulfil their
obligations under the agreement. The promise made in such a contract is rewarded in
the future. The majority of executory contracts have two parties, typically a borrower
and a debtor. Some contracts are more complicated than others. For instance: Leases
of things like cars, equipment, and rental housing, etc.
 Unilateral: A unilateral contract is created when one party makes a promise in
exchange for an act by the other party. The contract usually forms when one party
makes a promise to himself or herself, but it can be fulfilled by anyone who wants to
or has the ability to do so. Only one party is obligated to keep their word in such a
situation. An illustration of a unilateral contract is an insurance policy. In exchange
for the other party agreeing to pay any subsequent claims, one party pays a premium
(act).Take, for instance, an offer to give a reward to someone who finds and returns
lost property.
 Bilateral: Bilateral contracts are the most common and considered traditional
contracts. When both parties make promises to each other that they will carry out their
respective responsibilities under the contract, a bilateral contract is created. It's a
promise exchange between the parties.
 In other cases the courts have evolved prima facie rules of law to be applied to certain
standard types of transaction in order to determine whether or not there has been an
 offer or an invitation to negotiate. The cases that are discussed in the following
sections illustrate four common place transactions, namely
(a) Advertisements:When it comes to advertisements, the general rule is that, at least in
the case of bilateral contracts, they are not offers but rather invitations to negotiate.
(b) Displays of goods in shops: The general rule in relation to the display of goods for
sale in a shop is that the display constitutes an invitation to negotiate and not an offer.
(c) Auctions: When auctions are held with a reserve price, the legal position is much
simpler. When the auctioneer asks for bids on the lot that is up for sale, he or she
offers to negotiate. After that, the public member who bids on the lot makes the offer.
(d) Tenders: The practice of inviting parties to tender, or to bid, for a particular project is
not an uncommon one. It is, perhaps, most frequently encountered in the context of
construction projects or any other projects. The employer will generally invite various
contractors to tender or to quote for the work to be done.

Free Consent

A valid contract must have free consent as one of its essential requirements. The parties need
to reach a consensus ad idem, or they won't be able to work together. If consent is obtained
through coercion, it is not free; excessive influence, fraud, false representation, or mutual
error. That is, yet for the presence of pressure, excessive impact and so on. There wouldn't
have been any consent. Free consent is necessary for a legally binding contract. If it is
influenced, such as through coercion, excessive influence, etc., The contract can no longer be
broken. The contract is null and void in the absence of consent.

15.4.2 Importance of contracts in business world

These are following reasons, why contracts are important and become inevitable:

 Acts as evidence: Contracts are created primarily to record details that both parties have
agreed upon.
 Prevents mis-understandings:To avoid situations like these, it is absolutely necessary
for both parties to read the contract and follow its rules. It has a significant impact on the
business because breaking the rules of the contract can lead to disagreements between the
parties and, as a result, have a negative impact on the business.
 Ensures safety:As it determines the residency of the agreement and the jobs of the
gatherings, the agreement is central to guaranteeing the gatherings’ security. Employers
 are legally obligated to pay their workers on time, and employees are legally obligated to
perform their duties. A breach of contract occurs when one party deviates from the
agreement, and either party may respond appropriately. As a result, contracts are very
important.
 Statutory documents: The written contract is a legal document that states that both
parties agree with the actions in it. The contract includes information about the agreed-
upon deadlines for the delivery of any work that has been assigned in accordance with the
contract and can be used as a reference in the future. The agreement also provides a clear
indication of the contract’s duration, which aids in comprehending the termination.

15.4.3 Essential Elements of Any Contract

Depending on the size of your business, you may need all of the included clauses, but most
contracts will discuss what the parties can do if the agreement falls through. These are few
essential elements of any contract or an agreement must be checked before enforcing:

 The full legal names and address of all parties to be bound- Contract is between at
least two parties, one who make the proposal and other accept it.
 Validity of contract
 Payment terms and conditions -Payment amounts, in what form, and due date
 Termination clause-Agree on the circumstances that will result in the termination of
the contract.
 Make sure the contract terms are not ambiguous.
 Confidentiality clause if any
 Renewal of contract – terms and conditions, whether mutual agreement required for
renewal or auto renewal after valid period.
 Resolution of disputes: Parties must agree on a method for resolving potential
conflicts. This data ought to be remembered for the understanding. Rather than going
to court, decide whether the dispute will be settled through mediation or arbitration.
 Select a state to govern the contract: Choose one state and apply its laws to the
contract if the parties live in different states. Include the location of any mediation,
legal proceedings, or arbitration in the contract.
 Potential damages for breach

15.4.4 Difference Between Service Agreement and Contract

All contracts are considered agreements, but not all agreements are contracts. There are small
differences between a contract and a service agreement. Essentially, a contract follows a
more formal outline than an agreement. An agreement can include any understanding
between multiple parties about what they promise to do for each other.A contract is legally
binding, and courts can enforce the terms if they aren’t met. An agreement is much less rigid
and formal.

15.4.5 Commercial Lease

A business owner signs a commercial lease with the owner of the building or space they will
rent. Although there are some distinctions between the two types of leases, this is comparable
to a residential lease for an apartment or house. The most important difference is that
commercial leases do not have the same consumer protections and requirements as residential
leases do. Because of this, people who sign commercial leases should be extra careful and
may want to talk to a lawyer to understand what they are signing. Since there are so many
aspects of a commercial building that may need to be included in the lease, it is helpful to
plan for what you want to ask for when negotiating a commercial lease. This is true for both
business owners and owners of real estate.

Tips For Negotiating a Commercial Lease

Here are some of the aspects of a commercial lease you might want to consider as you're
negotiating:

 Because commercial leases don't have a standard format or standard things that must
be included by law, you might want to consult with a lawyer.
 You can negotiate nearly everything in a commercial lease, including the length of the
lease, the rent and the security deposit.
 There should be a clear way listed in the lease as to how to resolve any potential
issues, which might include anything from who handles repairs to ending the lease.
 You may also need to negotiate to ensure your ability to display signs for your
business outside the building and in the windows.
 It's best to avoid assuming anything is included and instead have it written in the
lease, such as any fixtures, appliances or furniture that you want the landlord to
provide.
  It can be helpful to understand the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and how
that impacts businesses, including requirements for accessibility, and be sure you
know who is responsible for your business being compliant with the ADA.

15.5 FRANCHISEAGREEMENTS

The franchise agreement is a contract that must be followed by law. It lays out the rules that
the franchisor and franchisee have agreed to in the franchising relationship. The franchisee
receives permission to operate a business that provides goods or services under a specific
system or marketing strategy from the franchisor. The franchisor or one of its associates has a
significant influence over, control over, or suggestion over the business. The franchisor or
one of its associates owns, uses, licenses, or specifies a specific trademark, advertising
symbol, or other commercial symbol that the company is associated with. The franchisee
should make, or consent to make, particular sorts of instalments to the franchisor or its
partner, prior to beginning or proceeding with the business.

The franchisor (the company) sells the franchisee the rights to use its business trademark,
service mark, trade name, or other commercial symbol for a one-time franchise fee and an
ongoing royalty fee, typically expressed as a percentage of gross monthly sales. Franchising
is a contractual agreement. Potential franchisees must comprehend the advantages and
disadvantages of purchasing a franchise versus starting a retail business from scratch when
considering the option. Most franchisors offer offsite and onsite training, assistance with
location analysis, advertising, and sometimes a protected territory, which means that no other
franchise can open a store within a certain radius of the first one. Some franchisors even
provide financing or provide opportunities for third-party financing.

The franchise agreement is the most important document in a franchising relationship

because it usually provides the answers to questions that arise such as:

 Use of Trademarks - The use of well-known trademarks is one of the main advantages
of buying a franchise. Are there any limitations on how the franchisor or franchisee
can use it?
 What obligations does a franchisee have to pay?Royalty payment, what it is based on
and when it is due.
  What are the term and conditions of the franchise agreement? How long does the
agreement last or what is the tenure period? Do you have the right to renew the
agreement?
 When using the franchisor's branding and other intellectual property, what rights and
restrictions apply?
 Does the franchisee have to buy certain equipment and products for the business?
 Does the franchisee have to participate in promotions and local area marketing
requirements?
 Obligations and Duties of the Franchisor - This section describes the franchisee’s
responsibilities: requirements for training, requirements for participation in the
business.
 What rules must franchisees follow if they want to sell their franchised business?
 How should disputes be settled?
 Renewal, Termination and Transfer of Franchise Agreement - When can a franchisee
be terminated? the rights and obligations of a franchisee upon termination
 What rules a franchisee must follow when the franchise ends?

15.5.1 Elements of Franchise Agreement

The key elements of a franchise agreement generally include:

 Territory rights
 Minimum performance standards
 Franchisors services requirements
 Franchisee payments
 Trademark use
 Advertising standards
 Exclusivity clause
 Insurance requirements

Examples of businesses that use franchise agreements include: Convenience stores, Fast food
and chain restaurants, Financial advisors, education schools, Health care providers, Health
clubs, Real estate companies, Retailers and Travel agencies, etc.

15.6 MAINTENANCE
The people, procedures, and platforms required to get the most out of a commercial building's
infrastructure and physical assets for as long as possible are known as facility maintenance.
Facilities upkeep has a great deal of moving parts. Knowledge of best practices, a skilled
workforce, established partnerships, the implementation of beneficial software solutions, and
getting them to work together are all necessary.

Facility Maintenance covers any and all tasks performed inside and outside of commercial
buildings to maintain the area's safety, appearance, and, most importantly, functionality. It
and building maintenance are frequently used interchangeably.

This includes:

 Maintenance of equipment inside the building (HVAC, certain office equipment and
furniture, building-specific equipment like medical equipment in hospitals)
 Maintenance of all building systems (plumbing, electrical systems, lighting, fire
safety systems, elevator systems)
 Taking care of the building infrastructure itself (roofing, windows, doors and door
locks, exterior and interior painting)
 Taking care of the space around the building (landscaping and grounds maintenance,
pest control, snow removal)

15.6.1 Definition of Maintenance

Maintenance is defined as the combination of activities by which equipment or a system is

kept or restored to a state in which it can perform its designated function. It can be utilized as
a strategy for successful competition and is an essential component of product quality control.

BS 3811 : 1964 defines Maintenance as : “ Work undertaken in order to keep or restore every
facility to an acceptable working condition/standard”.

15.6.2 Maintenance Categories in facilities

Each facility and its areas and equipment can vary greatly with many challenging
maintenance tasks.

Maintenance can be broadly categorized into:

1 Building maintenance
2 Grounds maintenance
3 Equipment maintenance
 1) Building Maintenance:Building maintenance involves indoor facilities or structures,
including rooms, corridors, stairwells, lobbies, lounges, and offices that need to be
kept clean, functional, and safe. Sweeping, mopping, picking up trash, cleaning
windows, and watering plants are all examples of specific building maintenance tasks.
The following are additional building upkeep tasks: Tidying, Vacuuming, Profound
cleaning, floor coverings, Changing lights, Fixing windows and entryways, Plumbing,
Performing electrical or mechanical fix.
2) Grounds Maintenance: Grounds maintenance is often the first thing users see and
thus it affects their first impression of a facility and its curb appeal. This maintenance
category incorporates all the necessary activities associated with keeping the outdoor
areas attractive, functional, and safe.Grounds maintenance tasks include:Snow
removal, Leaf removal, Tree pruning, Watering, Fertilizing, weed control, pest
control, disease control,Grass mowing, Trash removal, Shrub trimming, Grooming of
infield surfaces.
3) Equipment Maintenance:Items and mechanical systems that support a facility or aid
in the production of a product are referred to as "equipment maintenance. "It can
include anything that helps deliver products and maintenance equipment. It can also
include technical equipment for efficiency support systems that help with product
delivery and provide comfort to users and employees.Examples of maintenance in this
category include: repairing machines, replacing parts, cleaning, rotating and replacing
tires, sharpening tools, servicing HVAC equipment.

15.6.3 Functions of Engineering

The (6) functions of Engineering Department are

1) Maintenance
2) Deep Cleaning
3) Repairs
4) Remodeling
5) Resource Management
6) Emergencies
15.6.4 Role of Maintenance Department in Facilities
1) Asset Management: The resources owned by an organization.These include cash,
accounts receivable, inventories, goodwill, furniture, fixtures, equipment, buildings
and real estate.
2) Engineering:Designing and operating a building to ensure a safe and comfortable
atmosphere.The engineering of a building refers to the application of physics,
chemistry, and mathematics to design and operate a building that provides a
comfortable atmosphere for guests and employees.HVAC: Industry shorthand term
for “heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
3) Managing Utilities:Utility costs in Facility include expenses for water and sewage,
gas, electricity, or other fossil fuel for heating and cooling the building, fuel for
heating water, and, in some cases, the purchase of steam or chilled water.
4) Energy management: Electricity is most common and usually most expensive form
of energy used in the facility. Specific engineering, maintenance, and facility-design
policies and activities intended to control and reduce energy usage. Electric and
maintenance department should be concerned with conserving energy and controlling
utility costs. Energy costs present 3 to 10 % of total operational costs, depending on
the facility location.
 Lighting: Light levels measured in foot-candle: The more foot-candles, the greater
the illumination, In candescent lights: Inefficient, short-life, but easy to replace
andelectric discharge lights : Longer lives, higher efficiency and low operating costs.
 Air handler: The fans and mechanical systems required to move air through ducts
and to vents.The efficiency with which a Facilities HVAC system operates, and thus
the comfort of the building, is affected by a variety of factors, including:
o The original temperature of the air in the room
o The temperature of the air delivered to the room
o The relative humidity of the air when delivered
o The air movement in the room
o The temperature-absorbing surfaces in the room

5) Effective Maintenance:An effective maintenance department will achieve many

important goals, including:Protecting and enhancing the financial value of the
building and grounds, Supporting the efforts of other facilities departments through
timely attention to their E&M needs; Ensuring maintenance-related adherence to
brand standards; Controlling maintenance and repair costs; Controlling energy usage;
 Minimizing guests’ facility-related complaints and Increasing the pride and morale of
the hotel’s staff
6) Back-up System: All facilities have a back-up generator for use in an emergency
outage situation; most will rely on one or more local power providers to deliver
electricity.Back-up Generator: Equipment used to make limited amounts of electricity
on-site; utilized in times of power failure or when the facility experiences low supply
from the usual provider of electricity.

7) Managing Utilities Water Conserving water:Reduces the number of gallons of

water purchased, Reduces the amount the hotel will pay in sewage (water removal)
costs, Reduces water-heating costs because less hot water must be produced
8) Managing Utilities Managing Waste Sources of waste includePackaging materials,
such as cardboard boxes, crates, and bags used in shipping hotel supplies, Kitchen
garbage, Guest room trash and Yard waste
9) Interactions / Interdepartmental Coordination: In Front Office interactions the
Maintenance department provides room-status updates, responds to guest service
requests; Communicates information about specific conditions (i.e., pool closed,
water shut off, etc.). In Housekeeping interactions, the Maintenance
department:Makes and reports on room repairs, In Food and Beverage interactions the
Maintenance department:Maintains and may service equipment
10) Preventive Maintenance: Maintenance activities designed to minimize maintenance
costs and prolong the life of equipment
11) Routine Maintenance: Maintenance activities that must be performed on a continual
(ongoing) basis.
12) Emergency Maintenance: Maintenance activities performed in response to an urgent
situation.

Facilities Maintenance
Facilities maintenance activities must be:

1. Planned: A careful administrator who carefully reviews every piece of equipment and
required activity in the facility and then plans what should be done, when it should be
done, and who should do it is an effective maintenance manager.
2. Implemented: Some maintenance managers know what should be done in their
properties and have good intentions of completing all the required tasks, yet do not do
them.
 3. Recorded: Routine, scheduled maintenance tasks cannot be properly planned unless
maintenance personnel know when these tasks were last performed.

15.6.5 Maintenance Costs

The costs of maintenance may be divided into two major categories:

1) Direct Costs: These costs are incurred due to maintenance and repair actions, broadly
represented by the cost of labor, the cost of material and spare parts, the cost of
contractors, and the costs of infrastructures used and related tax (service tax, etc.).
Frequently, these are the costs that can be easily found in account books.
2) Indirect Costs: These are costs resulting from the consequences associated with
failure or unplanned maintenance actions and include loss of revenue due to the
production stops owing to maintenance also, fix activities, cost of mishaps,
demurrages, insurance contracts, etc.

15.6.5 Types of Maintenance

The different types of maintenance are:

1) Regular Maintenance
2) Breakdown or Corrective Maintenance
3) Preventive Maintenance
4) Proactive Maintenance
5) Total Productive Maintenance

1) Regular Maintenance:Day-to-day upkeep of interior and exterior includes landscaping,

painting, leaf and snow removal, window cleaning, and painting. Maintaining facility
exterior impacts damage’s appeal, operating costs, & ultimately the building’s value.
Indoor plants, interior window washing, floor and carpet cleaning. Guestroom and public
space related items.
Two ways for implementation

1. Replace as needed: Replacement plan that delays until the original part fails or is near
failure e.g., maintenance of refrigeration compressors
2. Systematic total replacement: Replacement is based on a predetermined schedule e.g.,
maintenance of light bulbs in high-rise exterior highway signs
When the maintenance department implements a "replace as needed" program, it refers to a
plan for replacing parts or equipment that delays installing a replacement until the original
part breaks or is close to breaking; In contrast, a "total replacement" program has a
replacement plan for parts or equipment that includes installing new or substitute parts
according to a predetermined schedule.

2) Corrective maintenance (CM) or Breakdown Maintenance (BM):Corrective

maintenance or Breakdown Maintenance (CM/BM) actions are actions carried out after
fault recognition and are intended to put a failed item into a working state to perform its
normal function.The proper rectification (repair or replacement) of the failed components
is the purpose of corrective maintenance actions, which are meant to bring a failed item
back into an operational state. When a repairable item fails, there is an option either to
repair or replace it by a new or refurbished item. The optimal decision is usually based on
cost considerations and the impact of the actions on future failures of the item involved.
Corrective maintenance actions can range from relatively minor repairs or replacements
requiring a short downtime, such as replacing a lamp, adjusting a machine, and so forth,
to major repairs requiring a significant amount of downtime and resources. The
maintenance organization must be prepared to deal with vorrective maintenance to
minimize its negative effects and consequences, even though it is unplanned and occurs
without notice.
The timing of Corrective maintenance actions can be used to classify them into two
groups:
(i) Immediate (emergency) Corrective maintenance:Corrective maintenance known as
immediate corrective maintenance must be performed as soon as a fault is
discovered.When critical items fail or when failures have an impact on the
environment or safety, immediate corrective maintenance is carried out.To prevent
further damage, injuries or deaths, environmental damage, or the high cost of lost
production, maintenance must be initiated immediately to restore the failed item to its
functional state.
(ii) Deferred corrective maintenance : Deferred corrective maintenance is corrective
maintenance which is not immediately carried out after fault detection but is delayed
in accordance with given maintenance rules. The maintenance action can be deferred
to a more convenient time if the failure is not critical and does not require immediate
 action or can be delayed (for example, a windshield wiper failure in a car can be
delayed if it is not the rainy season).
In many instances, it is decided in advance to let an item work until it breaks
down.Run to failure (RTF) is the name given to this method.One of the following
justifies such a choice occasionally:There is no PM task that will have an effect
regardless of how much one is willing to spend; the PM cost is more than the RTF
cost and there is no safety consequence; The failure is too low on the priority list and
cannot be addressed within the allocated budget.
CM actions (in the form of repair and/or replacement of failed components) have a significant
effect on the reliability and subsequent failures of an item. Based on this effect, repair actions
can be grouped into three categories – perfect, minimal, and imperfect.

Perfect Repair: perfect repair means a maintenance action that restores the failed item to an
“as good as new” condition.

Minimal Repair: minimal repair implies bringing the failed item to an operational state
whereby the condition (or reliability) of the item is not affected, so that it is the same as that
just before the failure. Examples of minimal CM include changing a car's flat tire and an
engine's broken fan belt.

Imperfect Repair : imperfect repair the condition of a repaired item is between “as bad as old”
and “as good as new.”

Limitation of Breakdown Maintenance

Unpredictability

 Which result in either labour or materials being unavailable

 Therefore, delay in time taken for a repair, increasing equipment downtime
 Can result in unnecessarily expensive charges that may have been avoided
 Can also affect budgets and cost planning
Equipment not Maximized

 Reduces the lifespan of the unit

 The equipment won’t fulfill its potential or return on investment.
Indirect Costs
  Equipment downtime/ unreliable equipment causing negative effects on reputations,
safety and the ability to run a business efficiently and productively
 Inefficient use of employee time.

3) Preventive Maintenance (PM) : Preventive maintenance (PM) actions are carried out
according to prescribed criteria of time, usage, or condition and are intended to reduce the
probability of failure or the functional degradation of an item.PM actions usually require
taking an operational item out of service and are intended to increase the span of its
lifetime and/or its reliability. PM actions are generally carried out at discrete time
instants. Activities can go from generally minor overhauling requiring a short free time,
like visual examination, grease, testing, arranged substitution of parts or parts, etc. to
significant redesigns requiring a lot of margin time and legitimate preparation and
satisfactory assets. The aims of PM actions are to:
 Prevent failure.
 Minimizing the wear and tear, preserve value of the facility.
 Detect the onset of failure: Whilst we may not be able to prevent a failure, frequently
we do know how to detect the onset of failure. Our insight into how to do this is
expanding consistently, through condition observing innovation.
 Find hidden failures: Check to see if a failure has occurred before equipment is called
into service.
 Ensure for the safety of the workers.
Effective preventative maintenance can reduce:

 Long-term repair costs by prolonging equipment life

 Replacement parts costs because purchases of these can be planned
 Labor costs by allowing PM to be performed in otherwise slow periods
 Amount of refunds and charge-backs due to guest dissatisfaction
 Costs of emergency repairs by minimizing their occurrence
 Emphasize that preventative maintenance should not be viewed as a repair program;
repairs should be done as they are needed, while PM activities should be performed as
scheduled.
Elements of Preventive Maintenance
It includes test, measurements, adjustment and part replacement, performed specifically to
prevent faults from occurring including: Inspections or Checkups, Lubrication, Planning and
Analysis, Training to maintenance staff, Storage of spare parts and Records and Analysis

Advantages of Preventive Maintenance

The advantages of efficiently planned and well executed preventive maintenance program:

 Reduction in production downtime.

 Lesser overtime pays for maintenance personnel.
 Lesser number of standby equipment’s are needed.
 Less expenditure on repairs.
 Due to planned spare parts replacement, lesser spare parts are needed to remain in
store at all times.
 Greater safety to employees because of reduced breakdowns.

Preventive versus Corrective Maintenance

As mentioned earlier, there are two types of maintenance: preventive (PM) and corrective
(CM). Carrying out maintenance involves additional costs to the owners (individuals,
businesses, and government agencies). To maintain their competitiveness and cost
effectiveness, asset industries require long-term maintenance strategies. Corrective
maintenance (CM) and preventive maintenance (PM) are the two types of maintenance
practices. While preventive maintenance is performed on an interval basis with the intention
of preventing maintenance issues from occurring, corrective maintenance identifies and
addresses a fault after it has occurred. Companies might decide to use one over the other
based on their assets and industries. As a result, the ratio of corrective maintenance (CM) to
preventive maintenance (PM) for cost reduction varies between assets and organizations.

Proactive Maintenance: Proactive maintenance is a maintenance strategy for stabilizing the

reliability of machine or equipment.
Total Productive Maintenance: A company-wide, team-based effort to enhance equipment
effectiveness throughout its lifetime and improve output quality through equipment
maintenance. Where Total means all employees are involved; Aims to eliminate all accidents,
defects, and breakdowns, while Productive means actions performed during production and
troubles for production are minimized and Maintenance means keep in good condition and
Improve Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE).

15.7 CUSTOMER SERVICE

There is enormous pressure on all service organizations to improve the way they do business
with their customers. The nature and number of competitors and the ability of retailers,
building societies, insurance brokers, estate agents and other service companies to offer
similar products at similar prices has led to increasing emphasis being placed on personal
service as a means of adding value to customers. The services are typical of many sectors in
its change of focus towards customer service. All successful service organizations
continuously attempting for higher levels of customer service.

15.7.1 Customer Need

A need that leads a customer to buy a product or service is known as a customer need. The
customer's need, which can be expressed verbally or unspoken, is the most important factor
in deciding which solution to purchase. In terms of customer excellence, each business must
meet the following six fundamental customer expectations:

SIX BASIC CUSTOMER NEEDS

Friendliness Greet customer politely and
The most fundamental need of all, usually associated courteously
with being greeted with politeness.
Understanding and Empathy Acknowledge the problem or
Customers need to feel that their circumstances and question without criticism or
feelings are appreciated and understood by the judgment
service person without criticism or judgment.
Fairness Treat all customers equally
All customers want to be treated fairly.
Control
Control represents the customer’s need to feel as if
they have an impact on the way things turn out.
Options and Alternatives
Provide the customer with other available avenues to
get what they want accomplished.
Information
When doing business with you, customers need and
want to be informed about your products, policies,
and procedures.
All customers want to feel they have
an impact on the way things turn out
Customers need to feel there are other
avenues available
Inform clients about the policies and
procedures they will need to follow
when doing business with you. Set
goals that are attainable.

15.7.2 Shift from Product-Centric to a Customer-Centric Organization

Today's customers are becoming increasingly sophisticated, educated, self-assured, and
informed, which is changing customer behavior and expectations. They have high hopes for
the kind of service they want. They won't be "sold to" or manipulated, and they want more
options.

1. Value for Time: Supermarkets are leading the way in 24-hour shopping. People are
able to place online orders for goods thanks to the home shopping service; Each
customer's most frequently purchased items are displayed at the top of the list on the
website to help them choose, and the order is transferred to a computerized trolley
whose onboard computers direct an order picking assistant to the store's most efficient
route to collect the groceries. Purchasers are progressively portable and are searching
for an incentive for time.
2. Consumer Rights:The present customer know their freedoms and are bound to
spread the word assuming they feel that these have been disregarded. Today,
customers voiced their dissatisfaction with poor service in person, over the phone, or
in writing through feedback systems. A new trend is a "pull" scenario in which
customers are taking more control. This is made easier by new media, where websites
can get customer feedback that can be shared with a wide range of people and where
internet "infomediaries" (information intermediaries who search for the right trading
partner, make comparisons, and complete transactions) give customers more options.
 3. Technology:The variety of possibilities provided by the increased use of technology
is one of the most important factors in driving change. The customer's influence over
consumer brands' fate has grown as a result of increased technology use. The use of
technology has the potential to transform how businesses interact with their
customers, whether it's through online purchases of goods or services or mobile bill
payment via the internet. The customer now has a much bigger say in how products
and services are made and how well they work.

15.7.3 Benefits of a Customer- Service Excellence

In increasingly competitive marketplaces, best-practice organizations have demonstrated
clear benefits of focusing on the customer. Excellent service enables a business
toDifferentiate itself from the competition;Improve its image in the eyes of the
customer;Minimize price sensitivity;Improve profitability;Increase customer satisfaction and
retention;Achieve a maximum number of advocates for the company;Enhance its
reputation;Ensure products and services are delivered ‘right first time’;Improve staff
morale;Increase employee satisfaction and retention;Increase productivity;Reduce costs;
Encourage employee participation;Create a reputation for being a caring, customer-oriented
company;Foster internal customer/supplier relationships; and bring about continuous
improvements to the operation of the company.

15.7.4 Types of Customer Relationships

We are able to differentiate between various kinds of customer relationships, which may
coexist in a business's relationship with a specific customer segment.

(a) Transactional:This indicates that there is no actual connection between the customer
and the business. The company conducts transactional interactions with customers.
For instance, a kiosk at an airport typically does not really develop a relationship with
its customers.
(b) Long-term:This means that the customer and the business form a relationship that
lasts a long time and may even be very close. Customers are contacted frequently by
the business.
(c) Personal assistance:Human interaction is the foundation of this relationship. During
or after the purchase, the customer can get assistance by speaking with a real
customer representative. This might take place in-person at the point of sale, via
email, call centers, or other channels.
 (d) Dedicated personal assistance:In this relationship, a customer service representative
is assigned to each individual customer. It usually takes a long time to develop and is
the deepest and most intimate type of relationship. For instance, dedicated bankers
provide high-net-worth individuals with private banking services. Comparable
connections can be found in different organizations as key record directors who keep
up with individual associations with significant clients.
(e) Self-service:A business has no direct contact with its customers in this relationship. It
gives customers all the tools they need to help themselves.
(f) Automated services:Customer self-service that is more advanced in this arrangement
is combined with automated procedures. Personal online profiles, for instance, give
customers access to individualized services. Individual customers can be identified by
automated services, which can also provide information about orders or transactions.
Automated services can, at their best, foster a personal connection by providing
recommendations for books or movies.
(g) Communities:Companies are increasingly utilizing user communities to connect with
community members and become more involved with customers and prospects. Users
of many businesses' online communities can share information and find solutions to
each other's problems. Businesses can benefit from community-based insights as well.
(h) Co-Creation:Co-creating value with customers is becoming more common at a
growing number of businesses. Customers can participate in the design of new and
creative products for some businesses.
(i) Switching Costs:The cost of switching shows how easy or hard it is for a customer to
switch to another option. For instance, when a client of an information stockpiling
supplier stores every one of his information in an exclusive configuration it very well
may be challenging for him to change to an elective supplier.

15.7.5 Customer Needs and Expectations

Understanding what the customer wants and needs, as well as how to keep them coming
back, is critical. As customer experience a superior help their assumptions rise. Moreover, the
assistance experienced is adaptable in the psyche of the client. Regardless of industry, the
customer makes conscious and unconscious comparisons between various service
experiences. For example, a customer's expectation of the service they will receive from a car
rental service may be based not only on their expectation and experience of the service itself
but also on their interactions with other car rental companies, leisure and travel organizations,
and on the internet.

The loyalty: People who use products or services more or less frequently make up the
majority of service organizations' customer bases. At one extreme, some customers may only
have one relationship with the business; On the other hand, customers will use the company's
products or services frequently. Customer loyalty programs have flooded competitive
markets in recent years. The major airline frequent-flier programs and food retailer loyalty
programs are two of the most well-known schemes.

Reasons for developing long-term relationships with customers

On average it is estimated to cost five times as much to attract a new customer as it does to
keep an old one. Long-term relationships with customers are therefore more profitable
because:

 The cost of acquiring new customers can be high.

 Loyal customers tend to spend more and cost less to serve.
 Satisfied customers are likely to recommend your products and services.
 Advocates of a company are more likely to pay premium prices to a supplier they
know and trust.
 Retaining existing customers prevents competitors from gaining market share.
Creating goodwill

The "goodwill" that customers have for an organization and, as a result, the quality of its
reputation are directly influenced by the relationships it builds with its current customer.
Research indicated that the main sources of gaining positive goodwill were:

 Making the best of the occasional and inevitable bad experiences – example
delays, bad weather, running out of food, drink or duty-free items, empathizing with
problems and turning them to advantage. The study also indicated that the airline
could generate more goodwill by dealing effectively with the mishaps such as lost
baggage, than it could if nothing had gone wrong in the first place.
 Showing and demonstrating concern for others – children, old people, the disabled
and anxious. Seeing the quality of care that is available even if it is not required
personally brings about vicarious satisfaction. Every passenger receives an unspoken
assurance as a result.
  Encouraging, reinforcing, wishing customers a ‘Have a nice day’, ‘Thank you’,
‘good trip’ or a ‘good holiday’. There appears to be an almost magical value in a good
wish quite out of proportion to its face value. When the staff are there and visible,
giving a touch of personal contact (for example by using their names), the experience
is lifted out of the machine- and system-dominated routine and the passenger is less
likely to feel submerged in a faceless, mindless crush.
 Unsolicited ‘giving’ by the staff reinforces this further, through, for example,
spontaneous talking, sitting next to a passenger and sharing conversation, unscheduled
pilot comments, the appearance of the captain and visits to the flight deck. These are
acknowledged as rare "treats," but it is necessary to observe that they occasionally
occur "if not to me, then at least available."
 Problem-solving by staff is important, particularly asking about the problem and
showing empathy and understanding (which can be all that’s needed to reassure taut
feelings).

15.8 CONCLUSION

Contracts can be used as references in the future, a part of the company's policies, and proof
in the event of misunderstandings, complaints, or disagreements that necessitate legal action
in addition to making the agreement between the parties involved legally binding. The
functions of facility management and maintenance management collaborate to support an
organization. However, these two facets of an organization's operation are frequently viewed
as one and the same, causing decision-making regarding the abilities and resources required
for their execution to be muddled. Because efforts will be focused on preventing equipment
failure rather than responding to emergencies, a preventive maintenance plan can save a
business money. Your company's success depends on providing excellent customer service,
which helps build its reputation and keeps customers coming back for more. The best strategy
for retaining customers, increasing customer satisfaction, and expanding your business is to
consistently provide excellent customer service.

15.9 KEY CONCEPTS

Contract: A contract is a legally enforceable agreement that creates, defines, and governs
mutual rights and obligations among its parties. A contract typically involves the transfer of
goods, services, money, or a promise to transfer any of those at a future date.

Outsourcing: Outsourcing is a business practice in which a company hires a third-party to

perform tasks, handle operations or provide services for the company.

15.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

The Indian contract Act, 1872, Act No. 9 of 1872, 25th April, 1872 (India).

15.11 ACTIVITIES

1. Illustrate the types of ownership

2. Explain Valid, voidable and void agreements
3. Explain difference between in-house and outsourcing in facilities
4. Write down Quasi-contracts
5. Write down Contract classify based on performance
6. Write down difference between Preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance
7. Explain the importance of customer services.
UNIT16 HEALTH AND HYGIENE CONCERNS

Structure

16.0 Objectives

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Basic Definitions

16.2.1 What is Health?

16.2.2 What is Hygiene?

16.2.3 Difference between cleaning, disinfecting and sanitizing.

16.2.4 Importance of Personal hygiene

16.3 First Aid at Workplace

16.3.1 Defining First-Aid

16.3.2 Dealing with an Emergency

16.3.3 Principals of First Aid

16.3.4 Managing an Incident

16.4 Indoor Air Quality

16.4.1 Major pollutants affecting indoor air quality

16.4.2 Improving Indoor Air Quality

16.5 Water Quality

16.5.1 Water is life

16.5.2 Water quality and water pollution

16.5.3 Effects of water pollution

16.5.4 Methods of water treatment

16.6 Ensuring a safe and healthy workplace, Policy and Laws

16.7 Let Us Sum Up

 16.8 Clues to Check Your Progress

16.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 To define Health,

 To understand the meaning of hygiene and to know its importance,

 To explain the importance of First Aid at workplace,

 To understand the meaning of air quality and water quality; and

 Discuss the Policy and Laws for Ensuring a safe and healthy workplace.

16.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous units we have discussed the various operations in Facility Management.
We have discussed about the definition of In-house and Outsourcing of different types of
services in the industry. There was a major difference between the two broad type of
services on the basis of their nature, the franchise agreement also played a major role in
the operations of Facility Management. The different aspects of work coordination were
studied through the last unit, perhaps both the types of maintenance i.e. preventive and
repair with their advantages and disadvantages were also known to us. In this we will
come to know about the proper meaning of Health and Hygiene and understand its
importance in the work culture which will enable in a safe workplace. This unit also
discusses the role of First-Aid, Indoor air quality and water quality which will help in
assuring a very high level of safe workplace with a healthy atmosphere.

16.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Health is the wealth for a human in his/her entire career. One can last outside extravagance
services but can't endure without good condition. It is entity that we can't buy accompanying
services but we can protect it and we can cure it when wanted with the help of person
engaged in private ownership of business concern.

16.2.1 What is Health?

Health: According to World Health Organization (WHO) health is defined as a state of

complete physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing, and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity. It is a positive state of complete wellbeing. To remain healthy a
balance between work and rest or recreation is necessary, this improves our work
efficiency.

Good health is key to human peace of mind and comfort that donates considerably to
prosperity and money and even financial progress, as athletic peoples are more creative,
sustain more and live longer.

You cannot climb higher in all the other seven areas of your life if you do not have
enough physical energy to devote to each of them. When you have low energy, it is
difficult to:

 Support your family and consciously parent your children;

 Perform at work if you are too tired to be productive;
 Have fun with friends if you are dull and lethargic;
 Learn and grow if your weak body has weakened your mind;
 Have a sense of charity and contribution if ill health has you looking inwards rather
than outwards on helping others.
Having good health is important because

1. Improve longevity; If a person doesn’t have a healthy lifestyle, it would affect the daily
routine of a person. When the body gets proper nutrition, it becomes more fit and healthy,
improving longevity.

2. Prevent diseases; The most important concept of leading a healthy life is to provide
immunity strength against various diseases. The immune system is the body’s natural defense
mechanism to fight against foreign agents that cause harm to the body. Having a healthy body
and mind is very important for overall well-being.

3. Improve mental health; Having a bad lifestyle would result in poor mental health. Adapting
a healthy lifestyle would relax the mind and improve the mood. Only when a person is happy
mentally, they would perform productively. Mental health is equally important as physical
health.

4. Lead a productive life; A healthy person would serve his/her community and nation. Only
when a person is not affected by any disease, he/she is considered healthy. Thisin turn would
help them to serve better.

5. Financial benefits; The cost of medical expenses is rising. Only if a person invests in health
right from a young age they would prevent or reduce the extent to which they develop a
disease. By having good health, they can reduce the possibilities of themselves getting
hospitalized and minimize the cost incurred for medical treatment.

16.2.2 What is Hygiene?

There is a great difference between the term “hygiene” and “cleanliness”. Cleanliness
means making an area free from dust, dirt and foreign materials or debris whereas
Hygiene refers to making the place free from micro-organisms or pathogens which can
adversely affect our health. Good Hygienic practices are very important in this sector for
living a safe, comfort and healthy life. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and
prevent the spread of diseases. This means more than just keeping ourselves clean. This
means shunning all practices that lead to bad health. Throwing garbage on the road,
defecating in the open, and many more. By adopting such a practice, we not only make
ourselves healthier but also improve the quality of our lives. Good personal hygiene
involves keeping all parts of the external body clean and healthy. It is important for
maintaining both physical and mental health. In people with poor personal hygiene, the
body provides an ideal environment for germs to grow, leaving it vulnerable to infection.
On a social level, people may avoid a person with poor personal hygiene, which may
result in isolation and loneliness. Personal hygiene means keeping the body clean,
consumption of clean drinking water, washing fruits and vegetables before eating,
washing one’s hand, etc. Public hygiene refers to discarding waste and excreta properly,
that means, waste segregation and recycling, regular disinfection and maintenance of the
city’s water reservoir. Quality of hygiene in the kitchens is extremely important to
prevent diseases.

Types of personal hygiene

There are many types of personal hygiene. The following list is a good starting point for
someone looking to build a personal hygiene routine:

Dental: - Dental hygiene involves more than just having white teeth. A good dental
hygiene routine can help prevent issues such as gum disease and cavities. It can also
prevent bad breath.

Body: -Several million sweat glands cover the human body. When bacteria break down
sweat, the process creates a smell or body odor. Washing the body will help prevent skin
irritation, as well as removing the bacteria that cause body odor. Washing the hair
removes oil and keeps a person looking clean and fresh.

Hand washing: -Regular hand washing is one of the best ways to avoid spreading
communicable diseases.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)Trusted Source recommend
washing the hands at certain times:

before, during, and after preparing food

before eating food

before and after looking after anyone who is vomiting or has diarrhea

before and after treating a cut or wound

after going to the bathroom

after changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used the toilet

after blowing the nose, coughing, or sneezing

after touching garbage or dirty surfaces or objects

after handling pets or pet-related items, such as food

Nails: -Fingernails may harbor dirt and germs, contributing to the spread of bacteria. It is
easier for dirt and germs to collect under longer nails, so keeping them short can help
reduce the risk of spreading infection.

Maintaining personal hygiene and sanitation is important for several reasons such as
personal, social, psychological, health, etc. Proper hygiene and sanitation prevent the
spread of diseases and infections. If every individual on the planet maintains good
hygiene for himself and the things around him, diseases will eradicate to a great level.
Sanitation refers to public health conditions such as drinking clean water, sewage
treatment, etc. All the effective tools and actions that help in keeping the environment
clean come under sanitation. Sanitation is another very important aspect. Many of the
common diseases such as roundworms spread through the faeces of infected people. By
ensuring that people do not defecate in the open, we can completely eliminate such
diseases and

even more severe ones such as the one caused by E. Coli

16.2.3 Difference between Cleaning, Disinfecting and Sanitizing

Some people think that disinfecting is same thing as cleaning or sanitizing. But they are
actually different:

Cleaning removes dirt, dust, crumbs, and germs from surfaces or objects. When you
clean, you will likely use soap (or detergent) and water to physically clean off the
surfaces and objects. This may not necessarily kill the germs. But since you removed
some of them, there are fewer germs that could spread infection to you.

Disinfecting uses chemicals (disinfectants) to kill germs on surfaces and objects. Some
common disinfectants are bleach and alcohol solutions. You usually need to leave the
disinfectant on the surfaces and objects for a certain period of time to kill the germs.
Disinfecting does not necessarily clean dirty surfaces or remove germs.

Sanitizing could be done by either cleaning, disinfecting, or both. Sanitizing means that
you are lowering the number of germs to a safe level. What is considered a safe level
depends on public health standards or requirements at a workplace, school, etc. For
example, there are sanitizing procedures for restaurants and other facilities that prepare
food. What you do to sanitize will vary, depending on your needs. You might be mopping
a floor using a mop, a chemical, and water. You might use a dishwasher to sanitize the
dishes. Or you could be using an antibacterial wipe on a tv remote.

16.2.4 Importanceof Personal Hygiene

Every workplace has its norms and policies. Cleanliness and personal hygiene are always
part of these norms and policies. All businesses have a dress code. This dress code is a
part of the self-hygiene of employees. Maintaining proper hygiene at the workplace is
very important for the good reputation of businesses. Both the official authorities and the
employees need to take care of hygiene. No boss would want a dirty person to represent
his company in the market or in front of the public. Similarly, no employee would want
to work in a firm with dirty restrooms, cubicles, and the environment. The contribution of
both parties is essential for the good reputation of the firm.Even if you have a sparkling
clean workplace, as much responsibility lies with your employees to maintain it as it does
with you.

To ensure they take their hygiene seriously, provide a workplace hygiene policy for every
member of staff so they know what is expected of them. Be careful to install hand
sanitizers, or even have tubs of anti-bacterial hand wipes, around the space to enable staff
to clean their hands as often as they need to.

Every employee should be responsible for cleaning their own space, and this should be
laid out in the policy. Then, place posters around the workplace to remind them, such as
handwashing posters in the bathroom.

If employees undertake this responsibility seriously, then the risk of infection will be
reduced. To keep it simple, employees should:

 Clean up after themselves

 Wash any cups/mugs daily

 Wash hands after using the washroom

 Use sanitizer throughout the day

 Regularly wipe down their workstation

16.2 FIRST AID AT WORKPLACE

As you are aware, first aid has been practiced in the world since antiquity. There is enough
evidence that it was used to give relief to the injured and sick persons in wars and
calamities in India since the times of Mahabharata. The use of first aid techniques
expanded and improved with time, but it got the real fillip when the Red Cross Movement
started in the world about 150 years ago. Consequently, The Indian Red Cross Society was
established in 1920 through an Act of the Parliament. Until then, the St. John Ambulance
carried out Red Cross work in addition to its normal activities. To provide the right and
effective help before a trained health worker is available or the victim reaches a health
facility, it needs to be given by the laypersons who happen to be present wherever a person
suffers from an injury or illness. This will only be possible when a large number of
laypeople are trained in evidence-based first aid techniques. Presently, about 6 lakh
persons are trained in India every year in the basic first aid. The number looks impressive,
but is not adequate considering the huge population and vast area not having good
communication facilities. When you provide basic medical care to someone experiencing
a sudden injury or illness, it’s known as first aid. In some cases, first aid consists of the
initial support provided to someone in the middle of a medical emergency. This support
might help them survive until professional help arrives. In other cases, first aid consists of
the care provided to someone with a minor injury. For example, first aid is often all that’s
needed to treat minor burns, cuts, and insect stings.

16.3.1 Defining First-Aid

First aid is the first assistance or treatment given to a casualty or a sick person for any
injury or sudden illness before the arrival of an ambulance, the arrival of a qualified
paramedical or medical person or before arriving at a facility that can provide
professional medical care. As a consequence of disaster or civil strife people suffer
injuries which requires urgent care and transportation to the nearest healthcare facility.

AIMS OF FIRST AID

The aims of first aid are:

-to preserve life,

- to prevent the worsening of one’s medical condition,

- to promote recovery, and

- to help to ensure safe transportation to the nearest healthcare facility.

The basic idea of first aid is to sustain somebody's life,prevent any causalities conditions
from becoming worse and to help casualty in recovering process

THE FIRST AIDER

A First Aider is the term describing any person who has received a certificate from an
authorized training body indicating that he or she is qualified to render first aid. First aid
certifications issued by St. John Ambulance Association and the Indian Red Cross
Society are awarded to candidates who have attended a course of theoretical and practical
work and who have passed a professionally supervised examination.

16.3.2 Dealing with an emergency

Emergency situations vary greatly but there are four main steps that always apply:

1. Make the area safe.

2. Evaluate the injured person’s condition.

3. Seek help.

4. Give first aid.

STEP 1: MAKE THE AREA SAFE

Your own safety should always come first. As a first aider, you should:

try to find out what has just happened;

check for any danger: is there a threat from traffic, fire, electricity cables, etc.;

never approach the scene of an accident if you are putting yourself in danger;

do your best to protect both the injured person(s) and other people on the scene;

be aware that the property of the injured person is at risk. Theft can occur. So mind

your safety, andseek police or emergency help if an accident scene is unsafe and you
cannot offer

help without putting yourself in danger.

STEP 2: EVALUATE THE CONDITION OF THE SICK OR INJURED PERSON

If it is safe, you canevaluate the sick or injured person’s condition. Always check that he
isconscious and breathing normally. Situations in which consciousness or breathing
areimpaired are often life threatening.

Bleeding can also happen inside the body and can be life-threatening although the loss
ofblood is not seen.
STEP 3: SEEK HELP

Once you have evaluated the sick or injured person’s condition you can decide if help is
needed urgently. If help is needed, ask a bystander to call for help. Ask him to come back
and confirm that help is underway. If you call for help, be prepared to have the following
information available:

 the location where the help is required (address, street, specific reference points,

 location; if in a building: floor, room);

 the telephone or mobile number you are calling from;

 the nature of the problem;

 what happened (car accident, fall, sudden illness, explosion, …);

 how many injured;

 nature of the injuries (if you know);

 what type of help is needed:

 ambulance,police,fire brigade, orother services;

 and any other information that might help.

You might be asked to give your name. Always stay calm and answer their questions
calmly. The call takers are professionals and will give you further guidance. If an
ambulance can be obtained in a short time, it is best to call for one and use it to transport
the injured or sick person to the healthcare facility. An ambulance is the best way to
transport ill or injured persons, but they are not always and everywhere quickly available.
You can always ask the police for help. If no help is available, you will have to arrange
transport yourself (in a van, a truck, a car, an auto-rickshaw, a motorbike, a scooter, a
bike-rickshaw, a bike...). Always move the sick or injured person with great care.
STEP 4: PROVIDE FIRST AID

Give first aid in accordance with the instructions given in the following chapters in this
manual. When providing first aid, try to protect an ill or injured person from cold and
heat. Do not give anything to eat or drink to a person who is:

 severely injured,
  feeling nausea,

 becoming sleepy, or

 falling unconscious.

To support him through the ordeal, follow these simple tips:

a. tell the sick or injured person your name, explain how you are going to help
him andreassure him. This will help to relax him;

b. listen to the person and show concern and kindness;

c. make him as comfortable as possible;

d. if he is worried, tell him that it is normal to be afraid;

e. if it is safe to do so, encourage family and loved ones to stay with him;
andexplain to the sick or injured person what has happened and what is going
to happen.

16.3.3 Principals of First Aid

Certain important principles involved in the first aid are:

• Act calmly and logically.

• Be in control both of himself and problem.

• Be gentle and firm and speak to the casualty kindly but purposely.

• Build up trust by talking to casualty throughout the examination and treatment.

• Explain to casualty what you are going to do.

• Answer honestly and avoid giving misleading information.

• Never leave the casualty alone.

• Continuously reassure the casualty.

• Never separate a child from its parent or guardian.

• Use quickest means of transport.

• inform the police about serious accidents. Inform the relatives of casualty.
Things to avoid in Fist aid

DO NOT

• Touch a wound with your fingers

• Put a unclean dressing or cloth over wound.

• Allow bleeding to go unchecked.

• Allow a crowd to gather around the casualty.

• Move a patient without unnecessarily.

• Move fracture patient without splints.

• Neglect shock.

• Use of too hat or heated objects.

• fail to give artificial respiration.

• permit air to reach a burned skin surface.

• Wash wounds

• leave a tourniquet on for over 20 minutes without loosening it.

• A tourniquet is a strip of cloth that is tied tightly rounded an injured arm or leg in order to
stop its bleeding.

First aid box is a box containing medical supplies for emergency use is kept in h
department. Ideally it should be of 17 ½"" x 10"x6 ½" and dirt proof. A first aid box must
at least contain' the following item: A first aid book,Antiseptic cream, Savlon or any other
antiseptic solution,Paracetamol,Aspirin, Soframycin and skin ointment, Clinical
thermometer, Sterilized white absorbent gauze, Sterilized dressing no. 18 & 24, Sterilized
cotton wool, Crepe bandage, Adhesive plaster, Roller bandage of various sizes,
Unbleached triangular bandages, Eye pad, Tweezers, Dressing scissors, Safety pins, Splint
etc.

16.3.4 Managing an Incident

At any incident the first aider will follow a plan of action. This will include assessing the
situation and scene, assessing the casualty, getting help, treating the casualty and dealing
with the aftermath. The time it takes, and methods used, may change according to the
circumstances and the severity of the situation, but this process will always be carried out.

ASSESS THE SITUATION AND SCENE

What has happened? Look for clues to tell you. Do not approach the casualty until you are
sure it is safe to do so. You must recognize and manage any dangers to yourself and the
casualty at all times. Remember that the danger to you may not be obvious. Think about
the immediate space around your casualtye.g. spillages on deck, broken glass, wood
splinters. Think about the dangers peculiar to your own working environment.

ASSESSING THE CASUALTY

The initial assessment of the casualty is called the primary survey. This is the priority in
any first aid situation. Does the casualty have an Airway? Is the casualty Breathing? What
injuries are there? What can the casualty tell you?

GETTING HELP
Good communication is vital in any first aid incident. When calling for help the
information that will be required is: the location of the,incident what has happened, what
help is required, how many casualties, there are what injuries sustained.

TREATING THE CASUALTY

Constantly be aware of danger to you and your casualty. Everything you do must comply
with the 3P’s. Whilst treating the casualty you must always be aware of their “ABC”

RESUSCITATION

First make sure that you, the casualty and any bystanders are safe. Shout at the casualty as
you approach them and see if they respond. They should be told to stay still. If there is no
response to shouting, you should kneel by the casualty. Shout again while gently tapping
and shaking their shoulders. If there is still no response, turn the casualty onto their back if
they are not already in that position. At this point, if you have not already done so, you
should shout for help.

1. OPEN THE AIRWAY– Make sure the casualty has an open airway. Keep one
hand on their forehead and gently tilt the head back. Place fingertips under the
chin and lift the chin up. This action opens the airway by moving the tongue away
from the airway entrance.
2. CHECK FOR BREATHING- With your head next to the face of the casualty,
keep the chin supported and look, listen and feel for evidence of normal breathing
for no longer than 10 seconds. Can breathe be felt on your cheek? Is there chest
rise and fall? Can any sounds be heard? In the first few minutes after cardiac
arrest, a casualty may be barely breathing, or taking infrequent, noisy, gasps. This
 is often termed agonal breathing and must not be confused with normal breathing.
Agonal gasps are present in up to 40% of cardiac arrest casualties If breathing is
not normal, or if you have any doubts, act as if it is not normal, raise the alarm
and ask for help including an AED if there is one available.
3. COMMENCE COMPRESSIONS – Kneel by the side of the casualty placing the
heel of one hand in the center of their chest. Place the heel of the other hand on
top of the heel of the first. Interlock fingers and raise them off the chest ensuring
no pressure is applied on the ribs. No pressure should be put on the lower end of
the breast bone or the upper abdomen. Positioned vertically over the casualty, and
with arms locked straight, with hand, elbow and shoulder in line, press down on
the breastbone to a depth of 5 - 6 cm. After each compression release all the
pressure on the chest, letting it return to its original position, but do not remove
hands from the chest. Repeat this at a rate of 100 – 120 compressions per minute.
Complete 30 compressions.
4. DELIVER BREATHS (VENTILATIONS)- After 30 compressions, open the
airway using the head tilt chin lift method. Pinch the soft part of the nose using
thumb and index finger of one hand. Maintain chin lift with the other hand
keeping the mouth open. Take a normal breath and place your lips around the
casualty’s mouth making sure there is a good seal. Blow steadily in the mouth and
watch for the chest to rise as in normal breathing. This takes about 1 second. Take
your mouth away and watch for the chest to fall as the air comes out. Repeat this
once more. This completes two effective rescue breaths.
5. CONTINUE WITH CPR– Return to the chest without delay and give 30 more
compressions. Continue with a ratio of 30 compressions to 2 breaths If you are
unable to do rescue breaths give continuous chest compressions only.
6. IF AN AED ARRIVES- Switch on the AED Attach the electrode pads on the
casualty’s bare chest
 If more than one rescuer is present, CPR should be continued while electrode pads
are being attached to the chest, follow the spoken/visual directions
 Ensure that nobody is touching the casualty while the AED is analyzing the
rhythm.
7. WHEN TO STOP CPR - Do not interrupt resuscitation until: You are told to stop
by a health professional (or the master)
  You become exhausted
 You are in danger
 The casualty is definitely waking up, moving, opening eyes and breathing
normally
 It is rare for CPR alone to restart the heart. Unless you are certain the person has
recovered continue CPR. If you are certain the casualty is breathing normally, but is
still unresponsive, place them in the recovery position
8. DROWNING -Where a casualty has been rescued from drowning, they have not
been breathing and do not have oxygen in their blood to be circulated. In
drowning incidents, after discovering the casualty is not breathing, give 5 rescue
breaths and then continue with compressions and ventilations at a ratio of 30:2. If
you are on your own, perform CPR for 1 min before going for help.
9. RECOVERY POSITION -There are several variations of the recovery position,
each with its own advantages. No single position is perfect for all casualties. The
position should be stable, near a true lateral position with the head dependent, and
with no pressure on the chest to impair breathing.

SHOCK

Shock is a lessening of the vital activities of the body caused by injury or illness. It is a
physical condition and should not be confused with emotional shock. Its speed of onset
will vary and may not depend on the severity of the injury. It may result in
unconsciousness and death if not managed immediately.These result from the effect of
reduced blood supply to vital organs and the body’s own efforts to compensate. pale
colorskin, cold and clammy, profusesweating, feelcold, etc.

CheckYour Progress - 1

1) Whatis thedifference between Cleaning and Sanitizing?

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2) What are the essentials of a First Aid box?

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3) Discuss the importance of personal Hygiene.

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16.4 INDOOR AIR QUALITY(IAQ)

In recent years, indoor air pollution has become an international health concern.Research
has shown that people spend about 90% of their time indoors and 75%of their time
indoors in their homes. Some people such as children, the elderly,and infirm spend most
or all of their time indoors. Research also indicatesthat pollutant levels can be higher
indoors than outdoors. Concerns about indoorair quality have led to indoor air
management becoming a new consumer skill. Stepsinvolved in indoor air management
include identifying a pollutant of concern, controlling it at its source, and if that fails,
mitigation. Residential indoor air pollutantsinclude biological contaminants, volatile
organic compounds, radon and other soilgases, combustion pollutants, lead, and asbestos.

16.4.1 Major Pollutants affecting Indoor Air Quality

Most of us spend a lot of our lifetime indoors and breathe air available inside
boundaries. There are many chemicals in the same air of our home, resident, office or
workplace which are able to harm our respiratory system and can put our life on a risk.
These are not generally only chemicals present in air whereas many other pollutants
like harmful gases, living organisms such as molds and pests around us in the air, which
can be life threatening to us. Let us have a look on the following major air pollutants.

Biological contaminants

Biological contaminants include mold, viruses, bacteria, pollen, animal dander, and dust
mites. Moisture plays an essential role in the presence of biological contaminants. Warm
air holds more water vapour than cold air. The cube on the left represents a volume of air
that is at 75°F, with 30% relative humidity. This means that it is holding 30% of the
moisture that it is capable of holding. When that same amount of air cools to 40°F, it
contains the same amount of water, but it is now at 100% relative humidity. In other
words, it is holding all of the moisture that it can hold. Moisture will condense at 100%
relative humidity. This is also called the saturation point or the dew point temperature.

When warm, moist air comes in contact with a cold surface, the water vapor in that air
condenses to liquid water. In the case of a cold window, when warmer, humid air moves
closer to the window, its temperature drops, and therefore its moisture-holding capability
also drops. When this air touches the window, it condenses. The same thing happens on a
warm and humid summer day, when warm, humid air condenses on cold beverage
bottles, cans, or glasses. Sometimes, condensation on a window can be a nuisance. Other
times, it can be serious enough that moisture will accumulate on the sash and on the sill,
causing mold growth, warping that will damage the airtight seal between panes of glass,
and even rotting. Mold spores are ubiquitous, and when a spore lands on a surface at the
right temperature, with a food source—in this case, cellulose—and moisture, mold will
grow.Mold is a fungus; and as fungi grow, they release large numbers of spores into the
air. And as mold digests cellulosic products, such as wood, as food, it releases carbon
dioxide, water, and microbiological volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) into the air.
Airborne spores affect asthmatics and people with allergies by acting as asthma triggers
and the cause of respiratory illness. Microbiological volatile organic compounds are
responsible for the musty smell associated with mold growth. Inhalation of MVOCs by
humans can cause mycotoxicosis, symptoms of which include difficulty breathing, sore
throat, bloody nose, and skin rashes. Preventing health problems caused by exposure to
mold is done by controlling moisture in homes. This means maintaining relative
humidity at levels that do not allow for moisture condensation on windows and other
surfaces, regularly inspecting plumbing pipes and fixtures for leaks, and preventing the
entry of water from outside the home by maintaining roofs and siding and having a
water-managed foundation. Another biological contaminant commonly found in homes
is the house dust mite, which feeds on skin cells that are naturally shed from human
bodies. Focal pellets from this microscopic arachnid contain a protein that is an allergen
and asthma trigger. Dust mites thrive in humid environments and live in upholstered
furniture, bedding, carpeting, and stuffed animals. They cannot survive at relative
humidity levels below 50% [6]. Other biological contaminants in indoor air include
viruses, bacteria, pollen, and animal dander. All of these can be controlled through
regular house cleaning.

Ventilation

A number of factors contribute to the high levels of energy efficiency that are now
possible in new and existing homes. Air tightening measures—those that prevent air
infiltration through the building shell—are among the most critical of these. In new
construction and in the improvement of an existing home, low air infiltration rates are
achieved through an attention to the details of both construction materials and practices.
And as air leakage has decreased in homes, ventilation has become a residential design
issue because of problems that arise from excess moisture and other indoor air pollutants.
Beforeair tightening measures were as widespread as they now are, ventilation of homes
was achieved naturally, as air leaked in and out of cracks in the building shell—around
windows and doors, where dissimilar building materials meet, and other places. Natural
ventilation is undesirable because it can never be controlled. Its rate depends on wind
speed, vegetation around a house, site topography, and other variables. And natural
ventilation imposes large energy costs on a home because the incoming infiltration air
must be heated in the winter in cold climates. But in the absence of natural ventilation,
mechanical ventilation is necessary for removing moisture and other pollutants as well as
bringing fresh air into a home. A basic mechanical ventilation system consists of exhaust
fans, which are ducted to the outdoors, in kitchens and bathrooms. Conventional clothes
dryers should always be ducted to the outdoors, although some electric clothes dryers
vent into the washer. And some clothes washers also act as dryers. An issue that arises in
airtight homes is the provision of make-up air for exhaust systems. As exhaust fans pull
air out of a house, that air must be replaced. In a leaky house, that air is supplied through
infiltration. This happens because the fans place negative pressure on a house and, if no
windows are open, pull in air from cracks that exist in the building enclosure or from a
chimney, which can be dangerous if the chimney is connected to an operating
combustion appliance. Other ventilation systems exist that not only pull air out of a
house but also provide make-up air.

A house comes under negative pressure as warm air natu-rally rises to upper levels of a
house. That warm air escapes through various faults in the building enclosure, including
cracks that form at junctions of different types of construction materials, such as those
where brick meets wood siding. Warm air also escapes from unsealed cracks around
windows and doors. All air that leaves a house in this manner must be replenished. This
happens when air leaving the house creates suction pressure on lower house levels,
which causes soil gases, including radon, to be pulled into the house.

It should also be taken care of that all combustion appliances use some type of fuel,
whether it is fuel oil, natural gas, propane, or wood. Oxygen is needed to fuel the fire,
and if that oxygen comes from indoor air, it will put negative pressure on a house, just
like the stack effect does. Air gets drawn into the appliance, fuels the fire, and that air
needs to be replaced. The replaced air comes in through cracks in the building enclosure
as well as cracks in the foundation of the basement, which can allow soil gases to enter
the home. A solution to negative pressure caused by a combustion appliance is to use a
sealed combustion appliance. This type of furnace or boiler brings air to the combustion
chamber through a pipe that originates outside the house. Sealed systems typically have a
second heat exchanger that extracts heat from combustion gases that would normally be
exhausted by the chimney in a conventional system. Instead, extracting additional heat
from combustion gases results in exhaust gases that are cool enough to be exhausted
from the house through a pipe through an exterior wall, much like a clothes dryer vent.
Because the combustion air comes from outside the house, the building does not come
under negative pressure. Approaches to residential ventilation can be categorized as
exhaust, supply, and balanced systems. Fans that pull air out of a space such as a
bathroom exhaust fan or a kitchen range ventilation hood comprise basic exhaust
ventilation systems that most people are familiar with. As noted above, however, these
fans can place an airtight house under negative pressure. Variations of exhaust systems
provide make-up air to the house in some manner. The simplest way to do this is to
install passive vents, which are small, screened openings in exterior walls. These admit
air by opening when the home comes under negative pressure, such as when an exhaust
fan is turned on. Passive vents are only recommended for use in very small, airtight
homes in which depressurization is safe. Home depressurization is safe if all combustion
appliances receive combustion air from outside the home; there are no fireplaces in the
home; the home has no attached garage; and the home is not located in a high radon area.
More commonly used than exhaust fans with passive vents is a central exhaust system
that pulls air out of a house combined with a fan that pulls fresh air into the house and
delivers it through ducts to individual rooms, usually each bedroom and living area.
Whole-house fans are effective in this type of supply system. A variation of this system,
if the house has a forced air furnace, is to deliver outdoor air to the return duct, so that it
can be mixed with indoor air and heated before it is delivered to the rooms. A heat
recovery ventilator (HRV)—also referred to as an air-to-air heat exchanger—is a
balanced system that consists of a device which pulls fresh air into a home at the same
time that it is exhausting air out of the home. The two airstreams are separated but pass
over a core of conductive plates or heat exchanger that transfers heat from the warmer
airstream to the colder one. A heat recovery ventilator also dehumidifies the home,
because the warmer airstream contains moisture that condenses during the exchange
process. The resulting water is delivered to a drain through a tube. HRVs can be stand-
alone units with ducts or they can be integrated with the ducts of a forced air furnace. In
addition to the basic systems described above, other variations exist, including central
exhaust/supply systems with de-humidification and systems with air filtration options.
Several studies have analyzed the cost effectiveness of various ventilation systems by
examining purchase and installation costs, annual operating costs, and additional
imposed heating costs (to heat incoming air). In addition to costs, benefits that are
difficult to quantify include increased human comfort and the prevention of moisture
problems.
The International Residential Code (IRC) specifies mechanical ventilation standards for
new homes, which vary depending on the size of the house, number of bedrooms, and
tested air infiltration rate. The infiltration rate is measured with a blower door test, a
specialized piece of equipment that measures a home’s air change per hour (ACH). ACH
measures the extent to which outdoor air leaks into homes through cracks around
windows, doors, and where dissimilar building mate-rails meet. An airtight home has a
low ACH; a leaky, drafty home has a high ACH.

Volatile organic compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are gases released from some solids or liquids at
room temperature. Many VOCs found in household air have adverse health impacts,
including eye, nose, and throat irritation; asthma exacerbation; lung, kidney, and central
nervous system damage; and cancer. VOC sources include building products, paints,
strippers, solvents, wood preservatives, air fresheners, hobby supplies, pesticides, dry-
cleaned clothing, and more.

The World Health Organization (WHO) categorizes VOCs by the ease with which they
are emitted from materials and uses the terms very volatile organic compounds (VVOC),
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). As
mentioned earlier, VOCs produced by mold are referred to as microbiologic volatile
organic compounds (MVOCs). But all of these fall into the broad category of VOCs.
Formaldehyde, a colorless, strong-smelling gas, is a common VOC used in the
production of building materials, cabinets, furnishings, household cleaners, paints,
landscape materials, and other products. It is used in the production of plywood, particle
board, and medium density fiberboard. Formaldehyde is released into the air in a process
referred to as off-gassing. Formaldehyde is also a component of cigarette smoke and a
combustion product of wood, kerosene, natural gas, oil, and gasoline. Adverse health
effects from formaldehyde exposure include eye, nose, and throat irritation; wheezing
and coughing; and allergic reactions. Long-term exposure to high levels of formaldehyde
can cause cancer in humans. Other VOCs of concern in indoor air include benzene,
styrene, xylene, and methylene chloride. Benzene is a human carcinogen that is present
in environmental tobacco smoke, solvents, plywood, particle board, fiberglass, wood
paneling, adhesives, paint, caulking, and wood strippers. Styrene is used in the
 manufacturing of plastics, rubber, food containers, carpet backing, vinyl flooring, and
resins. Acute health effects from styrene exposure include mucous membrane irritation;
depression; muscle weakness; and eye, nose, and throat irritation. Chronic effects include
hearing loss, peripheral neuropathy, and kidney damage. Xylene is a solvent and is a
component of rubber and adhesives. Health effects from exposure include depression of
the central nervous system, dizziness, irritability, and vomiting. Methylene chloride,
which is also known as dichloromethane, is used in paint, paint strippers, and adhesives.
Exposure can cause damage to the central nervous system, liver cancer, and lung cancer.
This is not an exhaustive list of VOCs found in homes but is meant to illustrate potential
hazards from common materials.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and safety

When using any product that contains VOCs, provide adequate ventilation to the work
area, meet or exceed any label precautions, buy in quantities that will be consumed
quickly, and dispose of containers safely. Do not allow children or pets to become
exposed to these products. Low-VOC- and No-VOC-containing products are becoming
widely available. When possible, use these products instead of conventional alternatives.

Radon is a radioactive gas that is formed in the soil. It can enter indoors through cracks
and openings in floors and walls that are in contact with the ground. Radon is the
leading cause of lung cancer among nonsmokers, and the second leading cause of lung
cancer overall.

Asthma triggers are commonly found in homes, schools, and offices and include mold,
dust mites, secondhand smoke, and pet dander. A home may have mold growing on a
shower curtain, dust mites in pillows, blankets or stuffed animals, secondhand smoke in
the air, and cat and dog hairs on the carpet or floors. Other common asthma triggers
include some foods and pollutants in the air. Asthma triggers cause symptoms including
coughing, chest tightness, wheezing, and breathing problems. An asthma attack occurs
when symptoms keep getting worse or are suddenly very severe. Asthma attacks can be
life threatening. However, asthma is controllable with the right medicines and by
reducing asthma triggers.

16.4.2 Improving Indoor Air Quality

The Indoor Air Quality can be improved by taking some precautions and steps and can
result in a very good Indoor air quality and hence improvised life cycle can be maintained
by the approaches taken in a well direction. following are the ways or steps which can be
taken to improve the air quality inside the building -
1. By properly Controlling the sources of Pollution-Usually the most effective way
to improve indoor air is to eliminate individual sources or reduce their emissions.
2. By Providing Proper ventilation-Increasing the amount of fresh air brought
indoors helps reduce pollutants inside. When weather permits, open the windows
and doors, or run an air conditioner available with the vent control open.
Bathroom and kitchen fans that exhaust to the outdoors also increase ventilation
and help remove pollutants. Always ventilate and follow manufacturers’
instructions when you use products or appliances that may release pollutants into
the indoor air quality.
3. By regular cleaning of filters – Central heaters and air conditioners have filters to
trap dust and other pollutants in the air. Make sure to change or clean the filters
regularly, following the instructions on the package
4. By Humidity adjustment –The humidity inside can affect the concentrations of
some indoor air pollutants. For example, high humidity keeps the air moist and
increases the likelihood of mold. Keep indoor humidity between 30 and 50
percent. Use a moisture or humidity gauge, available at most hardware stores, to
see if the humidity in your home is at a good level. To increase humidity, use a
vaporizer or humidifier. To decrease humidity, open the windows if it is not
humid outdoors. If it is warm, turn on the air conditioner or adjust the humidity
setting on the humidifier.

16.5 WATER QUALITY

As we know About 71 percent of the Earth's surface is water-covered, and the oceans hold
about 96.5 percent of all Earth's water, hence knowing about each aspect of water is very
crucial to understand its importance in day-to-day life.

16.5.1 Water is life

Almost Water is the most essential components of all living beings owing to the
dependence of the existence of life on it. Living beings survive on food, food is produced
by plants and the growth of plants depends on water. Without water, no creatures on the
earth can survive and will put billions of lives at stake. However, the modernization
of living style, influences by industrialization and technological-based farming over
traditional farming practices, has led to the production of many hazardous substances that
contaminate the water bodies. This might certainly threaten the survival of mankind and
any other species that depend on its existence. The World recognizes deterioration of
water quality as a serious concern, and they started realizing the need for forming the
associations and organizations to combat this issue. There are few nations, owing to
several reasons, consider the industrial development and technological approaches as
primary focus, overlooking the need for water quality as a less concern issue. With time,
the issue has become more apparent that the water we consume is becoming less safe and
more toxic, it is very evident from the different sourced observation that, a big part of
population on daily basis suffers from water-borne diseases. Moreover, the implication of
low water quality has given birth to the destruction of plants and aquatic lives. Therefore,
it is of paramount importance that we monitor and make sure that the water remains at its
natural existence, with less or no destruction. Many works of the literature suggest that
deterioration of water quality is caused by the use of chemicals in the farming system.
Scientific farming which anticipates the uses of chemicals is one of the main sources of
nitrogen and phosphorus in surface waters, and their excess supply can result in
eutrophication, impairing the health of ecosystems. Pesticides that are applied to
agricultural land have also been detected within water bodies, and there is raised concern
over their potential influences on non-target species, water quality, and human health. It
is also due to the toxic gases emitted enormously by the manufacturingindustrial
plants and automobiles industries, which pollute the water bodies with its outlet waste.

16.5.2 WATER QUALITY AND WATER POLLUTION

Water Quality may be defined as the chemical, physical and micro-biological
characteristics of available water, usually in respect to its suitability for a designated use as
well as its functions. Water can be used for quenching thirst, recreation, drinking, fisheries,
agriculture or industry. Water can be taken in visible form i.e., juices, milk and beverages
or as invisible in the form of fruits, vegetables etc. As commercialization and
industrialization have progressed, inefficient and outdated practices, lack of proper
awareness and a plethora of other circumstances have led to water pollution.
Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of water bodies such as rivers, lakes,
oceans, groundwater and aquifers which gets contaminated with industrial or agricultural
effluents. When water gets contaminated, it adversely affects all forms of life that directly
or indirectly depend on this source. The effects of water pollution can be felt for years to
come.

Common Water pollution sources in India

 Urbanization.
 Deforestation.
 Industrial effluents.
 Social and Religious Practices.
 Use of Detergents and Fertilizers.
 Agricultural run-offs- Use of insecticides and
pesticides.

16.5.3 Effects of water pollution

The effect of water pollution depends on the types of pollutants and their concentration.
Also, to, the locate the water bodies is an important factor to determine the levels of
pollution.

 The Water bodies joining the urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the
consequences of dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial
establishments.

 Water pollution is far-reaching affects aquatic life. It also affects their metabolism,
and behavior changes, and causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin chemical that
causes a lot of problems in reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This
chemical is bio-accumulated in fish, chicken and meat products. These Chemicals
travel up the food chain before entering the human body.

 The effect of pollution on can have a wider impact on the edible products. It disrupts
the food chain. The soft silvery white materials are some toxic substances, these
solvents are entering in the food chain through animals i.e., fish when consumed by
animals, humans can continue to misbalance the life at higher levels.
  Humans are affected by pollution and can invite diseases such as hepatitis through
faceal matter present in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit water
can always cause an outbreak such as typhoid, cholera, etc.

 The effect of water pollution depends upon the type of pollutants and their
concentration. Also, the area or location of water bodies is an important factor to
determine the levels of pollution.

 Water bodies nearby of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the result of
dumping waste materials and toxic chemicals by industrial and various commercial
establishments.

 Water pollution drastically affects marine and aquatic life. It affects their metabolism,
and behavior, and causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a toxic chemical that
causes a lot of problems from reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This
chemical is bio accumulated in fish, chicken and meat products. Chemicals as this
travel up the food chain before entering the human body.

 The consequences of water pollution can have a very large impact on the food chain.
It disrupts the food chain. Chemicals like Cadmium and lead are some toxic
substances, these pollutants upon entering the food chain through animals can
continue to disrupt at higher levels.

 Humans are much affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis
through faecal matter in water sources. Improper or faulty drinking water treatment
and unfit water can always cause an outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera,
typhoid etc.

 The ecosystem surrounding us can be critically affected, modified and restructured

because of water pollution.

16.5.4 Methods of water Treatment

1 Primary treatment

There are four methods of water treatment which comes under the category of primary
treatment: chlorination; ozone treatment; ultraviolet treatment; and membrane filtration.
Chlorination: Fresh or sea water can be chlorinated using the chemicals in the form of
either chlorine gas or hypochlorite’s. The Chlorinated water minimizes slime development
on working surfaces and helps control unpleasant odor and smell.

Ozone treatment: Though the method of Ozone treatment method is relatively simple, this
method needs very special equipment, supply of pure oxygen and highly trained operators.
Ozone is generated by passing oxygen through an ozone generator system. It is then
bubbled through a gas diffuser which is situated at the bottom of an absorption column, in
a direction just opposite to the flow of raw water. Retention is very critical and the size of
the absorption column depends variably on the flow of water.

Pure oxygen may not be readily available locally and Ozonized water is corrosive to metal
piping.The Ozone decomposes rapidly into oxygen and the Water has to be aerated prior
to use to remove the ozone.

Ultraviolet irradiation treatment: This method using the rays is often used to treat potable
drinking water. Successful commercial installations have been made to purify marine
water in large fish processing system. In this method the U-V rays in the range of 2500-
2600 Angstrom units are lethal to all types of bacteria. There is no organoleptic, chemical
or physical change to the water quality and even the overexposure does not have any ill
effects but we should keep in mind that the electricity supply should be reliable as the
turbidity reduces efficiency and the Water may require prior treatment like filtration and
even the unit requires regular inspection and maintenance.

Membrane filtration: The Osmotic membrane treatment methods are generally much
expensive for installation of commercial scale installations. Combinations of membrane
treatment with U-V treatment units are available for the domestic and household use.

2 Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment of water consists of sedimentation method and filtration followed by

primary chlorination treatment. Sedimentation can be carried out by holding the raw water
in ponds,tanks,etc. Cartridge filtration, rapid sand filtration, multimedia sand filtration,
and up-flow filtration are four basic type of secondary treatment. Cartridge filtration
system is designed to handle waters of low turbidity and will remove solids in the 5 to
100-micronrange. The rapid sand filtration system consists of a layer of gravel with layers
of sand of decreasing coarseness above the gravel. As solid mass builds up on thetop, the
flow decreases until it stops. This is corrected by back-flushing of the system to remove
the solid build up on top. The multimedia sand filtration method is very similar to the
rapid sand filtration method whereas the up flow filtration can be at atmospheric pressure
or by using a pressurized system.

3 Complete treatments

The Complete treatment consists of flocculation, coagulation, sedimentation and filtration

followed by disinfection. The first two methods i.e. Flocculation and coagulation will
assist in removing contaminants in the water, causing turbidity, colorodor and taste which
cannot be removed by the method of sedimentation alone. This can be achieved by the
proper addition of lime to make the water slightly alkaline in nature, followed by the
addition of coagulants like Alum, ferric sulphate or ferric chloride. The resultant
precipitate can be removed by the method of sedimentation and filtration.

Various Chemical treatment may be required to reduce the excessive levels of iron,
manganese, chalk, and organic matter. Such treatment is usually followed by the
clarification method. Iron can be removed by proper aeration or chlorination to produce a
flocculants which can be removed by using filtration method. Manganese may be removed
by aeration followed by adjustment of pH and up-flow filtration respectively. Most
available colors can be removed by treatment with ferric sulphate to precipitate the colors
present.

Check Your Progress - 2

1. What is meant by IAQ?

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What are the ways of improving Air Quality?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Discuss the methods of water treatment.

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

16.6 ENSURING A SAFE AND HEALTHY WORKPLACE, POLICY AND LAWS

PROTECTING YOUR WORKERS

It is the responsibility of the owner and manager to make the workplace safe and healthy,
to show workers that you expect them to work safely, and to create a work situation where
everyone feels that they can work safely without pressure on them. It is not acceptable to
put all the responsibility on the worker. We must all protect the health of workers.

Training is absolutely necessary so that workers can learn how to do the job correctly and
safely. Training only once is not enough – the training has to be repeated, with different
and practical examples, from time to time and each worker must demonstrate that he or
she understands the message. The reason for the training must be understood, its
importance must be emphasized, and the reasons for it must be made clear. The worker
must know why he or she is doing something in a certain way to be safe as well as how to
do it. With proper training comes understanding and then comes individual commitment
and acceptance by more and more workers, so that safe work practices become normal in
the workplace. When this level is reached in the workplace, it means workers looking out
for each other and correcting mistakes, rising morale, and fewer injuries. Training workers
about their rights and responsibilities as employees at the same time will give them the
confidence to solve problems and may convince them that their employer is serious about
protecting their health.

Medical care should start with evaluating workers who are being considered for
particularly demanding jobs or jobs that involve the safety of others. Medical examination
ensures their capacity to do the job safely, protects the safety of people who may depend
on them, determines their current state of health so that changes can be identified later, and
determines if they have a medical problem that the work may make worse. Good medical
care (which is often hard to find) can help prevent harmful effects that may occur after an
accident or exposure to a harmful substance but by then the damage is already done. That
is why most of this small book has to do with prevention instead of medical care for
injuries.

SAFETY

“Safety” usually means protection from physical hazards. When an accident happens,
production slows down and the worker usually cannot work, at least for a while. After a
serious accident or death, the worker’s family can be in danger because of loss of income
and support. This chapter examines the most common safety problems likely to be faced
by a small business. Safety hazards cause accidents and the injuries that result can be
serious. Safety hazards consist of things like sharp equipment, unsteady ladders,
scaffolding that can fall down, ditches or trenches that can collapse and bury someone
alive, water puddles on walkways where people can slip, poorly insulated or shorted
electrical connections, poor lighting where workers cannot clearly see what they are doing,
hot things that can burn, and confined spaces where poisonous gases can collect.

The most common accident in the workplace is a fall. Walking surfaces should be safe to
prevent workers from slipping, tripping, or falling. This includes aisles and passageways,
and stairways, covers, and guardrails. Wherever people could fall, there should be
handrails, protection from floor openings (such as holes in the floor), and well secured
ladders. Walking areas should be wide enough for people to pass one another easily, while
carrying whatever they will be holding. An elevated floor or walking surface, like a ramp,
scaffold, or balcony, should be strong enough to carry heavy loads, if that is how they will
be used. If the walking surface is not strong, there should be signs that show the maximum
weight that is safe to carry. Platforms and overhead walkways need railings so that
workers do not fall. It only takes a stumble or a moment’s distraction for this to happen
without a guard rail. A broken arm or leg can mean weeks off work and a head injury can
sometimes mean disability for life. Guardrails and covers also prevent workers from being
injured by falling or from falling objects overhead. Guardrails should always be present
where workers may be around vats, holes, manholes, ditches, the entrance to tanks, and
anywhere else a person could fall in.

Ladders are used every day but can be dangerous when they are not used correctly.
Injuries can occur when a portable ladder is placed on uneven or unstable surfaces, when
workers reach too far to one side and cause the ladder to move to the side, and when the
ladder is not braced properly or is supported only by other workers. Ladders are used
every day but can be dangerous when they are not used correctly. Injuries can occur when
a portable ladder is placed on uneven or unstable surfaces, when workers reach too far to
one side and cause the ladder to move to the side, and when the ladder is not braced
properly or is supported only by other workers.

Fires are responsible for more deaths than any other workplace emergencies. A small fire
can get big fast and spread quickly. Even a small fire can kill or injure workers and a big
fire can kill many people and shut down a business for good. Local governments have fire
safety codes and businesses must follow their rules exactly. What to do in case of fire
should also be the first issue in the company’s emergency management plan.

One of the most common and dangerous safety hazards is heat. Overheating can make
people sick and can even kill a person. The heat can come from hot weather or from an
industrial source such as a furnace. Heat stress, as it is called, is a severe problem in
construction work especially in tropical and desert climates. The combination of heat and
high humidity is particularly dangerous, because the humidity does not allow the human
body to get rid of heat.

STRESS
Stress is what people feel when they are faced with something they are not sure they can
handle. Stress is not just about emotion. It also affects the body and the ability to work.
Good stress happens when people feel challenged and stretched to do their best. Bad
stress happens when people feel overwhelmed, exhausted, and defeated. Unrelieved
stress can cause both major and minor health problems. These include heart disease,
upset stomach, ulcer, depression, and sleep problems, and can seriously interfere with
other conditions such as diabetes.

Policy and laws

For Ensuring a safe and healthy workplace, The Constitution of India has provided
detailed provisions for the rights of the citizens and also lays down the Directive
Principles of State Policy which allows to create an aim to which the activities of the
state are to be guided. On the basis of these laid Directive Principles, Government of
India is highly committed to regulate all economic activities for effective management of
safety and health risks at working areas and to provide measures so as to ensuring a very
safe and healthy working conditions for every working man and woman in the country.
Government of India has recognized that safety and health of workers has a very positive
impact on the productivity as well as the economic and even social development.
Prevention is an integral part of the economic activities as high safety and health
standard at workplace is equally important as good business performance for new as well
as existing industries.

Government of India, Ministry of Labour and Employment has set a national policy on
safety, health and environment to ensure a safe and healthy workplace.

NATIONAL POLICY ON SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT AT WORK

PLACE

16.6.2.1 PREAMBLE
The Constitution of India provide detailed provisions for the rights of the citizens and also lays
down the Directive Principles of State Policy which set an aim to which the activities of the state
are to be guided.
1.2 These Directive Principles provide
(a) for securing the health and strength of employees, men and women;
b) that the tender age of children are not abused;
c) that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age
or strength;
d) just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief are provided; and
e) that the Government shall take steps, by suitable legislation or in any other way, to secure
the participation of employee in the management of undertakings, establishments or other
organisations engaged in any industry.
1.3 On the basis of these Directive Principles as well as international instruments, Government
is committed to regulate all economic activities for management of safety and health risks at
workplaces and to provide measures so as to ensure safe and healthy working conditions for every
working man and woman in the nation. Government recognizes that safety and health of workers
has a positive impact on productivity and economic and social development. Prevention is an
integral part of economic activities

as high safety and health standard at work is as important as good business performance for new as
well as existing industries.
1.4 The formulation of policy, priorities and strategies in occupational safety, health and
environment at work places, is undertaken by national authorities in consultation with social
partners for fulfilling such objectives. A critical role is played by the Government and the social
partners, professional safety and health organizations in ensuring prevention and in also providing
treatment, support and rehabilitation services.
1.5 Government of India firmly believes that without safe, clean environment as well as healthy
working conditions, social justice and economic growth cannot be achieved and that safe and
healthy working environment is recognized as a fundamental human right. Education, training,
consultation and exchange of information and good practices are essential for prevention and
promotion of such measures.
1.6 The changing job patterns and working relationships, the rise in self employment, greater
sub-contracting, outsourcing of work, homework and the increasing number of employees working
away from their establishment, pose problems to management of occupational safety and health
risks at workplaces. New safety hazards and health risks will be appearing along with the transfer
and adoption of new technologies. In addition, many of the well known conventional hazards will
continue to be present at the workplace till the risks arising from exposure to these hazards are
brought under adequate control. While advancements in technology have minimized or eliminated
some hazards at workplace, new risks can emerge in their place which needs to be addressed.
1.7 Particular attention needs to be paid to the hazardous operations and of employees in risk
prone conditions such as migrant employees and various vulnerable groups of employees arising
out of greater mobility in the

workforce with more people working for a number of employers, either consecutively or
simultaneously.
1.8 The increasing use of chemicals, exposure to physical, chemical and biological agents with
hazard potential unknown to people; the indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals including pesticides,
agricultural machineries and equipment; industries with major accident risks; effects of computer
controlled technologies and alarming influence of stress at work in many modern jobs pose serious
safety, health and environmental risks.
1.9 The fundamental purpose of this National Policy on Safety, Health and Environment at
workplace, is not only to eliminate the incidence of work related injuries, diseases, fatalities,
disaster and loss of national assets and ensuring achievement of a high level of occupational safety,
health and environment performance through proactive approaches but also to enhance the well-
being of the employee and society, at large. The necessary changes in this area will be based on a
co-ordinated national effort focused on clear national goals and objectives.
1.10 Every Ministry or Department may work out their detailed policy relevant to their working
environment as per the guidelines on the National Policy.
2.GOALS:
The Government firmly believes that building and maintaining national preventive safety and
health culture is the need of the hour. With a view to develop such a culture and to improve the
safety, health and environment at work place, it is essential to meet the following requirements:-
2.1providing a statutory framework on Occupational Safety and Health in respect of all sectors of
industrial activities including the construction sector, designing suitable control systems of
compliance, enforcement and incentives for better compliance.
2.2providing administrative and technical support services.
2.3.providing a system of incentives to employers and employees to achieve higher health and
safety standards.
2.4. providing for a system of non-financial incentives for improvement in safety and health.
2.5.establishing and developing the research and development capability in emerging areas of risk
and providing for effective control measures.
2.6. focusing on prevention strategies and monitoring performance through improved data
collection system on work related injuries and diseases.
2.7. developing and providing required technical manpower and knowledge in the areas of safety,
health and environment at workplaces in different sectors.
2.8. promoting inclusion of safety, health and environment, improvement at workplaces as an
important component in other relevant national policy documents.
2.9. including safety and occupational health as an integral part of every operation.

3.OBJECTIVES:
3.1 The policy seeks to bring the national objectives into focus as a step towards improvement
in safety, health and environment at workplace. The objectives are to achieve: -
a)Continuous reduction in the incidence of work-related injuries, fatalities, diseases, disasters and
loss of national assets.
b)Improved coverage of work-related injuries, fatalities and diseases and provide for a more
comprehensive data base for facilitating better performance and monitoring.
c)Continuous enhancement of community awareness regarding safety, health and environment at
workplace related areas.
d)Continually increasing community expectation of workplace health and safety standards.
e)Improving safety, health and environment at workplace by creation of “green jobs” contributing
to sustainable enterprise development.

4. ACTION PROGRAMME
For the purpose of achieving the goals and objectives mentioned in paragraphs 2 and 3 above, the
following action programme is drawn up and where necessary time bound action programme
would be initiated, namely: -
4.1. Enforcement
4.1.1 by providing an effective enforcement machinery as well as suitable provisions for
compensation and rehabilitation of affected persons;
4.1.2 by effectively enforcing all applicable laws and regulations concerning safety, health and
environment at workplaces in all economic activities through an adequate and effective labour
inspection system;
4.1.3 By establishing suitable schemes for subsidy and provision of loans to enable effective
implementation of the policy;
4.1.4 by ensuring that employers, employees and others have separate but complementary
responsibilities and rights with respect to achieving safe and healthy working conditions;
4.1.5 by amending expeditiously existing laws relating to safety, health and environment and
bring them in line with the relevant international instruments;
4.1.6 by monitoring the adoption of national standards through regulatory authorities;
4.1.7 by facilitating the sharing of best practices and experiences between national and
international regulatory authorities;
4.1.8 by developing new and innovative enforcement methods including financial incentives that
encourage and ensure improved workplace performance;
4.1.9 by making an enabling legislation on Safety, Health and Environment at Workplaces;
4.1.10 by setting up safety and health committees wherever deemed appropriate;

4.2 National Standards

4.2.1 by developing appropriate standards, codes of practices and manuals on safety, health and
environment for uniformity at the national level in all economic activities consistent with
international standards and implementation by the stake holders in true spirit;
4.2.2 by ensuring stakeholders awareness of and accessibility to applicable policy, documents,
codes, regulations and standards;

4.3 Compliance
4.3.1 by encouraging the appropriate Government to assume the fullest responsibility for the
administration and enforcement of occupational safety, health and environment at workplace,
provide assistance in identifying their needs and responsibilities in the area of safety, health and
environment at workplace, to develop plans and programmes in accordance with the provisions of
the applicable Acts and to conduct experimental and demonstration projects in connection
therewith;
4.3.2 by calling upon the co-operation of social partners in the supervision of application of
legislations and regulations relating to safety, health and environment at work place;
4.3.3 by continuous improvement of Occupational Safety and Health by systems approach to the
management of Occupational Safety and Health including developing guidance on Occupational
Safety and Health management systems, strengthening voluntary actions, including mechanisms
for self- regulatory concept and establishing auditing mechanisms which can test and authenticate
occupational safety and health management systems;
4.3.4 by providing specific measures to prevent catastrophes, and to co-ordinate and specify the
actions to be taken at different levels, particularly in the industrial zones with high potential risks;
4.3.5 by recognising the best safety and health practices and providing facilitation for their
adoption.
4.3.6 by providing adequate penal provisions as deterrent for violation of laws for the time being
in force;
4.3.7 by encouraging all concerned to adopt and commit to “Responsible Care” and / or
“Corporate Social Responsibility” to improve safety, health and environment at workplace
performance;
4.3.8 by ensuring a suitable accreditation machinery to recognise institutions, professionals and
services relating to safety, health and environment at workplace for uniformity and greater
coverage as also authenticating safe management system;
4.3.9 by encouraging employers to ensure occupational safety and health management systems,
establish them in efficient manner to improve workplace safety and health;
4.3.10 by specifically focusing on such occupational diseases like pneumoconiosis and silicosis;
developing a framework for its prevention and control as well as develop technical standards and
guidelines for the same;
4.3.11 by promoting safe and clean technology and progressively replacing materials hazardous to
human health and environment;
4.4 Awareness
4.4.1 by increasing awareness on safety, health and environment at workplace through
appropriate means;
4.4.2 by providing forums for consultations with employers’ representatives, employees
representatives and community on matters of national concern relating to safety, health and
environment at work place with the overall objective of creating awareness and enhancing national
productivity;
4.4.3 by encouraging joint labour-management efforts to preserve, protect and promote national
assets and to eliminate injuries and diseases arising out of employment;
4.4.4 by raising community awareness through structured, audience specific approach;
4.4.5 by continuously evaluating the impact of such awareness and information initiatives;
4.4.6 by maximizing gains from the substantial investment in awareness campaigns by sharing
experience and learning;
4.4.7 by suitably incorporating teaching inputs on safety, health and environment at work place
in schools, technical, medical, professional and vocational courses and distance education
programme;
4.4.8 by securing good liaison arrangements with the International organisations;
4.4.9 by providing medical criteria wherever necessary which will assure insofar as practicable
that no employee will suffer diminished health, functional capacity, or life expectancy as a result of
his work place activities and that in the event of such occupational diseases having been
contracted, is suitably compensated;
4.4.10 by providing practical guidance and encouraging employers and employees in their efforts
to reduce the incidence of occupational safety and health risks at their places of employment and to
impress upon employers and employees to institute new programmes and to improve existing
programmes for providing safe and healthful working conditions, requiring employers to ensure
that workers and their representatives are consulted, trained, informed and involved in all measures
related to their safety and health at work;

4.5 Research and Development

4.5.1 by providing for research in the field of safety, health and environment at workplace,
including the social and psychological factors involved, and by developing innovative methods,
techniques including computer aided Risk Assessment Tools, and approaches for dealing with
safety, health and environment at workplace problems which will help in establishing standards;
4.5.2 by exploring ways to discover latent diseases, establishing causal connections between
diseases and work environmental conditions, updating list of occupational diseases and conducting
other research relating to safety, health and environmental problems at workplace;
4.5.3 by establishing research priorities as per national requirements; exploring partnerships and
improving communications with various national and international research bodies;
4.5.4 by ensuring a coordinated research approach and an optimal allocation of resources in
Occupational Safety and Health sector for such purposes;
4.6 Occupational safety and health skills development
4.6.1 by building upon advances already made through employer and employee initiative for
providing safe and healthy working conditions;
4.6.2 by providing for training programmes to increase the number and competence of personnel
 engaged in the field of occupational safety, health and environment at workplace;
4.6.3 by providing information and advice, in an appropriate manner, to employers and
employees organisations, with a view to eliminating hazards or reducing them as far as practicable;
4.6.4 by establishing occupational health services aimed at protection and promotion of health of
employee and improvement of working conditions and by providing employee access to these
services in different sectors of economic activities;
4.6.5 by integrating health and safety into vocational, professional and labour related training
programmes as also management training including small business practices;
4.6.6 by adopting Occupational Safety and Health training curricula in workplace and industry
programmes;

4.7 Data collection

4.7.1 by compiling statistics relating to safety, health and environment at work places,
prioritising key issues for action, conducting national studies or surveys or projects through
governmental and non-governmental organisations;
4.7.2 by reinforcing and sharing of information and data on national occupational safety, health
and environment at work place information amongst different stake holders through a national
network system on Occupational Safety and Health;
4.7.3 by extending data coverage relevant to work-related injury and disease, including measures
of exposure, and occupational groups that are currently excluded, such as self-employed people;
4.7.4 by extending data systems to allow timely reporting and provision of information;
4.7.5 by developing the means for improved access to information

4.8 Review
4.8.1 An initial review and analysis shall be carried out to ascertain the current status of safety,
health and environment at workplace and building a national Occupational Safety and Health
profile.
4.8.2 National Policy and the action programme shall be reviewed at least once in five years or
earlier if felt necessary to assess relevance of the national goals and objectives.

From the above policy it is concluded that there is a need to develop close involvement
of social partners to meet the challenges ahead in the assessment and control of
workplace risks by mobilizing local resources and extending protection to such working
 population and vulnerable groups where social protection is not adequate. Government
stands committed to review the National Policy on Safety, Health and Environment at
Workplace and legislations through tripartite consultation, improve enforcement,
compilation and analysis of statistics; develop special programme for hazardous
operations and other focus sectors, set up training mechanisms, create nation-wide
awareness, arrange for the mobilization of available resources and expertise. The
National Policy and programme envisage total commitment and demonstration by all
concerned stake holders such as Government and social partners. Our goals and
objectives will be that through dedicated and concerted efforts consistent with the
requirements of safety, health and environment at work place and thereby improving the
quality of work and working life.

16.7 LET US SUMUP

Public health is very crucial in any organization for growth and success. Hygiene plays an
important role in maintaining good health of employees and hence the productivity of the
organization can move on a right direction if proper hygienic practices are carried out. Air
and water are the basic needs of human and should be free from pollutants and
contaminants to ensure the public heath which can only be achieved by proper knowledge
about the indoor air and water quality. The government plays a crucial role in the
safeguard of public health and at the same time it is the responsibility of the organization
to provide basic health and hygiene related training to their employees.

16.8 CLUES TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

CheckYour Progress - 1

1. Seesection16.2.3andframeyouranswer
2. Seesection16.3.3andframe your answer
3. Seesection16.2.4andframe your answer

CheckYour Progress - 2

1. Seesection16.4andframeyouranswer
2. Seesection16.4.2andframeyouranswer
3. Seesection16.6.4andframeyouranswer.
UNIT 17 ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Basic Definitions
17.3 Wastes, Its Types& Disposal Techniques
17.3.1 Solid Waste
17.3.2 Solid Waste Management Techniques
17.3.3 Liquid Waste & Liquid Waste Management Techniques
17.4 Waste Minimization
17.5 Hazardeous Substance Management
17.5.1 E- Waste
17.6 Rain Water Harvesting
17.6.1 Benefits of Rain Water Harvesting
17.6.2 Need for Rain Water Harvesting
17.6.3 Methods of Rain Water Harvesting
17.7 Pollution
17.7.1 Types of Pollution
17.7.1.1 Air Pollution
17.7.1.1.1 Causes of Air Pollution
17.7.1.1.2 Effects of Air Pollution
17.7.1.2 Water Pollution & Sewage Pollution
17.7.1.2.1 Causes of Water Pollution
17.7.1.2.2 Effects of Water Pollution
17.7.1.3 Noise Pollution
17.7.1.3.1 Causes of Noise Pollution
17.7.1.3.2 Effects of Noise Pollution
17.7.1.4 Thermal Pollution
17.7.1.4.1 Causes of Thermal Pollution
17.7.1.4.2 Effects of Thermal Pollution
17.7.2 Ways for Pollution Control
17.8 Laws & Permits
17.9 Let Us Sum Up

17.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit You will be able to understand-

 Waste & Its Types

 Techniques for Waste Disposal
 Techniques for Waste Minimization
 Management of Hazardeous wastes
 Rain Water Harvesting
 Pollution and its types
 Ways for Pollution Control
 Various Laws & Permits

17.1 INTRODUCTION

We all are aware that how waste is generated in our homes, Industries, Restaurants etc. and
how it is disposed of. The disposal ofwaste has been done poorly since ages, be it in villages,
towns ,cities or metropolitans. Nowadays, with increase in the population, the generation and
disposal of waste has become matter of concern. In fact, wastemanagement has emerged as a
serious challenge having majorimplications not only for human health and social life but
alsofor the environment.In this chapter we are going to discuss differentdimensions of waste
management.

17.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS

AEROBIC: - Requiring Air/Oxygen. It is used in reference to decomposition processes that

occur with inclusion of Oxygen.

ANAEROBIC: - Not requiring air or oxygen, used in reference to decomposition processes

that occur in the absence of oxygen.

BIODEGRADABLE: - Capable of breaking down through the action of bacteria.

FOSSIL FUELS: - Coal, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and fuels derived from crude
oil (including petrol and diesel). They are called fossil fuels because they have been formed
over long periods of time from ancient fossilised organic matter.

GREEN POWER: - Electricity generated from clean, renewable energy sources (such as
solar, wind, biomass and hydro power) and supplied through the grid network by your
electricity supplier

GREENHOUSE GASES: - Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and from
human activity, that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation. Water vapor (H2O) is the most
abundant greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases are a natural part of the atmosphere

INCINERATION: - Combustion (by chemical oxidation) of waste material to treat or dispose

of that waste material.

NON- BIODEGRADABLE: - Waste which cannot be decomposed or broken down.

17.3 WASTE & ITS TYPES

There are different types of wastes which are collected from different areas of the hotels for
further disposing and processing so that it can not lead to any kind of pollution to the
environment.
 SOLID WASTES
 LIQUID WASTES

17.3.1 TYPES OF SOLID WASTE

NON - BIODEGRADABLE:
• Unlike biodegradable wastes, non-biodegradable cannot be easily handled.
• Non-biodegradable wastes are those who cannot be decomposed or dissolved by natural
agents.
• They remain on earth for thousands of years without any degradation. Hence the threat
caused by them is also more critical.
• A notable example is the plastics which are a commonly used material in almost every
field.
 • To give these plastics a long-lasting effect, improved quality plastics are being put to
use. This made them more temperature resistant and more durable even after use.
• Other examples are cans, metals, and chemicals for agricultural and industrial purposes.
They are the main causes of air, water and soil pollution and diseases like cancer.

17.3.2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management consists of wastes which are either dry or wet waste which needs to
be disposed of , without affecting our environment. Following methods and Machinery are
used for disposing solid wastes in Hotel. They are:-

INCINERATER
Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration
and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimesdescribed as "thermal
treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash. Incineration is
carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to
dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing
of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a
controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is scarcer, as these facilities
generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-
waste (EfW) is broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate
heat, steam and/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there
have been concerns about micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks.
Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins which may
be created within the incinerator and which mayhave serious environmental consequences in
the area immediately around the incinerator. On the other hand this method produces heat
that can be used as energy.

PULVERIZER
The waste is simply pulverized into powder without changing its chemical composition. They
are either used as powdered manure or discharged through sewer line.
MECHANICAL COMPOST MACHINE

The plant converts garbage into manure that is rich in nitrogen contents. This is the most
hygienic method of waste disposal.

LANDFILL

Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common
practice in most countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries,
mining voids or borrow pits. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a
hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly-
designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts
such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid Leachate.
Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon
dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically.This gas can create
odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.Design characteristics of a
modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material.
Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to
prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas
extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfillusing
perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

CONTROLLED TIPPING
This method is employed where land is available for redevelopment. Waste is tipped from
dumper into hollow spaces in the ground about 4 to 7 feet deep and then buried under ground.

RECYCLING METHODS
The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries refers to the widespread
collection and reuse of everyday waste materials such as empty beverage containers. These
are collected and sorted into common types so that the raw materials from which the items
are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected
separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, or sorted directly
from mixed waste streams. The most common consumer products recycled includealuminum
beverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars,
paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.PVC, LDPE,
PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable, although these are not
commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making
them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such
as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling
and separation required.
17.3.3 LIQUID WASTES

BOD

Biological Oxygen Demand is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed (Demanded) by

aerobic microorganism required for oxidation/breakdown of biodegradable wastes in a given
water sample at a given temperature for a specific time period. The BOD value is most
commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5 days of
incubation at 20 °C.
In India, Environment Protection act 1986 has set a BOD of 375 mg/litre of water. However
NGT has limit BOD of 75 mg/litre of water for Hotels & Restaurants.

SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

As the sewage becomes stale , it begins to cause nuisance. The method of sewage disposal are
broadly divided into two:-
 DISPOSAL BY DILUTION
 BY PURIFICATION

BY DILUTION
In this raw sewage is thrown into a large body of natural waters. In due course of time it is
purified by the self purification capacity of the natural waters.

BY PURIFICATION
 LAND TREATMENT- The sewage waste waters through spraying is spread in open
textured soil fields. A part of waste water evaporates and the remaining portion
percolates.
  CHEMICAL TREATMENT - In this method sewage water is treated with certain
chemicals like Lime and Alum or ferrous hydroxide. The colloidal materials
precipitates as well as bad odour is removed.
 SEPTIC TANK/ANAEROBIC TANKS – It is plain sedimentation tank in which
the bio chemical reaction by anaerobic bacteria takes place . During the detection
period the sewage is purified and the effluent is taken to soak pits for disposal. The
septic tanks are provided with cover as the bad smell occurs during digestion period.
 BIO AERATION METHOD/ACTIVATED SLUDGE METHOD- This aerobic
method is most efficient. The sewage is first passed through the rough screens to get
rid of the gross solids. The sewage is treated in aerated tanks with the compressed air.
The disoriented sewage is passed through the grease collecting chamber. The air is
forced in by diffuses in the final chamber. The sludge settles down at the bottom of
settling tank.
 LAGOONING :- Running wastewaters into shallow artificial ponds with or without
other treatments. The wastes are decomposed slowly until liquid part can be run into
stream or other body during the rainy season or at the time of melting snow, when
there is good volume of water. Usually NaNo3 is added to reduce odours.

17.4 WASTE MINIMIZATION

Techniques to keep waste generation at a minimum level in order to divert materials from
landfill. The term waste minimisation is also applied to recycling and other efforts to reduce
the amount of waste going into the waste stream. In other words,Waste minimization means
reducing waste at source. In general, this means practices such as:
-Reusing (or promoting the reuse of) materials in their original form as far as possible
-Separating waste into different streams at source, before it is collected for recovery and
recycling purposes
-Diverting waste from landfills through appropriate mechanisms and facilities
-Facilitating the processing or treatment of any recyclable waste, in an economical and
environmentally sustainable manner.
Check Your Progress 1

Q.1 What is waste? What are the types of waste?

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Q.2 What are the methods of handling Solid Waste?

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Q.3 Briefly Explain BOD?

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Q.4 What is the difference between Biodegradable & Non-Biodegradable wastes?

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17.5 HAZARDEOUS SUBSTANCE MANAGEMENT

Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the
environment. What determines whether it's a hazardous waste is it's:
-ignitability (i.e., flammable)
-reactivity
-corrosivity
-toxicity
Major services include waste collection, treatment, and disposal; remediation; and recycling.
Waste collection accounts for about 55 percent of industry revenue; treatment and disposal,
20 percent; and remediation, 15 percent. (Remediation involves the cleaning of crude oil
spills and ground contamination, removal of asbestos and lead paint, and restoration of strip-
mined areas.) Small companies usually operate in only one of these segments. Larger
companies often have vertically integrated operations that include all of these components.

17.5.1 E-WASTE
E-waste consists ofdismantled parts ofcomputers, electronicappliances, mobilephones, TV,
floppydiscs, pen drives. InIndia E-wastes aredumped into unsafeand unauthoriseddumping
yardswhere they aredismantled manuallyand unscientifically,causing greatenvironmental
andhealth risks as theycontain dangerouscontaminants.

17.6 RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater, which can be stored for
direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Water harvesting is the collection of
runoff for productive purposes. As water harvesting is an ancient tradition and has been used
for millennia in most dry lands of the world, many different techniques have been developed.
However, the same techniques sometimes have different names in different regions and
others have similar names but, in practice, are completely different.

17.6.1 BENEFITS OF WATER HARVETING

Benefits of rain water harvesting system:

 Rainwater is a comparatively clean and totally free source of water.
 Rainwater is improved for scenery plants and gardens because it is not chlorinated.
 It can supplement other sources of water supply such as groundwater or municipal
water connections.
 It lower the water supply cost.
 It can provide an excellent back-up source of water for emergencies.
 It is socially acceptable and environmentally responsible.
 It uses simple technologies that are inexpensive and easy to maintain.
 Reduced flood flows and topsoil loss.
 It is free; the only cost is for collection and use.
 It reduces the contamination of surface water with sediments, fertilizers and pesticides
from rainwater run-off resulting in cleaner lakes, rivers, oceans and other receivers of
storm water. It is used in those areas which face insufficient water resources.
 It is good for laundry use as rainwater is soft and lowers the need for detergents.
 It can be used to recharge groundwater.It minimizes the runoff which blocks the storm
water drains.
17.6.2 NEED FOR WATER HARVESTING

 As water is becoming scarce, it is the need of the day to attain self-sufficiency to

fulfill the water needs.
 As urban water supply system is under tremendous pressure for supplying water to
ever increasing population.
 Groundwater is getting depleted and polluted.
 Soil erosion resulting from the unchecked runoff.
 Health hazards due to consumption of polluted water.

17.6.3 METHODS OF WATER HARVESTING

 Rainwater stored for direct use in above ground or underground sumps / overhead
tanks and used directly for flushing, gardening, washing etc. (Rainwater Harvesting).
 Recharged to ground through recharge pits, dug wells, bore wells, soak pits, recharge
trenches, etc. (Ground water recharge)

17.7 POLLUTION

The term Pollution is derived from latin word pollutes. Pol means before and lutus means
wash. In general pollution means the conditions disturbing to the balance of natural
environment in such a way that its beneficial use is affected adversely.

17.7.1 TYPES OF POLLUTION

17.7.1.1 AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions, chemicals
from factories, dust, and pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas,
is a major part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, it's also called smog.
Some air pollutants are poisonous. “Air pollution occurs when harmful or excessive
quantities of substances are introduced into Earth's atmosphere. Sources of air pollution
include gases, particulates, and biological molecules.” “Air pollution refers to the release of
pollutants into the air that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole.”
Primary and secondary air pollutants:
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source.
A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants
(primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere.
Primary air pollutants:
The primary pollutants are “directly” emitted from the processes such as fossil fuel
consumption, volcanic eruption and factories. The major primary pollutants are Oxides of
Sulphur, Oxides of Nitrogen, Oxides of Carbon, Particulate Matter, Methane, Ammonia,
Chlorofluorocarbons, Toxic metals etc.
Examples of Primary Pollutants:
1. Car exhaust, smokestacks (CO, SO2, NO)
2. Particulate material (soot, ash)
3. Toxic metals (lead, mercury)
4. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (methane, propane, CFCs, etc.)

Secondary Air pollutants:

The secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. The secondary pollutants form when the
primary pollutants react with themselves or other components of the atmosphere. Most
important secondary level Air Pollutants are Ground Level Ozone, Smog and POPs
(Persistent Organic Pollutants).

17.7.1.1.1 CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION:

The burning of fossil fuels Sulphur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like
coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles are one the major cause of air pollution. But,
their overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases are polluting the environment
 Burning of Fossil Fuels: The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of
sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
also results in air pollution.
  Automobiles: The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc.
pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also
result in diseases among individuals.
 Agricultural Activities: Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during
agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful
chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.
 Factories and Industries: Factories and industries are the main source of carbon
monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons, and chemicals. These are released into
the air degrading its quality.
 Mining Activities: In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted
using large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process
not only pollute the air but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living
in the nearby areas.
 Domestic Sources: The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic
chemicals that are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the
smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects
breathing.

17.7.1.1.2 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION:

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

 Diseases: Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart
diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few
decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and
asthma.
 Global Warming: Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance
in the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the
temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global
warming.
 Acid Rain: The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen
oxides and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these
pollutants, become acidic, and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and
plant life.
  Ozone Layer Depletion: The release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), halons, and
hydrochloro fluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the
ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet
rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among
individuals.
 Effect on Animals: The air pollutants suspend on the water bodies and affect the
aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a
new place.

17.7.1.2 WATER POLLUTION & SEWAGE POLLUTION

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities.
Water bodies include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water
pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment. “Water is
essential to life. It need not be spelt out exactly how important it is. Yet water pollution is one
of the most serious ecological threats we face today.” Water pollution happens when toxic
substances enter water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans and so on, getting dissolved in
them, lying suspended in the water or depositing on the bed. This degrades the quality of
water. Not only does this spell disaster for aquatic ecosystems, the pollutants also seep
through and reach the groundwater, which might end up in our households as contaminated
water we use in our daily activities, including drinking.

17.7.1.2.1 CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION:

The causes of water pollution vary and may be both natural and anthropogenic. However, the
most common causes of water pollution are the anthropogenic ones, including:
 Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrates and phosphates)
and pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rain-water and
surface runoff pollute water.
 Storm water runoff: Carrying various oils, petroleum products, and other
contaminants from urban and rural areas (ditches). These usually forms sheens on the
water surface.
  Sewage: Emptying the drains and sewers in fresh water bodies causes water
pollution. The problem is severe in cities.
 Mining activities: Mining activities involve crushing rocks that usually contain many
trace metals and sulfides. The leftover material from mining activities may easily
generate sulfuric acid in the presence of precipitation water.
 Industrial Effluents: Industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis,
metallic salts, phenols, cyanides, ammonia, radioactive substances, etc., are sources of
water pollution. They also cause thermal (heat) pollution of water.
 Burning of fossil fuels: the emitted ash particles usually contain toxic metals (such as
As or Pb). Burning will also add a series of oxides including carbon dioxide to air
and, respectively, water bodies.
 Leaking landfills: May pollute the groundwater below the landfill with a large variety
of contaminants (whatever is stored by the landfill).
 Animal waste: Contribute to the biological pollution of water streams. Think of it this
way: anything that can cause air pollution or soil pollution may also affect water
bodies and cause innumerable ecological and human health issues.

17.7.1.2.2 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION:

The effects of water pollution are varied. They include poisonous drinking water, poisonous
food animals (due to these organisms having bio accumulated toxins from the environment
over their life spans), unbalanced river and lake ecosystems that can no longer support full
biological diversity, deforestation from acid rain, and many other effects. These effects are,
of course, specific to the various contaminants..
 Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the result of
dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial establishments.
 Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, behavior,
causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a chemical that causes a lot of problems
from reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This chemical is
bioaccumulated in fish, chicken and meat. Chemicals such as this travel up the food
chain before entering the human body.
 The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It disrupts the
foodchain. Cadmium and lead are some toxic substances, these pollutants upon
 entering the food chain through animals (fish when consumed by animals, humans)
can continue to disrupt at higher levels.
 Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis through
faucal matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit water can
always cause an outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera etc.
 The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and destructured because of water
pollution.

17.7.1.3 NOISE POLLUTION

Sound is main means of communication in many animals, including humans. A low sound is
pleasant and harmless. A loud, unpleasant or unwanted sound is called as noise. A given
sound can appear music to some and noise to others. It depends upon loudness, duration and
mood of a person. Noise (La. nausea=seasickness) is physical form of pollution. It is not
harmful to air, soil and water but affects the animals including humans. Noise is unwanted
sound, that is unpleasant, loud and disruptive. Humans have a hearing range called as audible
range. Audible range depends upon frequency and loudness of sound. For a person with
normal hearing, frequency ranges from 20 to 20,000 Hz and loudness ranges from 0 to 120
dB. Sound is measured in decibels (dB). A decibel value above 80 is considered to be noise
pollution.

17.7.1.3.1 CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION

 Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of
producing noise. Apart from that, various equipment’s like compressors, generators,
exhaust fans, grinding mills also participate in producing noise.
 Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also
play a vital role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, parking lots,
street noise, honking, commercial zone leads to noise pollution which disrupts the
environment of society. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social
events. Whether it is marriage, parties, pub, disc or place of worship, people normally
defy rules set by the local administration and create nuisance in the area. People play
 songs on full volume and dance till midnight which makes the condition of people
living nearby pretty worse.
 Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aero planes, trains produce heavy
noise. The high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person lose the ability to
hear properly. Construction Activities: Construction activities like mining,
construction of bridges, dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost
every part of the world. These construction activities have to be continued to meet the
demand of ever increasing Population. It also creates noise pollution.
 Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in
our daily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum
cleaners, washing machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are also contributors to
the amount of noise that is produced and but many times it affects the quality of life
of our neighborhood. Fireworks: Firework is a common thing during various fairs,
festivals and cultural ceremonies. Apart from air pollution, the intensity of their sound
creates noise pollution.
 Agricultural Machines: Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube wells, powered tillers etc.
have all made agriculture highly mechanical but at the same time highly noisy.
 Defence Equipment and launching of satellites: A lot of noise pollution is added to the
atmosphere by artillery, tanks, launching of rockets, explosions, exercising of military
airplanes and shooting practices. Screams of jet engines and launching of satellite,
sonic booms have a deafening impact on the ears.
 Miscellaneous Sources: The automobile repair shops, market places, schools,
colleges, bus stands, and railway stations etc. are other sources of noise pollution.

17.7.1.3.2 EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

Human response to noise varies from man to man according to age and temperament. It may
vary even in the same individual from time to time because of change in health, fatigue and
other conditions (Fig). The effects of noise on human beings are as under:-
1) Auditory effects: It includes deafness or auditory fatigue.
 Deafness or impaired hearing: Prolonged exposures to noise lead to gradual
deterioration of internal ear and subsequently hearing loss or deafness. It may occur
due to continuous exposure to noise level of more than 90 dB. It may be temporary or
permanent. Explosions or other high intensity sounds can also cause immediate
 deafness by rupturing the ear drums or damaging the cochlea. Many time hearing loss
is attributed to occupation.
 Auditory fatigue: It is defined as a temporary loss of hearing after exposure to sound.
Continuous humming sound such as whistling and buzzing in the ears.
2) Non auditory effects: These are:-
 Irritation and annoyance: Noise, sometimes, leads to emotional disturbances and
makes people loose their temper. It can interfere with proper rest and sleep.
Annoyance seems to increase with the loudness of the sound.
 Work efficiency: It has been observed that noise reduces the efficiency of work.
 Physiological effects: It includes dilation of the pupils, paling of skin, tensing of
voluntary muscles, diminishing of gastric secretions, increase in diastolic blood
pressure and the sudden injection of adrenalins into blood stream which increases
neuromuscular tension, nervousness, irritability and anxieties. It can adversely affect
the development of unborn babies.
 Other health effects: Noise is also associated with headache, giddiness, sweating,
nausea, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, disturbed sleep pattern, psychological stress.
 Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow
people to communicate freely. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and
disturb your emotional balance.
 Effect on Animals: Animals rely heavily on sounds to communicate, to find food,
avoid predators etc. Pets react more aggressively due to exposure to constant noise.
They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems.
Overexposure to high intensity of noise affects the hearing ability of many animals.
Man-made noise affects mating calls and echolocation. This leads to reduction in
survival and reproduction rates. At an ecosystem level, noise pollution could lead to
migration of animals. Their migration can affect the crop production. Because many
animals such as bats pollinate bananas, peaches, agave and other cash crops.
 Effect on non-living things: The noise booms cause cracks in walls of buildings as
well as in hills. Sonic boom can break window panes and buildings.

17.7.1.4 THERMAL POLLUTION

Thermal pollution, sometimes called "thermal enrichment," is the degradation of water
quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. A common cause of thermal
pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Other
causes of thermal pollution include soil erosion.

17.7.1.4.1 CAUSE OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

Many human and natural factors contribute to the problem of thermal pollution. The single
biggest cause of thermal pollution is probably cooling for industrial machinery and power
plants. Water is an excellent, and free, cooling agent. This is why many industrial operations
pull in relatively cool water to cool their machinery and let the relatively warm water flow
back into the river or lake or sea. Thermal pollution also has some natural causes.
Geothermal vents and hot springs introduce excess heat into bodies of water. Soil erosion,
deforestation, and runoff from paved areas are other artificial sources of hot water.
Deforestation eliminates shade, which exposes the water to sunlight. Water on hot paved
surfaces gets hot, then runs off into nearby bodies of water, raising the water temperature.
Retention ponds can also be a source of thermal shock because the relatively small and
shallow bodies of water can absorb quite a bit of heat energy from the sun. Pumping that
water directly into a river, lake, or bay causes a significant temperature increase, just like
pouring a hot pitcher of water into a bathtub full of water causes the water to jump a few
degrees Fahrenheit.

17.7.1.4.2 EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

The effects of thermal pollution are diverse, but in short, thermal pollution damages water
ecosystems and reduces animal populations. Plant species, algae, bacteria, and multi-celled
animals all respond differently to significant temperature changes. Organisms that cannot
adapt can die of various causes or can be forced out of the area. Reproductive problems can
further reduce the diversity of life in the polluted area.

17.7.2 WAYS TO CONTROL POLLUTION

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Refuse (4 R’s to control Pollution)

We should segregate waste products with a view to reduce, reuse, recycle and refuse.
For most of us, kitchen wastes (fruit peels, vegetables, leftover food, tea leaves) forms a large
percentage of the total waste at home. Composting is a common method to reduce the
volume of kitchen waste to ‘zero waste.’ It is also an effective way through which kitchen
waste can be recycled back into nature. There are certain items in our garbage that can be
reused. reusing discarded items means that instead of dumping them and increasing the load
of waste, we can reuse these items. Some examples are given here.
 Items such as plastic containers and pickle bottles can be reused to store other things.
 We can reuse wrapping papers, cardboard boxes and chocolate boxes.
 We can give away old clothes to the needy.
 It is better to use cloth bags instead of plastic bags for shopping.
 Buy products which can be reused such as rechargeable batteries.

Often you may have come across persons (the Kabariwalas) who visit our home, and to
whom we sell old newspapers, magazines, bottles, tins, etc. Maybe, you have never thought
where these products go, and what happens to them. These products are utilised as raw
materials for manufacturing other products. In other words, these products are recycled.
This is actually an important effort, as in this process, we not only reduce the load of garbage,
but also conserve natural resources. Some of the common items that can be recycled are:-
glass, metals, paper, plastics, cardboard, batteries, cans made of steel and aluminium, rubber,
wooden furniture.
While segregating wastes, you will find that there are also a large number of items that
cannot be reused or recycled. We must have also noticed that some of these items are non-
biodegradable in nature. So what we can do is to reduce unnecessary consumption and
purchases. We may also refuse to accept items that are damaging to the environment and
human health. Some examples are given below.

 Look for products that do not have elaborate packing.

 Use things judiciously.
 Do not waste food.
 Refuse offer of plastic bags.
 Develop eco-friendly habits.
17.8 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS

 The Air Pollution Control Act was passed in 1981. The motor vehicle act for
Controlling Air Pollution (PUC) was passed.
 Oil refinieries are being upgraded to produce lead free Petrol.
 Environment protection act (EPA) was passed in 1996.
 All Hotels and industries have to obtain certificate from state pollution board/central
pollution board before becoming operational.
 National Green Tribunal (NGT) a statutory Authority created recently which takes
care about green belt in India.

17.9 LET US SUM UP

Waste management is the collection of all thrown away materials in order to recycle them
and as a result decrease their effects on our health, our surroundings and the environment and
enhance the quality of life. Waste management practices differ for developed anddeveloping
nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial producers. Waste
Management flows in a cycle: monitoring, collection, transportation,processing, disposal or
recycle. Through these steps a company can effectively and responsibly manage waste output
and their positive effect they have on the environment. Waste generation per capita has
increased and is expected to continue to climb with growing population,wealth, and
consumerism throughout the world. Approaches to solving this waste problem in a scalable
and sustainable manner would lead us to a model that uses waste as an input in the production
of commodities and value monetized, making waste management a trueprofit center.

Check Your Progress 2

Q.1 What are E- Waste?

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Q.2 List down the Benefits of Rain Water Harvesting.
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Q.3 Explain different types of pollution in brief?
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Q.4 Enumerate 4R’s for controlling pollution.
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UNIT 18 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Human resource management
18.3 Motivational Theories
18.4 Conflict Management
18.5 Employee Relations
18.6 Skills Required for Facility Manager
18.7 Let us Sum Up
18.8 Keywords
18.9 Activity
18.10 Check your progress

18.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit, you will understand

 Explain the role of Human resources in organizations and discuss some of the major
HRM activities.
 Discuss relevant motivational theories on job satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
 Define Conflict Management and characteristics
 Discuss the importance and role of Employee Relations
 Explain the professional qualities and skills required by the Facility Manager

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Behind the production of services, there is a human mind, effort, and man hours (working
hours). No service can be produced with the help of human beings. Human Being is a
fundamental resource for service industries. Every organisation’sdesires to have skilled and
competent people to make their organization competent and best.Among the five Ms of
Management, i.e., men, money, machines, materials, and methods, HRM deals with the first
M, which is men. It is believed that in the five Ms, "men" is not so easy to manage. "Every
man is different from another.
Leadership, motivation, Customer satisfaction, and conflict resolution are the basis of
successful Human Resource Management. In managing a service facility, the facility
manager or Human Resource Manager must lead people and be able to motivate other people.
The approach is to define a role for everyone on the facility and to define the responsibilities
for each of these roles. The facility manager must be able to motivate and persuade people to
act in the best interest of the organization and must be able to build a team and lead members
to give their best efforts to the organization and its customers.

18.2 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Human resource management (HRM) is the process of employing people, training them,
compensating them, developing policies relating to them, and developing strategies to retain
them. As a concept, HRM has experienced many variations over the last two decades, giving
it an even more important role in today’s organizations. In the past, HRM usually meant
processing payroll, sending birthday gifts to employees, arranging company outings, and
making sure forms were filled out correctly—in other words, more of an administrative role
rather than a strategic role crucial to the success of the organization. Jack Welche, the former
CEO of General Electric and management guru, sums up the new role of HRM: “Get out of
the parties and birthdays and enrolment forms.… Remember, HR is important in good times,
HR is defined in hard times.” Most experts agree on the seven main roles that HRM plays in
organizations. These are described in the following sections.

18.2.1 Staffing: HR needs people to execute tasks and get the job done in the organization.
Even with the most advanced machines, humans are still needed. Because of this, one of the
most important tasks in HRM is staffing. Staffing involves the entire hiring process from
posting a job to negotiating a salary package.

18.2.2 Development of Workplace Policies Available: Every organization has guidelines to

ensure fairness and stability within the organization. One of the jobs of HRM is to build the
knowledge surrounding these policies. In the development of policies, HRM, management,
and executives are engaged in the process. For example, the HRM professional will likely
identify the need for a policy or a change of policy, seek opinions on the policy, write the
policy, and then communicate that policy to employees. Some examples of workplace
policies might be the following:
• Discipline process policy
• Vacation time policy
• Dress code
• Ethics policy
• Internet usage policy

18.2.3 Compensation and Benefits Administration: HRM professionals need to establish

that compensation is fair, meets industry standards, and is high enough to entice people to
work for the organization. Compensation includes anything the employee gets for his or her
work. In addition, HRM professionals need to make sure the pay is comparable to what other
people performing similar jobs are being paid. This involves setting up pay systems that take
into consideration the number of years with the organization, years of experience, education,
and similar aspects. Examples of employee compensation include Health Benefits Pay,
Vacation time, Sick leave etc.

18.2.4 Retention: Human resources must be aware of all the laws that affect the workplace.
An HRM professional might work with some of the HRM Retention involves keeping and
motivating employees to stay with the organization. Compensation is a major factor in
employee retention, but there are other factors as well. Ninety percent of employees leave a
company for the following reasons:
1. The job they are performing
2. Challenges with their manager
3. Poor fit with organizational culture
4. Poor workplace environment

18.2.5 Training and Development: Once we have spent the time to hire new employees, we
want to ensure they are trained to do the job and continue to grow and develop new skills in
their job. This results in higher productivity for the organization. Training is also a key
component in employee motivation. Employees who feel they are developing their skills tend
to be happier in their jobs, which results in increased employee retention. Examples of
training programs might include the following: Job skills training, Training on
communication, Team building,etc.

18.2.6 Dealing with Laws Affecting Employment: Human resources must be aware of all
the laws that affect the workplace. An HRM professional might work with some of these
laws:
• Discrimination laws,
 Healthcare requirements,
 Compensation requirements such as the minimum wage
• Worker safety laws
• Labor laws etc.

18.2.7 Worker Protection: Safety is a major consideration in all organizations. Oftentimes

new laws are created with the goal of setting state standards to ensure worker safety. It is up
to the human resource manager to be aware of worker protection requirements and ensure the
workplace is meeting both state and union standards. Worker protection issues might include
the following:
• Chemical hazards
• Heating and ventilation requirements
• Use of “no fragrance” zones
• Protection of private employee information

18.2.8 Human Resources in Facilities Management

Traditionally, facilities management was thought of primarily as a blend of asset management
and cost containment. Facilities managers focused on buildings and equipment in order to
maximize the use of those items to the benefit of an organization. Research continues to show
the impact of workspace design and company culture on employee productivity and business
results.

Today, facilities management is evolving into workplace management--a function that is

more closely aligned with human resources. Frans van Eersel, Director of Workplace for
Netflix put explains, “In modern days we’re no longer talking about janitorial services,
maintenance, and cost-cutting. It’s about strategic value, enabling productivity, and creating a
great place to work.” Human Resources Department should be focusing on the workplace as
a means to achieve business goals, the natural priorities become employee engagement and
productivity. The office needs to be a human-centred, culture-driven place that helps your
employees improve their well-being, lower stress, and collaborate better in teams. Innovation
requires inspiration. Sometimes your employees need quiet spaces to concentrate; other
times, creativity happens best in teams.

The right workplace plan supports your company culture and vice-versa. Your organization’s
workspace fosters an environment where things get accomplished and it reflects the
personality of your company. That’s why good workplace management can also attract top
talent.

Check Your Progress 1

1. What do you understand by Human Resources?

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2. What are the different roles of the Human Resources Department?
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18.3 MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

Motivation is one of the forces that lead to performance. Motivation is defined as the desire
to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behaviour. When we
refer to someone as being motivated, we mean that the person is trying hard to accomplish a
certain task. So what motivates people? Why do some employees try to reach their targets
and pursue excellence while others merely show up at work and count the hours? As with
many questions involving human beings, the answer is anything but simple. Instead, there are
several theories explaining the concept of motivation. Several diverse theories have existed
that attempted and supported to explanation of the concept of motivation. More so,
researchers have been learning the theme of motivation for many years and have made
marvellous advancement in explaining motivation that can be seen in the workplace. They
comprise Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, McGregor’s theories of x and y, McClelland’s theory
of learned needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, Vroom’s expectancy
theory, and different types of motivation, such as intrinsic and extrinsic.
18.3.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
One of the first and best-known content theories to describe why people have dissimilar
needs at diverse times is Abraham Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory discovered in late 1943
and formulated in 1954. He revealed five basic classes of human needs and positioned them
in a hierarchy. In ascending order, starting with the simplest needs such as Physiological
needs – like water, food, sex, clothing, and shelter.

In the context of work motivation, these physiological needs often are satisfied through the
wages and salaries paid by the organization. Safety needs - are wishes for security (i.e.
protection from physical and emotional harm), as well as assurance that physical needs will
be met (stability), and absence of pain. Organizations usually support personnel to satisfy
these needs through safety programs and equipment and by providing security through
medical insurance, unemployment and retirement plans, and related benefits. Social needs - a
person’s need for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. This want for
“belongingness” frequently is contented on the job over social collaboration within work
groups in which people give and receive friendship. Social needs can be satisfied not only in
officially dispensed work groups but also informal groups Esteem needs - are desires for
power and status. Individual need to feel vital and get recognition from others. More
importantly, receives promotions, awards, and feedback from the boss will lead to self-
confidence, prestige, and self-importance; and Self-actualization needs - which represent the
need for self-fulfilment – a sense that the person’s potential has been achieved.
18.3.2 McGregor’s Theories X and Y Douglas
McGregor (1960) shaped his study with diverse interpretations about people and in what way
they should be motivated. He improved two opposite models of a managerial method
identified as Theory X and Theory Y. McGregor found out two different sets of expectations
thought by managers about their employees. Theory X is the old-fashioned view of managers
who only focused on individual work and are ‘job centered’.

They assumed that ordinary human being or workers have minute determination, distastes
work and therefore cannot be trusted. And they need to be closely controlled, coerced,
directed and threatened with punishment to get them to work effectively. In contrast, theory
Y perceives employees in a more satisfactory light. The theory ‘is a more employee-centered
style of management capable of fully exploiting the creative and productive potential
employees. Theory Y was made on the supposition that ‘employees are happy to work, self-
motivated, creative and enjoy working with great responsibility.
18.3.3 Alderfer’s Erg Theory
ERG was established by Clayton Alderfer to overcome the difficulties with Maslow needs
hierarchy. ‘ERG theory groups human needs into three broad categories: existence,
relatedness, and growth. However, the theory’s name is created on the first letter of each
need: E = existence, R = relatedness, and G = growth. Existence needs take account of a
person’s psychological and physically related safety needs, such as the need for food, shelter,
and safe working conditions. Relatedness needs consist of a person’s need to interact with
other people, get public recognition, and feel safe and sound around people (i.e., interpersonal
safety). Growth needs include a person’s self-esteem through personal achievement as well as
the concept of self-actualization.

18.3.4 McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs

McClelland D. (1973) dedicated his talent ‘to studying three secondary needs that he
considered particularly important sources of motivation: Need for achievement - People with
a high need for achievement (nAch) want to achieve reasonable thought-provoking goals over
their own hard work. Hence, they have a preference for ‘working alone rather than in teams
because of their strong need to assume personal responsibility for tasks.Need for affiliation –
the need for affiliation (nAff) talks about the desire to seek authorization from others,
‘conform to their desires and hopes, and ‘avoid conflict and confrontation’ with them. Those
people with a strong nAff ‘want to form positive relationships with others. They try to plan a
promising appearance of themselves and take other steps to be liked by others. And; the Need
for power – the need for power (nPow) denotes the desire to regulate ‘one’s environment,
including people and material resources’. People with highnPow always ‘want to exercise
control over others and are worried about upholding their leadership position. They often
depend on convincing communication, necessitate ‘more suggestions in meetings, and tend to
publicly evaluate situations more frequently’.

18.3.5 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Or Motivation

Hygiene Theory Herzberg et al. (1957) and Herzberg (1968) distinguished two types of
motivational factors, “hygiene” factors and motivators. The hygiene factors consist of wages,
good working conditions, good company policy and administration, good relationships with
supervisors and peers, and job security. The existence of these issues does not guarantee
satisfaction and productivity. However if they are lacking, the employee will be disgruntled
and discouraged. ‘Satisfaction and productivity are only possible when the employee is
positively motivated.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Explain how employees are motivated according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

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 2. Describe the differences among factors contributing to employee motivation and
how these differ from factors contributing to dissatisfaction.

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18.4 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

How you handle a conflict that happens in the workplace can make a difference on how
employees see your company going forward. Human resources professionals are often tasked
with mediating staff issues and working to provide a resolution that everyone is happy with
can be quite a challenge.You need to find creative and strategic ways to resolve employee
conflicts that are beneficial not only to the worker but also to your organization. Allowing
both sides to be heard, remaining transparent in your decisions, and working to find solutions
that make both parties happy can make you better equipped to handle problems as they arise
at your company.

In most conflicts, neither party is right or wrong; instead, different perceptions collide to
create disagreement. Conflict is natural and it's up to you to respond to conflict situations
quickly and professionally. Conflict can be very positive; if you deal with it openly, you can
strengthen your work unit by correcting problems. Conflicting views give you a chance to
learn more about yourself, explore the views of others, and develop productive relationships.
Clear and open communication is the cornerstone of successful conflict resolution. By
managing conflicts skilfully, HR can:

 Gain cooperation from team members

 Improve performance and productivity
 Reduce stress and preserve the integrity
 Solve problems as quickly as possible
 Improve relationships and teamwork
 Enhance creativity
 Increase staff morale

To manage conflict effectively HR manager must be a skilled communicator. That includes

creating an open communication environment in your unit by encouraging employees to talk
about work issues. Listening to employee concerns will foster an open environment. Human
Resources should really understand what employees are saying by asking questions and
focusing on their perception of the problem. To learn more about communication skills,
whether two employees are fighting for the desk next to the window or one employee wants
the heat on and another doesn't, immediate response to conflict situations is essential. Here
are some guidelinesone can use when faced with employees who can't resolve their own
conflicts.

 Acknowledge that a difficult situation exists. Honesty and clear communication play an
important role in the resolution process. Acquaint yourself with what's happening and be
open about the problem.
 Let individuals express their feelings. Some feelings of anger and/or hurt usually
accompany conflict situations. Before any kind of problem-solving can take place, these
emotions should be expressed and acknowledged.
 Define the problem. What is the stated problem? What is the negative impact on work or
relationships? Are differing personality styles part of the problem? Meet with employees
separately at first and question them about the situation.
 Determine underlying needs. The goal of conflict resolution is not to decide which person is
right or wrong; the goal is to reach a solution that everyone can live with. Looking first for
needs, rather than solutions, is a powerful tool for generating win/win options. To discover
needs, you must try to find out why people want the solutions they initially proposed. Once
you understand the advantages their solutions have for them, you have discovered their
needs.
 Find common areas of agreement, no matter how small:

 Agree on the problem

 Agree on the procedure to follow

 Agree on worst fears

 Agree on some small change to give an experience of success

 Find solutions to satisfy needs:

  Problem-solve by generating multiple alternatives

 Determine which actions will be taken

 Make sure involved parties buy into actions. (Total silence may be a sign of passive

resistance.) Be sure you get real agreement from everyone.

 Determine follow-up you will take to monitor actions. You may want to schedule a follow-
up meeting in about two weeks to determine how the parties are doing.
 Determine what you'll do if the conflict goes unresolved. If the conflict is causing a
disruption in the department and it remains unresolved, you may need to explore other
avenues

18.5 EMPLOYEE RELATIONS

The definition of employee relations refers to an organization’s efforts to create and maintain
a positive relationship with its employees.By maintaining positive, constructive employee
relations, organizations hope to keep employees loyal and more engaged in their work.

Typically, an organization’s human resources department manages employee relations

efforts; however, some organizations may have a dedicated employee relations manager role.
Typical responsibilities of an employee relations manager include acting as a liaison or
intermediary between employees and managers, and either creating or advising on the
creation of policies around employee issues like fair compensation, useful benefits, proper
work-life balance, reasonable working hours, and others. When it comes to employee
relations, an HR department has two primary functions. First, HR helps prevent and resolve
problems or disputes between employees and management. Second, they assist in creating
and enforcing policies that are fair and consistent for everyone in the workplace.

18.5.1 Why are employee relations important?

When an employer hires a new employee, he is not just bringing a new member of the
workforce aboard; he is also starting a new relationship. Because employers and employees
often work in close quarters, they necessarily develop relationships. Managing these
relationships is vital to business success, as strong relationships can lead to greater
employee happiness and even increased productivity. To reap these benefits, keep the
dynamics of your employer-employee relationship in mind. Employee relations are
concerned with generally managing the employment relationship and developing a positive
psychological contract. In particular, they deal with terms and conditions of employment,
issues arising from employment, providing employees with a voice, and communicating with
employees. Employees are dealt with either directly or through collective agreements where
trade unions are recognized.

18.5.2 Employer-Employee Relationship Basics

Generally, employer and employee relationships should be mutually respectful. The degree
of closeness in these relationships will depend on both the employer and the employee.
Some employers opt to keep their employees at a distance and, in doing so, ensure that
there is no confusion as to the hierarchy that exists between them. Others elect to become
friendlier with their employees, seeing this as a way to ramp up employee happiness.
 Mutual Reliance Relationship
The employer-employee relationship should be one of mutual reliance. The employer is
relying upon the employee to perform her job and, in doing so, keep the business running
smoothly. Conversely, the employee is relying upon the employer to pay her and enable her
to support herself, and potentially her family, financially.
 Relationship Building Over Time
Just as with all relationships, the employer and employee relationship must develop over
time. Employers can promote the building of relationships by speaking candidly with their
employees about their lives, asking them about their families, and learning about their
interests. Similarly, employees can promote the building of this relationship by being open
with their employer and sharing information about themselves and their lives.
 Set Relationship Boundaries
Though the type of employee and employer relationship that is considered appropriate
varies from company to company, boundaries exist at almost all companies. Generally, it is
unwise for employers to develop romantic relationships with their employees. Similarly,
employers should exercise care to ensure that the relationship they develop with one
employee isn’t notably closer than the relationships they develop with others, as this can
lead to concerns regarding favouritism or similar issues of unfairness within the workplace.

18.5.3 What Is Employee Relationship Management?

Employee relationship management is a process that companies use to effectively manage
all interactions with employees, ultimately achieving the goals of the organization. For
larger companies, a human resources department helps with training and coaching
supervisors on how to effectively manage relationships with employees. Small-business
owners should also have employee training, management, and monitoring activities to keep
things running smoothly.Employee relationship management can mean many things to
different people. It starts with giving employees detailed job descriptions. It continues with
training new hires. Businesses must also monitor the performance of employees to ensure
they are doing their jobs correctly.
A relationship is a two-way street, so you must make sure employees at all levels can
communicate back and forth. Finally, employees should receive feedback on how they are
doing, often done through annual reviews. During reviews, employees should be able to tell
how they feel about the employer, as well.
 Determining Employee Needs
It is not enough to assume that a company knows what is important to employees for them
to remain happy and not look to leave. Needs vary greatly depending on employee
characteristics, such as age, gender, income level, as well as the type of job being
performed. It is a good idea to find out directly from employees what their needs are.
You can do this in one-on-one conversations that take place informally throughout the year,
during formal employee evaluation meetings, and through surveys that provide a
quantitative indication of employee needs. For example, younger employees might be more
interested in learning new skills and advancement, while older employees want stability
and benefits like retirement contributions and health insurance.
 Balancing Work and Life Needs
Effective employee relationship management requires consideration of the whole
employee, not just the on-site worker. That means taking steps to ensure that the employee's
work-life needs are well balanced. This can occur through creative staffing that might
involve part-time, flextime, or even off-site work assignments.
Monthly employee birthday parties, company outings, day care stipends, gym
memberships, wellness programs, charity events ,and other non-work related activities can
help make work less stressful and working for a particular company more fulfilling.
 Open, Honest Communication
Communication is critical to establishing strong employee relationships. Managers must be
committed to communicating regularly and honestly with employees about the issues that
affect their work. The more open organizations can be, the more likely they are to establish
strong relationships that lead to increased loyalty and productivity among employees and
decreased turnover and dissatisfaction.
Look at the way your company's managers and supervisors communicate with staff
members, and the communications channels your staff members have to communicate
upward to see if you are doing everything you can to manage your employee relationships.
 Measuring and Monitoring Results
Effective employee relationship management requires tracking not only worker
performance but also satisfaction. Managers should be alert for signs of discontent, which
can be subjective, as well as carefully mmonitorthe results of more formal assessments.
Tardiness, missed deadlines, excessive sick and personal days, formal complaints filed,
disciplinary actions, and employee morale should all be tracked. The results should also be
shared with employees. Too often employees are asked to complete surveys and are not
informed of the results or told what was done with the results and the outcomes.
 "People Skills" are Critical

Ultimately, employee relationship management requires the same skills and processes
required to manage any relationship. A clear understanding of employees' needs and a
desire to meet those needs is foundational. Steps must be taken to interact effectively with
employees through a variety of communication channels, both interpersonal and formal
(e.g., intranet site, employee newsletters, etc.). Finally, measurement of the effectiveness of
these efforts should be frequent and ongoing, with improvements and adjustments made
when results are not showing continual improvement or satisfactory levels of performance.

Check Your Progress 3

1. As a Facility Manager, What guidelines you will follow to manage conflicts?

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2. What are Employee relations and what are the ways of managing employee relations
management?
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18.6 SKILLS REQUIRED FOR FACILITY MANAGER

Facility or facilities management (FM) is a profession dedicated to supporting people. It

ensures the functionality, comfort, safety, sustainability, and efficiency of the built
environment - the buildings we live and work in and their surrounding infrastructure. As
defined by ISO

Facility Management is an organizational function that integrates people, places,

andprocesses within the built environment to improve the quality of life of people and the
productivity of the core business.
This combination of job responsibilities supports the operations of each organization to create
an environment where the systems work together seamlessly, from the parking lot to the
executive suite. Facility managers are the people who make sure we have the safest and best
experience possible; by coordinating the processes that make the built environment succeed.

18.6.1 What do facility managers do?

Whether the space is a factory, office, hospital, shopping mall, airport, museum, or stadium,
someone makes sure the building and all of its components work properly. That person is a
facility manager. Facility managers (FMs) make sure systems in the built environment work
together as they should, that buildings fulfill their intended purposes, and that personnel is
healthy and productive.

Facility managers have many different titles and career paths. They often aren’t called facility
managers even though they are responsible for aspects of facility management, including
planning, evaluating, and maintaining building systems. Facility managers hold a variety of
roles, including:

 Building operations like cleaning, security, maintenance, and grounds management

 Return-to-work processes and policies
 Emergency and disaster mitigation and response
 Sustainability planning
 Project management and budgeting
 Real estate management and space planning
 Business continuity planning

18.6.2 Why is FM relevant?

The FM industry is growing rapidly, and the COVID-19 pandemic made safety and health a
top priority. Changes to technology, green initiatives, and other current trends are changing
how FM teams conduct business and respond to everyday challenges.

Facility managers are a crucial part of every organization because they ensure that the places
where we work, play and live are safe, comfortable, sustainable, and efficient. Facility
managers contribute to an organization’s strategy and bottom line in a variety of ways.

 Contribute to operational efficiencies

 Plan and deliver infrastructure needs to support productivity
 Manage risks including those to facilities, employees, suppliers, and business reputation
 Mitigate and reduce environmental impact
 Promote sustainable tactics for long-term cost management
 Leverage technological solutions
 Mitigate and overcome the effects of natural disasters
 Guarantee compliance
 Leverage security

18.6.3 The top 10 skills of a Facilities Manager

A Facilities or Estates Manager is a job role that is responsible for making sure that buildings
and their services meet the needs of the people that work in them. Facilities managers are
accountable for services such as cleaning, security, and parking, to make sure the surrounding
environment is in a suitable condition to work. They also manage any building maintenance
with things like heating and air conditioning, to maintain the working environment.

10. Numerical Know-How

Most FMs aren’t economists, mathematicians, or CPAs. But budgeting and financial planning
are nevertheless important parts of the job. You need to know what your company's key
metrics are, your yearly budgeting plans and how to calculate them. The more financial
insight you have, the more effective a manager you’ll be.

9. Legal Eagle-bility

A superhero FM doesn’t need a law degree any more than a maths degree, but having an
appreciation for the impact that local authority law and regulations have on your facility is
important. Whatever industry you find yourself in, chances are good that numerous statutes
and regulations apply to everything from HR to day-to-day operations.

8. Insider’s Insight

As an FM, you probably know a lot of about the Facility Management field. But what about
your company’s industry? Are you an expert in their universe as well as your own? Let’s say
you’re the FM for the second-busiest NHS Trust in England. Sure, you know the buildings
and how to run them, but how much do you know about healthcare? You don’t need an M.D.,
but understanding how the medical industry operates will enable you to diagnose (pun
intended) your facility’s problems. Armed with an insider’s insight, you’ll be better poised to
take your organisation to being one of the top facilities.

7. A Go-with-the-Flow Attitude

A lot of leadership is intuitive, but good instincts can be learned. Are you generally easy
going, or are you naturally “on edge”? Either personality type can serve you well in different
situations, but flexibility is a valuable trait for FMs.

6. Emergency Reflexes!

Part of going with the flow means keeping calm in an emergency. If you’ve never faced a
true emergency, you might not know how you’d naturally respond. Some people panic;
others become instinctively solution-oriented and level-headed. As a general rule, “cool and
collected” is the most effective approach to even the direst emergency. Planning is part of
that. If you already know exactly how to react when an urgency arises, you won’t be caught
off-guard.
5. Project Leadership

Facility Managers often double as Project Managers. Or maybe you work alongside a
designated PM. Whatever the task at hand may be, yours is a position of leadership. You’ll
need to set goals, motivate your workforce, monitor performance, and measure results.

4. IT Savvy

FMs may not need a background as software engineers, but the reality is that today’s FM
world is more technology-reliant than ever. The more quickly you embrace that, the more
valuable you’ll be in your field. Everything from room reservations to asset monitoring,
servicing schedules and emergency maintenance costs, it's almost all managed on the
computer today (and, increasingly, on smartphones and tablets). IT plays an invaluable role in
the way FMs communicate with their workforce, customers, and coworkers as well.

3. Sustainability

Sustainability continues to trend not only as a buzzword but also as an emerging corporate
value all around the world. That’s especially true in the facilities sector. A sustainable
building is an efficient resource for any company, so your employer will count on you to
keep your facility as green as can be. Start looking for ways to enhance efficiency. Make
sustainability a goal and take proactive steps toward it.

2. Cross-Networking
 Companies consist of numerous divisions charged with specific sets of responsibility. Often,
these areas of oversight overlap. That’s especially common in Facilities Management because
the physical workspace intersects with almost everything that happens inside it. That’s why
FMs need the ability to network laterally across the entire organization with IT, HR,
administration, other executives, etc. Take a step back and think about all the ways your job
complements the work others are doing elsewhere in the company.

1. People Skills

Facilities Management is all about the people you serve. Your ability to connect with,
engage, and inspire the others around you will make the most determinative difference in
your performance as an FM. The good news is that people skills are among the most easily
acquired traits on this list. Much of it comes down to your own perspective.

Respect is the cornerstone of every productive working relationship. Communication matters!

Don’t just convey information; make sure your meaning is understood (and, in turn, make
sure you understand others as well). Identify the objectives of the people you work with,
learn what motivates them, and commit yourself to forging a professional connection that
inspires each party to bring out their very best.

18.6.4 Facilities Manager National Geographic- Example from Naukri.com

Job description

The Facilities Manager will oversee the overall smooth running of ILMs Mumbai building/s
and facilities, the Facilities Manager will be involved in optimizing the use of the office space
and the day-to-day building and facilities maintenance issues as they arise including
managing facilities contractors and suppliers, managing stock of supplies and have ownership
of ensuring the building functions as efficiently and effectively as possible and office space is
optimized. The role will also be tasked with building and maintaining strong and effective
working relationships between ILM Mumbai and Disney s property and facilities
departments.

What you will do

 Oversee the general upkeep and maintenance of the Mumbai office and other office space as
required, managing and solving day-to-day issues as they arise.
 Direct and plan essential central services such as reception, meeting rooms, security,
maintenance, office furniture and supplies, mail, archiving and storage, cleaning, catering,
waste disposal, recycling and shredding.
 Liaising with the relevant departments within both ILM and Disney, ensure the building and
all working space complies with health and safety legislation and fire safety regulations
through review and inspection and effective record keeping. Keep up to date on changes to
legislation, advise the business and implement changes as necessary.
 Liaising with the Operations team, plan best allocation and utilization of space and resources
for all buildings.
 Using available networks, source contractors and suppliers for required goods or services,
calculating and comparing costs or services to achieve maximum value for money, and
liaising with ILM legal for preparation of contracts.
 Project management and coordinating the work of contractors, ensuring work carried out is
completed satisfactorily, following up on any deficiencies.
 Liaising with relevant ILM departments, develop the Mumbai studio s Crisis Management
Plan, including business continuity procedures, emergency procedures etc. Administer and
review procedures.
 With knowledge of work coming into the Mumbai studio, investigate availability and
suitability of options for new premises, calculating and comparing costs and making
recommendations to the Operations team.
 Respond as appropriate for emergencies and urgent issues as they arise.

What we are looking for

 Educated to degree level preferably in a Facilities related discipline, or equivalent experience

 Experience working within a management role in facilities operations (preferably for another
visual effects studio, or within the production or post production industry)
 Motivated self-starter with excellent organizational and analytical skills
 Strategically minded, adept and confident at managing a diverse political and cultural
environment
 Adept at building strong relationships and interfacing with people at all levels across the
organization
 Excellent communication skills both verbal and written
 Demonstrable ability to effect change and drive new practices and procedures
 Proactive approach and solution focused
 Commercially focused with a creative approach to save money where appropriate
 Preferred Skills/Competencies:
 Experience of working for a global US company would be beneficial
 Technical Skills
 Experienced user of MS Office Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook

Source: Naukri.com

Check Your Progress 4

1. What is the job responsibility of Facilities Manager? According to you, what are the 5
skills that are important for Facilities Manager?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………

18.7 LET US SUM UP

The Human Resources has a very strategic role in organizations. Through their activities,
motivation, conflict management and overall employee relations, they have managed to
increase the quality of life-work balance for their employees. A Harvard Business Review
study, presented by 99Jobs, showed that improving team motivation can boost company
profits by up to 47%. In addition, the same material indicates that satisfied, happy, and
motivated employees are up to 50% more productive.The human resource team has a
leadership responsibility to develop and implement workplace conflict policies and
procedures and to create and manage conflict-resolution programs. Finally, the facility
management industry has evolved in many ways over the last few years. A facilities manager
essentially look after all of the services that helps a business or other organization do its
work. The skill sets identified in the chapter are essential to forging a successful career as in
facility management roles.
18.8 FURTHER READINGS,
 Aswathappa, K. (2013).Human resource management: Text and cases. New Delhi:

McGraw Hill Education.

 Bhattacharya,D.K.(2009).Human Resource Development(1st Edi).Mumbai: Himalaya
Publication. Cotts, D., and Lee, M. 1992. The facility management handbook.
NY:Amacom, p. 27.
 John, M. Ivancevich.(2008). Human Resource Management (10th Edi).New Delhi:
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
 Laksmana, Dimas Indra and Maranatha Wijayaningtyas. “Integration Facility
Management: Human Resources.” International Journal of Scientific & Technology
Research 8 (2019): 701-705.
 Shaun, Tyson. (2003). Strategic prospects for human resource management (2nd
Edi.).Mumbai: Jaico Publication.

18.9 KEYWORDS WITH DEFINITION

 Compensation- rewarding someone for service or by making up for someone's loss,
damage, or injury by giving the injured party an appropriate benefit.
 Goal Directed- having a purpose
 Strategic: refers to the long-term goal or roadmap for an organization, and how it
plans to reach them
 Resolution: a formal decision or statement agreed on by a group of people, especially
after a vote or majority
 Favoritism: the practice of giving unfair preferential treatment to one person or group
at the expense of another
 Turnover: the rate at which employees leave a workforce and are replaced.

18.9 ACTIVITIES ARE A MUST FOR EACH UNIT.

1. Visit https://clutch.co/in/hr and review top 5 HR companies in India

2. Visit Naukri and Linkedin website, explore the position of Facility Manager and skills
required.
18.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check your Progress 1

1. Refer 18.3.1
2. Refer 18.2.1-18.2.7

Check your Progress 2

1. 18.3.1
2. 18.3.5

Check your Progress 3

1. 18.4
2. 18.5.3

Check your Progress 4

1. 18.6.2-18.6.3
UNIT 19 COMMUNICATION

Structure
19.0 Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Defining Communication and its Process
19.2.1 Definitions of Communication
19.2.2 The Process of Communication
19.3 Types of Communication
19.3.1 Communication on the Basis of Direction
19.3.2 Communication on the Basis of Way of Expression
19.3.3 Communication on the Basis of the Organizational Structure
19.3.4 Interpersonal Communication
19.4 Mediums of Communication
19.4.1 Advantages and Limitations of Oral Communication
19.4.2 Advantages and Limitations of Written Communication
19.5 Effective Communication
19.5.1 7 C’s of Communication
19.5.2 4 S’s of Communication
19.6 Active Listening
19.6.1 Difference between Hearing and Listening
19.6.2 Essentials of Good Hearing
19.6.3 Barriers/ Deterrents to Good Listening
19.7 Barriers to Effective Communication
19.8 Let Us Sum Up
19.9 Clues to Check Your Progress

19.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 understand the process of communication,
  classify the types of communication,
 identify the mediums of communication,
 identify the essentials of effective communication,
 discuss the essentials of active listening; and
 describe the barriers to effective communication

19.1 INTRODUCTION

Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another.

Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which
share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the
imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs".
Communication can be perceived as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and
progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually accepted goal or direction.

At a formal set-up at a workplace, it is extremely important to know about communication

practices. Business communication in the right manner helps in the swift exchange of ideas,
thoughts, and messages in the best possible manner.

Facilities management is committed to supporting customers by providing functionality, ease,

safety, compatibility, sustainability and effectiveness in the workplace or residential buildings.
One of the major goals of facilities management is to provide good quality of life to people and
increase the productivity of commercial places. Therefore, facilities management requires
communicating effectively to overcome issues,and challenges, fulfil the organisation's
objectives and satisfy the customer.Hence, it is essential to understand the process of
communication as effective communication serves as the backbone of effective facilities
management in workplace/ residential buildings.

Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is discrete and

imparted by a sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the
message and gives the sender feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area
of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and
sometimes the tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign
language, paralanguage, touch, and eye contact, by using writing.

Communication is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to

create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal
and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analysing, and
evaluating. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.

There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are message
overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message
complexity.

19.2 DEFINING COMMUNICATION AND ITS PROCESS

The word communication has a rich history. The word communication comes from the Latin
word ‘communicare’which entered the English language in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. The Latin root word ‘communicare’ has three possible meanings:-

1. ‘to make common’, which is probably derived from the meaning number 2 or 3.

2. cum + munus, i.e., having gifts to share in a mutual donation.

3. cum + muniere, i.e., building together a defense, like the walls of a city.

19.2.1 Some definitions of communication:-

1. Communication is a term used to refer to any dynamic, information-sharing process.

(Clevenger, 1959)

2. A process involving the selection, production, and transmission of signs in such a way as
to help a receiver perceives a meaning similar to that in the mind of the communicator.
(Fotheringham, 1966)

3. It is a process, a series of progressive and interdependent steps leading to the attainment

of an end, in the speech the end being the communication of some specific meaning from
one person to another. (Bradley, 1974)

19.2.2 The Process of Communication

The process of communication is in a cyclic form starting from the generation of an
idea, deciding how it should be conveyed (encoding), and finding the best way
(medium) to send it to the receiver. Once the message is decoded and a medium is
decided, it is sent to the receiver. The receiver first understands the message by
assigning a contextual meaning (decoding) and then sends the feedback to the receiver
completing the cycle. This message can either be verbal or non-verbal, oral or written,
face to face or via a medium.
 Figure 19.1: The communication cycle
Communication is a process and as such contains many elements susceptible to defect. Here
are the elements of the communication process.

● A message: what needs to be communicated

● A messenger: the person who has something to communicate
● A receiver: the person who will receive the message
● Encoding: verbal and non-verbal convention of communication
● Decoding: reading by the receiver of the encoding done by the messenger
● Channel: the means or medium of communication.

Figure 19.2: The communication Model

Communication Process breaksdown effective communication into the following steps:
A) Sender/ Encoder/ Speaker – The communicator or sender is the person who initiates the
communication process by means of sending the message. The effectiveness of the
communication depends to a very large extent on the sender/encoder. The sender’s choice of
images and words and the combination of the two is what makes the receiver to listen
carefully.

B) Message – A message is communication in writing, in speech, or by signals. It is the

encoded idea conveyed by the sender that generates the response of a receiver. A proper
formulation of a message is very important for an incorrect pattern or wording can turn the
receiver hostile or cause a loss of interest. The order in which ideas are presented should be
based on the requirements of the listener so that its significance is immediately grasped and the
interest of the receiver is thus gained.

C) Medium/ Channel- It could be oral, written or non-verbal. Prior to the composition of the
message, the medium/channel should be decided. Each medium has its own set of rules &
regulations e.g., oral communication can be informal but for a written one all rules of
communication would have to be adhered to. Anything in writing is a document that would be
filed for records or circulated to all concerned. The choice of channel or medium depends on
the following:

● Inter-relationship between the sender & the receiver.

● Urgency of the message being sent
● Importance of the message
● Number of receivers
● Cost Involved
● Amount of information

D) Receiver/ Decoder/ Listener – The receiver is simply the person receiving the message,
making sense of it, or understanding and translating it into meaning. Communication is only
successful when the reaction of the receiver is that which the communicator intended. Effective
communication takes place with shared meaning and understanding.

E) Feedback – Feedback is the reaction or response of the receiver to the communication sent
by the sender. It could be verbal (e.g., questions or comments) or nonverbal (smile, sighs, nods
etc.). It can be external feedback (something we see) or internal feedback (something we can’t
see). Feedback can also be written (e.g. answering a memo/ email etc.). Feedback is an
important component of the communication process because ultimately the success or failure
of the communication is decided by the feedback we get.

Some facts about communication:-

 1. Without receiving, a response cycle is incomplete.
2. Meanings received are not necessarily due to the same as the meanings transmitted.
This is mainly because of the loss, distortion, or creation of symbols used in the
process.
3. Meaning sent and meaning received is in the mind of the sender and the receiver- not in
the words or other symbols used.
4. The symbols used in communication are imperfect. For example, there is no precise
translation of our jargon in other cultures. Similarly, we may not find equivalent words
in our culture for certain words used in other cultures.

Although these facts bring to light the difficulties, complexities, and limitations of
communication, on the whole, we as human beings cannot live without it.

Check Your Progress 1

1. Why is it important to understand types and processes of communication in facilities

management?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. Discuss the process of communication. What is “noise” in the process of communication
and how can it be avoided?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

19.3 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

There are various types of communication which are based on the direction of communication
or on basis of the way of expression or on basis of organisational structure. Apart from these,
there is another type of communication known as interpersonal communication. Let us
understand all these types of communication.

19.3.1 Communication on the basis of Direction

1) Vertical Communication:
a) Upward Communication: Upward communication refers to the flow of
information from lower levels to higher levels within an organization, such as
messages containing information, requests, reports, proposals, and feedback
(suggestions/ recommendations).
b) Downward Communication: Communication that takes place from a higher
authority to a juniorwhich could either be face to face orvia written
communication is known as downward communication. Examples of this could be
in the form of issuing commands, directions, policy directives, orders, notices,
memos, minutes of a meeting to the persons working at levels lower than them.

2) Horizontal Communication: is communication between different individuals,

departments, or organisms on the same organizational level.

or

“the flow of messages across functional areas at a given level of an organization”

Messages of this type are characterised by efforts at coordination or attempts to work

together.

3) Spiral or Diagonal Communication: This communication occurs between

employees in a different sectionsand levels of the organisation. For example in a
facilities management organisation diagonal communication will occur when a
department manager in the head office converses with anaccountant in a branch office
based.

19.3.2.Communication on basis of Way of Expression:-

1) Oral Communication: Oral communication occurs between two participants of

communication through spoken words. The participants are the sender and the
receiver, who formulate/encode a message, and then send it to the receiver who
decodes/ assigns a meaning to the message. This exchange of ideas or thoughts can
take place either face to face or through a medium or a device like a mobile phone,
landline phone, video call, voice call, recorded message etc.

2) Written Communication: Written communication is used by the managementfor

messages that are lengthy and have to be made permanent. It is also used when oral
communication cannot reach each and every person concerned, either due to large
 number of communications or due to long geographical distances between the sender
and the receiver. The examples of written communication are letters, e-mails,reports,
memos, notices, circulars, office orders, graphs etc.

Written Communication is the most common form of communication used in an

organisational set-up. To be effective, written communication must possess four
important characteristics- it should be clear, complete, correct, and to be intelligible.
For example in a facility management office, a complaint that is received regarding
some issue in a building should be recorded in a written form along with the details
like who is the caller, what time was the complaint raised, who is the job assigned to,
and when was it completed. A call back regarding the same could also be made to
ensure that work was done well and should be recorded in written form.

19.3.3 Communication on basis of Organisational Structure:-

1) Formal Communication: The communication flows through formal channels

which are officially and formally recognised positions along the line in the
organisation. In the organisation, the path along which a communication is to
travel is deliberately created to regulate the flows of communication so as to make
it orderly, and thereby to ensure that the required information flows smoothly,
accurately, and timely to the points at which it is required. This is the “chain of
command” or “line of command”. All downward, upward, and horizontal
communications flow through this chain.

2) Informal Communication: Informal Communication, also known as grapevine,

predefined form of communication. It is rather a highly non formal
communication.Hierarchical line of communication is notfollowed; rather it is an
exchange of thoughts between a couple of people. Informal communication is the
result of natural desire of people to communicate with each other when they come
into contact on regular basis. When interaction takes place amongst them a small
social group is formed spontaneously and the members of this group develop their
own communication system known as Informal Communication Channel, or The
Grapevine.

19.3.4.Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is defined by communication scholars in numerous ways,

usually describing participants who are dependent upon one another and have a shared history.
Interpersonal communication skills are very important as these help in conveying thoughts in
most apt manner whether in personal, social or professional space. Additionally, you will be
able to understand and empathise more with others due to your listening skills. Communication
channels, the conceptualization of mediums that carry messages from sender to receiver, take
two distinct forms: direct and indirect.

Direct channels are obvious and easily recognized by the receiver. Both verbal and non-verbal
information is completely controlled by the sender. Verbal channels rely on words, as in
written or spoken communication. Non-verbal channels encompass facial expressions,
controlled body movements (police presents hand gestures to control traffic), colour (red
signals 'stop', green signals 'go'), and sound (warning sirens).

Indirect channels areunderstood by the receivers at subliminal level, and are not always under
direct control of the sender. Body language, facial expressions, gestures that constitute most of
the indirect channel, tend to give away (unknowingly) the real feelings. This leads to confusion
if the said words do not match the meaning conveys by body language, facial expressions and
gestures.

Context refers to the circumstances that have occurred before or around the communication.
According to the dictionary by Merriam-Webster, “Context isthe parts of a discourse that
surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning”. The present or
formerhappenings,give meaning to the message. For written communications, the narratives
before and after the statement in question, assign meaning. The currentsettingsalsochange the
hypotheticalconnotation of words; aspeechwhich is fine in a given situation may become
contextually perplexing in a battlefield or sporting arena.

19.4 MEDIUMS OF COMMUNICATION

To communicate effectively, the communicator should choose the media very carefully. This
depends on how urgently the message has to be sent, the costs involved and the emotional and
intellectual quotient of the receivers. All the medias available can be broadly classified into
five groups:

i). Witten Communicationconsists of e-mails, correspondence, notices, memorandums,

reports, minutes of meetings, questionnaires etc. Everything that has to be written and
transmitted in the written form,comes under written communication.

ii). Oral Communicationincludes face to face conversation, conversation over the telephone,
radio broadcasts, interviews, group discussions, meetings, conferences, and seminars,
announcements over the public address system, speeches, etc.
iii). Visual Communicationconsists of gestures and facial expressions, tables and charts,
graphs, diagrams, posters, slides, film strips, etc.

iv). Audio -Visual Communicationconsists of televisionormovies that combine the visual

impact with narration.

v). Computer-based communicationuse two or more electronic devices like e-mail, voice
mail, smart phones, social networking services etc.

19.4.1 Advantages of Oral Communication:

● It provides immediate feedback.

● It is time saving as any clarification, further elaboration or justification can be done
then & there itself.
● It brings superiors & subordinates together & thus builds up a healthy work
environment by drawing people together.
● It is very economical as it doesn’t require any money to be spent on stationery etc.
● It gives the speaker an opportunity to correct himself or make himself clear by
changing his voice, tone pitch etc.
● It gives that the speaker the advantage of understanding the group he is addressing. He
can immediately understand the group’s reaction & arrive at a satisfactory conclusion.

Limitations of Oral Communication:

● It tends to get prolonged at times when the meetings go on & on without arriving at any
satisfactory conclusion.
● Oral messages cannot always be retained in the listener’s memory.
● In the absence of records, oral messages do not have legal validity.
● If the speaker has not carefully organized his thoughts oral messages may lead to
misunderstanding.

Written communication can be done through reports, illustrations, memos, telegrams,

facsimiles (fax), emails, tenders, circulars etc.

19.4.2 Advantages of Written Communication:

● It provides, records, references etc on which important decisions rest.

 ● It builds up the legal defenses of the organization through records, letters, instructions
etc.
● It promotes uniformity of policy & procedure & builds up proper guidelines for the
working of the organization.
● It builds up the image of the company.
● It is accurate & dependable as something once written cant be changed or manipulated.
● It is permanent.
● Responsibility can be easily assigned. One may deny the spoken words but cannot deny
something in black & white.

Limitations of Written Communication:

● It builds up unmanageable clutter of papers & files & costs a lot to the organization.
● It is time consuming as immediate feedback is not possible.
● It is costly in terms of money & man hours.
● It becomes ineffective in the hands of people who are poor in expression.
● Absence of immediate clarification.

Check your progress 2:

3. Explain the different types of communication on the basis of direction of

communication.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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4. What is a grapevine communication? What could be the advantages and disadvantages
of grapevine communication in a facilities management set-up?
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……………………………………………………………………………………

19.5 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

A communication is effective when the receiver understands the message as intended by the
sender and is able to give the desired reaction. There are certain points if kept in mind can help
the sender in transmitting the message effectively. These can be simply remembered as 7 C’c
and 4 S’s of communication and are as follows:

19.5.1 7 C’s of Communication

1) Clarity: The principle of clarity implies both clarity of thought and expression. Clarity
of thought means that the communicator must be fully clear in his mind about the
following:

● What needs to be communicated? (The Message)

● Why it needs to be communicated? ( The Objective )
● Whom it needs to be communicated to? (The Receiver)
● When it needs to be communicated? (The Timing)
● How it needs to be communicated? (The most suitable media)

Once the idea is clear in the sender’s mind, it must be expressed in clear & simple language. In
order to ensure clarity of expression the following steps are required:

● Use simple & familiar words.

● Use verbal & non- verbal symbols that are familiar to both sender & receiver
● Avoid technical jargon that is understood only by a limited group
● Avoid all ambiguities and words having double meaning

2) Completeness: Communication should not be incomplete or out of irrational. Rather it

should give full information and should be sensible. Incomplete messages keep the
receivers guessing, create misunderstanding and delay the actions. To ensure
completeness of message, we should check for the “5 W” questions - What, Why,
When, Where & Who. For example while announcing a meeting one needs to specify:
What is the agenda of the meeting, Why is it required, When will it be held, Where
will it be held, and Who all need to attend it?

3) Conciseness: We should keep the communication short and simple and to the point by
including only relevant details in our message. It saves time and also provides a grace
and force to the message. Irrelevant words and repetition should be avoided as it
clouds the meaning. Quantum of information should be just right- neither too much nor
too little.
4) Correctness: Concrete and specific expressions, facts and figures should be used
instead of vague and abstract expressions. Any message should not be sent until and
unless the sender has ensured of its accuracy and authenticity. If incorrect information
is given by employees to managers then decision based on such information may be
wrong and transmission of incorrect information to outside spoils relations &
reputation. Transmission of information at the right time is also important as delayed
and outdated messages cause loss of time and money.

5) Courtesy: The term courtesy refers to a friendly and helpful behaviour towards others.
Polite manners encourage participative communication. The following guidelines
should be observed to ensure courtesy:

● Thank generously for a favour done by someone to you.

● Apologize for an omission or a mistake and express your regrets sincerely and
promptly
● Avoid the usage of words and expressions that have a negative connotation.
● Answer all letters or mails promptly. In case you need time to send a proper reply
then ensure you acknowledge the letter you have received
● Be empathetic by putting yourself in the other person’s shoes. Ask how you would
feel if you were in a similar position.

6) Credibility and Consideration: You should strive to present yourself from a position
of reliability & competence so that your message appears more believable and thus
more acceptable to the receiver. Credibility cannot be established in one statement it is
something that we need to develop over a period of time through consideration,
courtesy and sincerity in the day to day interaction.
Consideration refers to the process of thinking and looking from the receiver’s point of
view. The sender should adopt a humane approach and understand the emotions &
sentiments of the receiver. He should focus on the needs of the receiver and should
follow the principle of “First understand then be understood”.
7) Consistence: The approach to communicate should be consistent. There should not be
too many ups and downs as it leads to confusion. Once a stand has been taken, it must
be adhered to. If the sender desires to bring about a change in his understanding of the
situation then he should ensure that the shift is gradual and not hard for the receiver to
understand.
 S.No. C’s Relevance

1. Credibility Builds Trust

2. Courtesy Improves Relationships

3. Clarity Makes Comprehension Easier

4. Consistency Introduces stability

5. Correctness Builds confidence

6. Completeness Avoids Confusion

7. Conciseness Saves time

19.5.2 4 S’s of Communication

1) Shortness: If the message is short and brief then the transmission and
comprehension of message is faster & more effective. If heavy words are used then
major time of the receiver is wasted in trying to decipher the meaning of the
message.
2) Simplicity: Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals clarity in the
thinking process and thus the message has a better impact on the receiver as it is
better understood.
3) Strength: The strength of a message comes from the credibility of the sender and
the authenticity of the information. If the sender himself believes in a message that
he is about to transmit, there is bound to be strength and conviction in whatever he
tries to state.
4) Sincerity: A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to the receiver if the
sender is genuine, it will be reflected in the manner in which he communicates.

S.No. S’s Relevance

1. Shortness Economizes

2. Simplicity Impresses

3. Strength Convinces

4. Sincerity Appeals
 19.6 ACTIVE LISTENING

Active listening is an intent to "listen for meaning", in which the listener checks with the
speaker to see that a statement has been correctly heard and understood. The goal of active
listening is to improve mutual understanding.

Active listening is a way of listening and responding to another person that improves mutual
understanding. Active listening is a structured form of listening and responding that focuses the
attention on the speaker. It is made up of three components:

● Hearing: Hearing is the process of capturing the sound waves through ears and sending
this data to the brain.
● Interpreting: Once this data reaches your brain, based on past experiences and
learning, the brain will interpret / understand the data and classifies it as noise, word,
music…Etc.

Assigning a contextual meaning: Depending on the context/situation, the data is given a

specific meaning.

L = Look interested – become interested

I = Involve yourself by responding (nodding, expressions etc).

S = Stay on target

T = Test your understanding

E = Evaluate your message

N = Neutralise your feelings

19.6.1 Difference between Hearing and Listening:

Hearing is simply the act of perceiving sound by the ear. If you are not hearing-impaired,
hearing simply happens. It is not a conscious act. Listening, however, is something you
consciously choose to do. Listening requires concentration so that your brain processes
meaning from words and sentences. Listening leads to learning.

Hearing takes place when something disturbs the atmosphere and that disturbance takes the
form of pressure waves that strike our ear drums as sound. It’s the way we perceive
sound.Listening is different. It expands on hearing when we pay attention to the meaning of
what we hear.

19.6.2 Essentials of Good Listening:

● Stop talking as you cannot listen during talking. Suspend other things you are
doing. Concentration is important.
● Look at the person. Watch body language and facial expressions and mark it along
with the words used. Maintain eye contact, under the direct gaze of the sender it
is difficult for the mind to stray.
● Listen not merely to the words, but the feeling content.
● Be sincerely interested in what the other person is talking about.
● Restate what the person said.
● Use receptive language to show that you are listening, if you are too immersed in
yourself while listening, others would feel you are not interested.
● Ask clarification questions once in a while.
● Be aware of your own feelings and strong opinions.
● If you have to state your views, say those only after you have listened.
● Choose to listen, rather than judge. Listen to the other person rather than form
counter arguments. Have a positive attitude towards the speaker and the
discussion.

19.6.3 Barriers/Deterrents to Good Listening:

1) Hearing Problems: Hearing deficiency interrupts in the way of listening.

2) Rapid Thoughts: The speaker talks about 125 words per minute whereas the listener
can process information at a rate of 500 words per minute. This leaves ample of idle
time for the mind to wander to other matters.
3) Overload of Message: When the message is lengthy or illogical in sequence it becomes
more painful to retain the concentration.
4) Ego: Thinking that my own ideas are better than those of others is a major deterrent. In
other words superiority complex coupled with the desire to suppress the other or force
him to listen, totally spoils the listening process.
5) Perceptions: Our perceptions are selective & limited. As a result we indulge in
selective listening- taking in the desired part and leaving the undesired part of the
message. Sometimes due to the presence of preconceived notions and negative
 emotions neutral words attempting to communicate positive message communicate
negative and opposite meaning.
6) Assumptions: There are certain wrong assumptions regarding communication:

a) Assuming that its only sender’s responsibility to communicate effectively.

b) Assuming that listening is only passive activity in which receiver does not
necessarily participate.
c) Correlating listening with weakness & powerlessness and thinking that talking
people can capture everyone’s attention and dominate.

7) Cultural Differences: People from different cultural backgrounds have different

perceptions and understandings & value different things. Not only their accents are
different but also there approach to listening. E.g. a Euro- American valuing time likes
to be quick in talking & listening to business mailers.
8) Lack of Training: Listening is of the greatest mindful activities that require conscious
work & practice & training oneself to master it.
9) Preoccupation: Excessive involvement with the self leads to centering of emotions &
feelings around self. In these situations it is difficult to listen to what the other person is
trying to say.
10) Past, Present & Future: Excessive emphasis on the completed activities in the past &
anticipated results in the future leaves little time to concentrate on the message of the
encoder.
11) Fear: If the receiver really fears the sender then he gets alienated from the sender. Even
before communication can commence the mind of the receiver is blocked.
12) The Familiarity Trap: “I know it all” is a trap into which many of the receivers fall.
Quite often conceived knowledge on a particular topic can hinder the listening process.
13) Stress: Working under stress can again create barriers to listening process. It is difficult
to concentrate & pay attention if you are stressed about something.

19.7 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

No matter how good the communication system in an organization is, unfortunately barriers
can and do often occur. There are two types of barriers—internal and external.

Internal Barriers:fatigue, poor listening skills, attitude toward the sender or the information,
lack of interest in the message, fear, mistrust, past experiences, negative attitude, problems at
home, lack of common experiences, and emotions.
External Barriers: noise, distractions, e-mail not working, bad phone connections, time of
day, sender used too many technical words for the audience, and environment

These barriers can be further identified as under:

Noise: It means interference that occurs in a signal & prevents you from hearing sounds
properly. The sender should ensure that all channels are free of noise in order to not to loose
the impact of the message.

Lack of Planning: Communication should be well planned. An ill planned, long or winding
lecture can lead to confusion & miscommunication. Planning also includes the selection of an
appropriate time and place for the communication. This ensures greater amount of attention on
the receiver’s part.

Semantic Problems: Semantics is the systematic study of meaning. That is why the problems
arising from expression or transmission of meaning in communication is based on words. The
meaning of certain words in the mind of the sender and that of the receiver may not always be
the same. It is thus the sender’s responsibility to encode the meaning in a way that the receiver
understands the intended meaning.

Cultural Barriers: The same category of words, phrases, symbols, actions and colours mean
different things to people of different cultural backgrounds. For examplethe Americansprefer
to be called by their first names while the Britishlike to be calledd by their last name.

Wrong Assumptions: One should not make assumptions without caring to seek clarification as
assumptions cause a lot of confusion. We should make all possible efforts to maintain our
goodwill and not act impulsively on assumptions.

Socio-Psychological:The attitudes and opinions, place in society and status consciousness

arising from one’s position in the hierarchical structure of the organization, one’s relations with
peers, seniors, juniors and family background- all these deeply affect one’s ability to
communicate both as a sender or receiver. Status consciousness leads to psychological
distancing which further leads to breakdown of communication or miscommunication.

Emotions: Both encoding & decoding of messages is influenced by our emotions. A message
received when we are emotionally worked up will have a different meaning for us than when
we are calm & composed.
Selective Perception: IT means that the receivers selectively see and hear depending upon their
needs, background, motivations, experience and other personal characteristics. While decoding
the messages, most of the receivers protect their own interests and expectations into the process
of communication leading to a particular kind of feedback that may become a problem.

Filtering: This means that the sender of a message manipulates information in such a way that
it will be seen more favourably by the receiver. Some important part of the information is held
back or ignored. The more vertical levels in the organization, the more chances are there for
filtering.

Information Overload: When people are overloaded with too much information they are likely
to make errors. They may also delay processing or responding to information/messages at least
for some time.

Poor Retention: People may also forget the message or parts of the message conveyed to them.
Hence there arises the necessity to repeat the message & use more than one medium to
communicate the message.

Poor Listening: Poor listening accounts for incomplete information and poor retention.This
primarily happens due to some people who are only interested in talking and not listening or
whose minds are preoccupied or distracted.

Goal Conflicts: Very often clashes of various units and subunits of an organization lead to
communication breakdown. When people start competing for the fulfilment of their narrow
interests’ communication suffers.

Offensive Style of Communication: While communicating we should give due consideration

to people’s sentiments and values so that no one feels offended. If we offend someone while
conveying a message the person automatically becomes negative towards the message. It is
always better to use a persuasive style of communication.

Loss by Transmission: Communication often suffers or gets diluted when messages pass on
from person to person in a series of transmissions. Special care has to be taken so that the
intended message reaches the person concerned.

Businesses or people should try to identify these barriers and then work towards eliminating
them to incorporate effective communication in their dealings.

Check Your Progress 3

1. What is the difference between hearing and listening? How can .
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2. What are some of the internal barriers to effective communication?

……………………………………………………………………………………………
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19.8 LET’S SUM IT UP

1. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts,

opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". Communication can be
perceived as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of
thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually acceptedgoal or direction. facilities
management requires communicating effectively to overcome issues, challenges, to
fulfill the organisation objectives and to satisfy the customer. Communication process
consists of a message: what need to be communicated; a messenger: the person who
has something to communicate, a receiver: the person who will receive the message;
encoding: verbal and non-verbal convention of communication; decoding: reading by
the receiver of the encoding done by the messenger; channel: the means or medium of
communication. There are various types of communication which are based on
direction of communication or on basis of way of expression or on basis of
organisational structure. Apart from these, there is another type of communication
known as interpersonal communication. Let us understand all these types of
communication. For effective communication, the communicator chooses the media to
communicate very carefully after giving a due thought. Choosing a particular media
would depend on which will depend on how soon the message has to be communicated,
what kind of costs are involved and the intellectual and emotional level of receivers. All
the medias available can be broadly classified into five groups - written
communication, oral communication, visual communication, audio -visual
communication, computer-based communication. A communication is effective when
the receiver understands the message as intended by the sender and is able to give the
desired reaction. There are certain points if kept in mind can help the sender in
transmitting the message effectively. These can be simply remembered as 7 C’s and 4
S’s of communication. The 7 C’s of communication are credibility, courtesy, clarity,
 consistency, correctness, completeness and conciseness. The 4 s’s of communication
are shortness, simplicity, strength and sincerity. Active listening is an intent to "listen
for meaning", in which the listener checks with the speaker to see that a statement has
been correctly heard and understood. It is made up of three components namely
hearing, interpreting and assigning a contextual meaning. No matter how good the
communication system in an organization is, unfortunately barriers can and do often
occur. There are two types of barriers namely internal barriers and external barriers.
Internal barriers are fatigue, poor listening skills, attitude toward the sender or the
information, lack of interest in the message, fear, mistrust, past experiences, negative
attitude, problems at home, lack of common experiences, and emotions. External
Barriers are noise, distractions, e-mail not working, bad phone connections, time of the
day, sender used too many technical words for the audience, and environment.

19.9 CLUES TOCHECKYOURPROGRESS

Check Your Progress - 1

1. See section19.1andframeyouranswer
2. See section19.2.2 and frame your answer

Check Your Progress - 2

3. See section19.3.1 and frame your answer

4. See section19.3.3 and frame your answer

Check Your Progress - 3

5. See section19.6.1 and frame your answer

6. See section19.7 and frame your answer

UNIT 20 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Structure
20.0 Objectives
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Types of facility management
20.1.2 Importance of facility management
20.2 Role of it facility management
20.3 Technology trends in facility management
20.4 Property management system and facility management
20.4.1 Various modules of PMS in Facility Management
20.4.2 Various property management systems
20.5 POS system and facility management
20.6 Introduction to cyber security
20.6.1 Why is cybersecurity important?
20.6.2 Types of cyber attacks
20.6.3 Vulnerabilities, threats and harmful actions
20.6.4 Need for security policy
20.7 Let Us Sum Up

20.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 Understand the role of Information Technology, PMS and Cyber security in Facility
Management
 Identify various parts of IT in Facility management
 Classify types of PMS used in Facility Management

20.1 INTRODUCTION

Facility management is a corporate function which integrates people, location, and process
within the physical environment with the main aim of enhancing both individual well-being
and Core Company’s efficiency.It ensures that the buildings, lands, any infrastructure, and real
estate are functional, comfortable, safe, and efficient. Facility management refers to the
equipment and services that supports the operation, security, and sustainability of structures,
land, any infrastructure, and real estate. A seamless environment where the systems operate
from the parking lot to the executive suite is created by the combination of job duties that
support the activities of each organization. By coordinating with the processes which ensure
the success of the physical environment, a facility manager ensures that we enjoy the safest and
best experience possible. Today's businesses can benefit from digitization. Whether you're a
digital startup or an established ecommerce company, the capacity to track, automates, gather
data, and learn is what allows us to improve. In addition to creating new business duties that
support an influx of data; this ubiquitous digitization movement has also resulted in IT
facilities management. Facility Management includes the following:

 Lease management (including accountingandlease administration)

 Investment project planning and management
 Operations and Maintenance
 Energy Management
 Space and occupancy management
 Occupants and Employee’s experience
 Continuity of Business and Emergency Management
 Real Estate management

20.1.1 TYPES OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Two types of areas in Facility Management are:

 Hard Facility Management (Hard FM) –It deals with the physical assets like- plumbing,
electricity, elevators, heating and cooling.
 Soft Facility Management (Soft FM) – It focuses on human-performed tasks like -
Cleaning services, rental accounting, catering, security, and premises maintenance.

20.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF FACILITY MANAGEMENT

 Improving Health and Safety: Another fundamental importance of facility management

is to implement health and safety procedures to reduce workplace hazards. This
includes on-site emergency response, monitoring procedures, and a detailed inspection
of the facility to ensure all are in compliance with standards. This includes proper
management of waste disposal to provide employees with a peaceful working
environment. Workplace cleanliness is taken for granted by many employees of the
company, but if facility managers don’t put processes in order hygiene standards can
easily be compromised.
  Ensuring Compliance: The data of any organization reflects that an organization is fully
compliant or not. The facility management team addresses health and safety issues in
the work environment and ensures that compliance-related data is accurate, consistent,
timely, complete and safe through various global and national, and guaranteed through
industry regulatory standards. Compliance protects assets and employees and helps
prevent unauthorized access to facilities. The building complies with the regulatory
requirements should be ensured by facility managers.
 Extending the Life Cycle of Assets: Another important aspect of facility management is
extending the life of assets through proper organization of building and facility
maintenance, repair and security. It is the responsibility of the facility manager to
manage the entire site (or any specific areas of the facility), assessing its condition,
determining if repairs are required, and also ensuring that repairs are completed.
 Make Business Cost Efficient: Proper facility management is critical to improving
business efficiency and productivity. Provides a more cost-effective workflow within
the facility. For example, regular preventative maintenance of equipment keeps critical
resources available and reduces repair costs. In addition, a comfortable and safe
working environment motivates employees and increases their productivity.

20.2 ROLE OF IT FACILITY MANAGEMENT

IT Facility Management is a comprehensive oversight of a company's IT infrastructure from a

facility perspective. While IT specialists ensure the functionality of networked systems, IT
facility managers ensure that facilities support these functions. IT professionals wire up server
racks, and IT facility managers ensure that the room where the server racks are located has
proper ventilation, temperature control, and air handling. It is also known as the Information
Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL); this role takes common facility management
principles and relates them to many key IT requirements. Where the main role of general
facilities management is to enables a productive, supportive workplace; IT facilities
management focuses on keeping the workplace connected.The main goal of IT facility
management is:

1) Optimizing synergies between assets and facilities: IT assets come in many forms,
including simple routers, modems, computer workstations, commercial copiers, servers,
and various Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Just as these assets support an employee's
day-to-day needs, the facility itself needs to support her IT assets. Copiers should be
accessible where most employees benefit. IoT devices need to coexist with the space
 they monitor and collect data from.IT facilities managers should examine the
relationships between IT resources and facilities to understand their synergies. How can
a facility activate its IT resources, and what can those resources do to improve the
facility? It starts with a careful consideration of the relationships between them.
2) Working with IT Support Teams:Much of IT facility management works with IT
service technicians. Facility managers know how employees interact in technology-
enabled workspaces, but they don't care about managing that technology. Similarly, the
IT team covers all aspects of management but does not estimate the need.IT staff run
digital networks and systems, but it's the facility manager's job to create the framework.
The IT manager doesn't decide where the server room will be or how many
workstations will be on her 3rd floor. The IT blueprint is provided by the facility
manager (the support team who sets up and maintains the facility). From there, it's a
collaborative approach that allows the digital and physical workplace to work in
harmony.
3) Physical Environment Management: In large organizations, the demands of IT facilities
management may be sufficient for a full-time job. These companies maintain secure
server rooms, data centers, and complex IT infrastructures. The vast amount of cabling
and rack hardware places a maintenance burden on the facility itself.
 Are these assets adequately powered?
 Do they have redundant backups?
 Are you in control?
 Is air quality monitored?

These IT management questions have solutions rooted in facility management. Utilities,

HVAC, and air quality are broad functions in building management. IT environments are
becoming facilities within a facility and require their own professional oversight. If the server
room temperature must be maintained between 68 and 71 degrees for him and the employee
prefers a temperature between 72 for him and 75 for him, both criteria must coexist in
harmony.

Safety is important here too. Digital security is the foundation of modern business operations,
and so is physical storage. Coordinating the access control, alarm, and monitoring systems of
the IT environment is another of the facilities manager's tasks and the most important.

20.3 TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN FACILITY MANAGEMENT

1. Strategic Spatial Planning Tool: Pre-pandemic space management was all about
maximizing occupancy and minimizing costs. While these remain key concerns,
improving overall space utilization and room quality to provide the best possible
experience for employees who may not be in the office on a daily basis. Emphasis is
now placed on When employees return to the office, they don't always want to sit
shoulder to shoulder like they used to. Your greatest need is to be physically and
mentally safe. At the same time, businesses her leaders need to consider the fact that
employees are likely to use office her space differently. You may need to reconfigure
some areas or make others reservable instead of assigning them to specific
employees.A strategic space planning tool like Space-Right can help you instantly
customize your office space for security or plan it for your specific scenario. Other
space planning solutions can help you anticipate future needs, manage leases, allocate
resources appropriately, and allocate them to different tenants or departments.
2. Touch less workplace technology: The pandemic has increased the demand for touch
less technology as we use shared surfaces more often. In addition to being more
hygienic, touch less technology contributes to the frictionless environment that is
becoming the new normal. A workplace that adopts touch less, sensor-based solutions
such as smart lighting, his HVAC system that adjusts based on occupancy, and a touch
less visitor management system that allows guests to pre-register by simply scanning
his QR code upon arrival instead of waiting in a crowded lobby.
3. Advanced HVAC technology:Heating, cooling and ventilation account for a
significant portion of a building's electricity bill. The opportunity to reduce energy
consumption is of great economic and environmental benefit. New HVAC technologies
powered by the Internet of Things (IoT) make it easier than ever to reduce energy
consumption and improve your work experience. This technology helps teams identify
and reduce energy waste, automate climate control, and stay on top of HVAC
preventive maintenance. Smart thermostats and climate zones keep employee areas
comfortable while server rooms and other equipment areas stay cool. HVAC analysis
also helps spot potential equipment problems before they fail.
4. Enterprise Asset Management (EAM) software: In addition to managing the
building and employee experience, many facilities managers also have the
responsibility of managing assets and contributing to capital planning and purchases.
To do this effectively, you need access to data that allows you to perform cost analysis
and determine whether it makes the most sense to repair or replace outdated building
systems and equipment.I need a clear answer to the question of buying or leasing. We
also want to extend the useful life of buildings and equipment as much as possible.
 Enterprise asset management software consolidates data about all the assets you own or
lease in one place and makes them actionable. Easily calculate asset performance based
on runtime while preserving data on previous inspections, failures and repairs, leaving
FMs free to use all the information to make decisions. You can also schedule
preventative maintenance activities, assign work orders, and conduct inspections from
anywhere.
5. Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology: Building information modeling is
the process of creating and managing digital models of physical buildings. This is by no
means a "new" technology, but it has become much more powerful in recent years.
BIM technology allows companies to visualize specific components of a space, such as
structural elements such as walls and windows, or the exact location of assets. Modern
BIM is a highly intelligent, supercharged version of 3D modeling. Originally developed
to help architects and contractors design and construct new buildings, the application of
BIM has evolved to include maintenance schedules and improved space management
processes. BIM helps facility managers make data-driven decisions about space
utilization, energy consumption, and redesign.This is especially helpful when
considering how to adjust your property and space planning strategies in the years
following the coronavirus pandemic.
6. Machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI):AI-based technologies use
computer systems to perform complex tasks that previously required human
intelligence, such as speech recognition, visual recognition, and decision-making.
Machine learning is a form of artificial intelligence that enables built systems to
automatically collect and analyze data and predict outcomes from experience without
being explicitly programmed. AI can replace many repetitive and tedious facility
management tasks. For example, massive datasets can be collected, stored and analyzed
in seconds. It also allows facilities managers to be more proactive when it comes to
asset performance management. If the system detects potential issues, it will send you
automatic updates. This allows you to solve problems before they become bigger
problems.
7. Smart building technology: Smart buildings or structures with automated processes
and connected technologies powered by the Internet of Things (IoT) have been around
for over a decade. Once considered unaffordable for many organizations, it is becoming
increasingly accessible. Smart building elements such as intelligent lighting, heating,
cooling, and security enable facility managers to respond faster and more efficiently.
Environmental factors such as temperature and humidity can also be monitored.Smart
building facility management technology using IoT sensors is constantly collecting data
 about workplaces and employees to help FMs make adjustments quickly. For example,
you can easily adjust temperature and lighting to suit your occupants. And when these
technologies are connected to an Integrated Workplace Management System (IWMS),
all this data is brought together in a single platform, enabling teams to make more
informed decisions.
8. IoT sensor: Similar to smart buildings, IoT sensors unlock valuable insights that
facilities management executives can use to reduce real estate costs and improve the
overall workplace experience for their employees. Integrating sensors into facility
management systems can also make room reservations, maintenance, and asset
management more efficient. Due to ongoing concerns about COVID-19, facility
managers will continue to spend more time keeping their offices sanitized and clean
after they return to work. These additional cleaning and sanitizing protocols can be time
consuming and costly, especially if many workstations are understaffed.Sensors, like
those developed by marketplace partners like Co-Worker and VergeSense, show you
exactly which rooms were used throughout the day, so cleaning schedules can be
adjusted accordingly, saving facilities management teams time and improving cleaning
efficiency. You can cut costs. This enables smarter, more responsive maintenance and
a cleaner, safer workplace.
9. Employee Experience App: Modern facility management is not limited to building
maintenance. It's about managing the changing needs of your workforce. As the
workforce becomes more distributed and mobile, employees need quick access to
people, spaces, and services to be productive. A mobile workplace app with this
capability not only improves the employee experience, but also collects valuable real-
time data to improve operational efficiency and help executives and facilities
management teams plan ahead. Helpful.For example, if a workplace decides to do away
with assigned seating in favor of a more flexible seating model like desk hoteling,
employees need an easy way to reserve a desk. The facility manager needs to know
how many desks are reserved per week. This will help you decide if you really need
more office space or if there are other ways to improve space utilization, such as adding
more space. B. Allow employees to work from home every other day.
10. Wearable Technology: Wearable technologies like Fitbits and smartwatches have
been around for years and are still popular, but you might not think of them as facility
management solutions yet. Wearables can help create a more flexible workplace while
enhancing the employee experience. Employees and leaders in the workplace already
use wearable technology in their daily lives, making it a natural extension of employee
experience apps. That's why the Hummingbird Employee Experience App is integrated
 with the Apple Watch.Technologies such as smart badges also help facility managers
improve the security of personnel and corporate data by restricting access to buildings
or parts of buildings to specific individuals. Wearables also allow facility managers to
gather data on employee work patterns, space occupancy, and resource utilization. As a
leader in facilities management, you can wear wearables to know what's happening so
you can stay up to date on the go.
11. Solutions for Sustainability and Risk Management:Adopting sustainable facility
management practices is a key priority as many organizations seek to minimize their
carbon footprint and demonstrate a commitment to being environmentally responsible.
To hold companies accountable for meeting ambitious sustainability goals, software
solutions that help measure progress in key areas, track and manage energy use, and
demonstrate regulatory compliance are growing in popularity.
12. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): As a facilities manager, you are
already a hero at work. But what if you could have real superpowers, like the ability to
see through walls and ceilings? VR creates immersive digital experiences that look as
real as the physical world. AR blends the digital and physical worlds by using overlaid
3D images that complement what we already see. These modern facility management
techniques offer several potential applications. B. Making virtual meetings more
realistic by creating a hologram of the participant and displaying a 3D image of her on
the floor plan. AR technology has the potential to make facility management faster,
more efficient, and more accurate. In addition to providing an overview of your
equipment, you can access technical specifications and data without having to carry
blueprints or other documents with you.With this type of technology, even maintenance
manuals and building components can come to life. With an AR headset, you can
visualize your device's temperature and see hidden components behind walls, ceilings,
and floors. AR alerts can enhance your knowledge of your surroundings. For example,
staying away from high-voltage equipment, hot surfaces, high-speed machinery, and
other hazardous conditions improves safety.

Check Your Progress - 1

1) What is the role of Information Technology in Facility Management?

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2) What are the various technology trends in Facility Management?
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20.4 PROPERTY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND FACILITY MANAGEMENT

The components of PMS vary, but the term is generally used to describe a set of computer
programs directly related to front and back office activities.

20.4.1VARIOUS MODULES OF PMS IN FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Front office application

A computerized front office application consists of a set of software programs (or modules)
that include hotel reservation, room management, and guest billing functions. Various
standalone applications can also connect to PMS. Common interfaces include microcomputers,
point of sale (POS) systems, call billing systems, electronic lock systems, power management
systems, additional guest service devices, and guest operation devices. The PMS package
contains modules covering accounting and internal control functions.

His PMS for hotels varies, but many of them offer front office application software related to
reservations, room management, guest accounting and revenue management.

Booking module

The booking engine enables hotels to process room requests quickly, generate timely and
accurate room receipts, and predict reporting. Reservations received at the central reservation
office can be processed, confirmed and routed to the appropriate hotel her branch before the
reservationist actually ends the call with the guest. If the destination hotel uses PMS, the
booking engine will receive data projections and update immediately. In addition, booking data
can be automatically reformatted into pre-registration materials and up-to-date lists of
'expected arrivals' can be generated directly from the central booking system.

Room Management module

The Room Management module provides up-to-date information on room status, assists in
room allocation during registration, and assists in coordinating guest services.

Since this module replaces most traditional front office devices, it is often a major factor in
choosing one PMS over another his. This module alerts front desk staff to the status of each
room, similar to the room information shelf in non-automated systems.

In a computerized system, the receptionist simply enters the room number using the keyboard
and the current status of the room is immediately displayed on the screen. As soon as the room
is cleaned and available, housekeeping will change the status of the room via a terminal at the
housekeeping desk and that information will be immediately sent to the front desk.

Guest billing module

The Guest Billing module gives the hotel more control over guest billing and also customizes
night check routines. Guest accounts are now maintained electronically, eliminating the need
for folio cards, fans, or mail machines prevalent in non-automated systems. The Guest
Accounting module monitor credit limits for designated guests and provides flexibility through
multiple her folio formats. The revenue center is connected to the PMS, so remote electronic
cash registers or POS terminals communicate with the front desk to automatically post guest
charges to the appropriate guest sheets. At the time of settlement, the unpaid account balance
will be automatically transferred to the city register (accounts receivable) and collected.

Revenue management module

Revenue management or yield management is a set of demand forecasting techniques used to

determine whether prices should be increased or decreased and whether reservation requests
should be accepted or rejected in order to maximize revenue. is. One of the most important
calculations in yield management is yield. This is the ratio of actual sales to potential sales.
Actual revenue is the revenue generated by the number of rooms sold by the hotel. Potential
revenue is the amount a property would receive if all rooms were sold at list price.

There are many formulas used to implement yield management strategies. Individual yield
control calculations can be performed manually, but are very difficult and time consuming. The
most efficient way to process data and generate yield statistics is with a computer.
Sophisticated revenue management software can integrate room demand and room rate
statistics to predict the combinations that generate the most revenue. Property management
system interface
The PMS Interface Application is a self-contained computer package that can connect to the
hotel's computer system. The number and variety of software packages that can interface with
hotel systems is increasing, but the most common interfaces are described in the next section.

MCU interface

Microcomputer interfaces to large hospitality computer systems have become a popular means
of extending data processing capabilities. Downloading (transferring) data from the hotel
system to a microcomputer allows the administrator to use the data contained in the hotel
system software in software applications designed for microcomputers. The lodging system
manages all hotel accounting data while allowing drafting for the following year Budget;
management may wish to assist in forecasting actual transactions for the current accounting
period. If management has access to the necessary accounting data from her PMS to a
microcomputer, that data can be used by software applications such as Word Her processing,
electronic spreadsheets, database management and communications programs.

POS system

A POS system is a network of electronic cash registers that can take data at a POS location and
send it to the system's guest billing and finance module. ability

Sending data to both front office and back office components provides many benefits from
comprehensive reporting.

Billing system for telephone bills

Telephone charge billing system "CAS". Allows hotels to control local and long distance calls.
The call billing system can also place and bill outbound calls. If CAS is connected to the front
office guest billing module, telephone charges can be immediately posted to the appropriate
bill.

Electronic lock system

Many types of electronic locking systems are available today. These systems are often linked
to front office computer systems and allow administrator to perform critical control activities.

Energy management system

Connecting the energy management system to the hotel's computer system connects the room's
energy control to the front office's room management package. Energy management systems
monitor room temperature with the help of computers. This can significantly reduce energy
consumption and reduce energy costs.

Additional guest service equipment

Automation has simplified many additional guest services, including: Set up wake-up calls and
deliver messages to guests. These functions are often performed by devices (electronic
message waiting and voice mailbox systems) sold as stand-alone systems.

Guest operation device

Guest-operated devices may be located in hotel public areas or guest rooms. The devices
placed in the room are designed as a user-friendly system. Variations of such devices in the
guest room can provide concierge-level service to guests.

Housekeeping

Computerization helps control the room as it is cleaned by the housekeeping department. As

soon as the room is ready, the housekeeping staff will change the room status and make the
room available for rent. After cleaning each room, the housekeeping staff can report the
situation to the housekeeping supervisor. When you confirm a room, you can notify
housekeeping immediately instead of waiting for a block of rooms to become available. The
housekeeping department can also assign rooms to employees and analyze their productivity.

Food and Beverage Module

Computerization of the F&B module has greatly reduced paperwork and phone calls from
restaurants and other stores to the front desk. The integrity of the POS system is verified as it
also supports the billing process. Various features of the F&B module include inventory lists,
recipe management, sales analytics, and end-of-day reports from each store.

Sales and catering applications

Sales staff and restaurant catering managers spend most of their day doing paperwork related
to information gathered during prospect research, sales, reservations, and final reporting. In
most facilities today, computers handle much of this time-consuming and costly work.

In a fully automated sales office, all sales representatives with computer terminals have instant
access to room information. Bookings and cancellations can be processed quickly, even if the
seller is on the phone with the customer. This ensures that all sellers have access to the exact
same information and that firm and tentative bookings are clearly identified to avoid errors. In
addition, the vending office system generates reports that provide information on accounts,
bookings, market segments, sales force productivity, average room rates, occupancy, revenue,
service history, business losses, and key marketing data. I can do it. If created manually, many
of these reports would take hours to generate.

Accounting application

The number of accounting software modules offered by back office PMS varies greatly. A
typical back office system includes application software for monitoring and processing.

Accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll, financial reporting. Other back office
programs streamline inventory management, purchasing, and budgeting.

Mechanical engineering

An engineering property management system streamlines the work orders that need to be
processed.

Repair orders entered from various departments are prioritized based on importance, cost, and
availability of equipment and parts.

Human resource management system

Employee file maintenance is enhanced using PMS. Employee information (title, hire date, pay
structure, deductions, taxes, performance, promotion) is very easy to obtain. PMS also reduces
the paperwork associated with keeping records and easily generates employee reports.

20.4.2 Various property management systems

There are various property management systems readily available on the market. Some of them
are:

 Micros

MICROS Systems, Inc. (NASDAQ:MCRS), headquartered in Columbia, Maryland, is a global

leader in developing enterprise applications for the hospitality and specialty retail industries.
MICROS provides table service and quick service restaurants, hotels, the leisure and
entertainment industry, and specialty retailers with comprehensive information management
solutions including software, hardware, enterprise systems integration, consulting, and support.

Opera Enterprise Solutions

The OPERA Enterprise Solution (OES) is a fully integrated suite of products that can be easily
combined for use by organizations ranging from individual hotels to global multi-brand hotel
chains. Hotels can choose the products and features they need. OPERA ES is modular and
scalable. OPERA modules include property management, sales and catering, quality control,
gaming and computerized accounting, and condominium/hotel room management. In addition,
OES offers centralized products such as his OPERA reservation system for rooms and sales of
function rooms. OPERA Customer Information System, a CRM (Customer Relationship
Management) package specifically designed for the hospitality industry. Sales Force
Administration provides centralized lead management and sales support for regional and
national sales teams.

Some of Opera PMS modules available in market:

 OPERA Business Intelligence

 Opera customer information system
 OPERA GDS interface
 OPERA Sales Automation
 Opera booking system
 OPERA Web Suite
 OPERA revenue management
 OPERA Comp Accounting and play property system.
 OPERA property management system
 Opera express
 Opera light
 OPERA Vacation Ownership System "OVOS"
 OPERA Sales and Catering
 Opera kiosk
 OPERA Activity Planner

20.5 POS SYSTEM AND FACILITY MANAGEMENT

A point-of-sale (POS) system consists of a large number of terminals connected to remote

central processing units (CPUs). A POS terminal has its own input/output components and can
have a small amount of storage (memory capacity), but it cannot include a CPU. To process
POS transactions, the terminal must be connected to a CPU external to the terminal board.

The processing unit of a POS system is a separate device, but it can also be connected to an
electronic cash register (ECR).
ECR is defined as an independent, self-contained computer system. The ECR frame contains
all the necessary components for your computer system.

Input/output device, CPU, memory capacity (memory capacity).

Newer POS system designs have a microprocessor at each terminal location. Microprocessors
are then networked to form a complete POS system that typically does not require large
discrete CPUs. These systems are called micro-based he POS systems.

If the main processor of the POS system is connected to the property management system
"PMS", data can be transferred directly from the POS system to his PMS modules in numerous
front and back offices for further processing. It reduces the time it takes to post your sales to
your guestbook and minimizes the number of times you need to keep records. Passing the data
collected from the POS terminal to the PMS significantly reduces accounting errors and
reduces the possibility of back charges.

For example, a large resort or hotel can place his POS terminals in each revenue area like this:

• Restaurant

• Bar and lounge area

• Room service

• Cake shop

• Swimming pool

• Spa

• Gift shop

POS Posting and Account Posting

Accounting entries can be made from a terminal at the reception desk or from any remote POS
terminal connected to the PMS guest accounting module. Accounting entries can also be
created internally by the Guest Billing module itself for example, room rates and taxes can be
automatically posted to all valid guest invoices during system upgrades. Guest accounting
modules vary in their specifics of operation, but most rely on specific data entry requirements
in order to properly post amounts to the intended invoice.

If the Resident makes any purchases at the hotel during their stay, the Guest may be required to
present the room key as proof of valid reservation status on the Guest record. Some types of
electronic lock systems (ELS) that can interface with PMS and guest accounting modules
require a plastic electronic key card (described in the Electronic Lock Systems section) to
authorize collection of charges from remote POS terminals. depends on the insertion of For any
reason, if a guest presents a key card for a vacant room, an account with non-reserved status, or
a guest account whose bill has been settled (settled), the system will not allow the cashier to
reserve the amount Hotels may ask guests to enter a guest ID code (usually the first few letters
of their last name). This will further prove that the person being charged is an authorized guest
of the hotel.

management concerns

POS/PMS interfaces offer significant benefits for accommodation providers, but there are also
some important concerns that must be addressed. You may encounter the following issues:

•Data sent from POS systems may not meet certain PMS requirements.

•Some POS system data may be lost during regular PMS updates.

•Certain limitations of interface technology can affect effective system operation.

The amount and quality of data sent from the POS system to the PMS usually varies in relation
to the particular type of his POS system and the design of the PMS used on the property. If
your POS system is unable to capture or send the types of data that your front or back office
PMS modules require, some problems can arise.

For example, a POS system cannot:

•Separate the food and drink amount from the total amount on the guest's bill

•Sending data about special hotel meals and promotions

•Check taxes, tips and service charges

Administrators also need to address the following issues:

•Are individual transactions or combined transactions sent?

•Is the data sent after collection or at a later date?

•How much data do you store in PMS files and how much data do you keep in POS system
storage?

•When and how do payments affect stored transaction data?

•What validation procedures must be followed to ensure proper accounting and transaction
oversight?
All hotel PMS are subject to a system update routine (automated version of the traditional
Night Check feature). It usually occurs during the evening hours. The POS interface may not
work while the system is being updated. Interruption of data flow along the interface channel
may result in some transaction records being lost or blocked on the POS or PMS side.
Therefore, care should be taken to schedule PMS updates when grocery and beverage stores
and other revenue-generating centers are closed or during off-peak hours. If this is not possible,
timed non-automated/manual procedures should be implemented for all revenue streams until
the entire PMS is updated.

Before he can actually connect the POS system to his PMS, the administrator should first try to
fix the problem (if there is one related to the interface technology). This is because the POS
system may rely on different application software that may differ from the hotel's relevant
requirements. PMS. In this situation, before connecting the system to the PMS, the main
application software of the POS system should be upgraded first.

Call Charge System

It is now legal for accommodations to resell phone service to guests. This resale opportunity
has turned the hotel's telephone division, a traditionally loss-making division, into a potentially
profitable one. Call billing system (CAS gives executives better control over local and long
distance spending.

CAS can work as a standalone system or connect to his PMS at the hotel. CAS typically
handles direct dialing, delivers various calls through the cheapest routing network (a hotel may
have various service providers with different rates), and charges each outgoing call. can be set.
If CAS is connected to the guest billing module of PMS, phone charges can be automatically
booked to the correct guest bill.

These systems typically reduce workspace and maintenance and labor costs associated with
telephone systems. CAS hardware takes up less space and requires less maintenance than
traditional panel mount devices. Labor costs are greatly reduced because telephone operators
are not involved in CAS's call switching and distribution functions. Automatic charge
calculation for calls eliminates the need to manually calculate and post charges to the guest's
account. Some calls that are normally made by direct dialing are routed through a call billing
system. Outgoing calls requiring operator assistance are routed through the Hotel Billing
Information Center (HOBIC). CAS includes many features such as:

• Automatic Identification of Outside Line Access (AIOD)

• Automatic route selection (ARS)

• Least Cost Routing (LCR)

• HOBIC system interface

CAS is typically designed to monitor both incoming and outgoing non-guest (administrator)
and guest phone calls. All telephone extensions are connected to the hotel switchboard and thus
act as the primary control device for CAS. Attendants can also have an optional Station
Message Detail Record (SMDR) responsible for recording and monitoring telephone traffic.

HOBIC system interface

Some hotels use the HOBIC system to provide telephone service to their guests. This system is
still in use today and often serves as a backup system for properties that already have CAS
installed.

The HOBIC system is a service, usually provided by a telephone company, that tracks the time
and cost of long-distance calls made by guests. Guest calls are usually made on a special phone
line, the so-called her HOBIC line. When guests call these lines, the telephone company
operator will ask them for their room number. Once the operator has the room number, he will
authorize the call. Once the call is completed, the hotel will receive call duration and rate
details either from the staff member calling the hotel or from a telephone company
transmission received by the front desk telex.

HOBIC systems are often connected to CAS to perform the following functions:

•Monitor all operator assisted calls

•Phone service processing overflow from CAS

•Acts as a fail-safe phone service

All available CAS lines may be busy when a guest makes a direct dial call. The call is then
automatically transferred to her HOBIC line for processing. Although the HOBIC system can
be used to handle call overflow, calls are typically sent back to CAS for final pricing, recording
and reporting. If for some compelling reason CAS does not work, the HOBIC system will act
as a substitute for call processing, just like accommodation without CAS. This allows your
guests to have phone service available at all times. HOBIC is a generic term used in the
telecommunications industry to standardize the format of data sent from HOBIC to PMS.

CAS features include:

• Call forwarding
• Call rating

• Call distribution

• Call recording

• Call forwarding

Such a system has simplified the process associated with switching calls. Guests can make long
distance calls directly, eliminating the need for operator intervention. In the HOBIC system,
operators intercepted outgoing calls to identify guest room numbers. The CAS AIOD feature
now instantly identifies the extension number of the calling room number.

As soon as an outbound call is placed, CAS's call distribution features are activated. The
manner and means by which a particular call is routed is essential in determining its cost. With
passive CAS, the call distribution center has no real choice.

However, the active CAS uses his ARS switch and also has an LCR device. ARS functionality
is now an integral CAS component, Various popular service providers. A service provider is a
recognized entity capable of sending messages and other communications for general use at
mutually acceptable rates. LCR devices route calls through the cheapest line available,
regardless of service provider.

If the cheapest line is in use, LCR takes control of the system to find the next cheapest line.
This can continue very quickly and accurately until the call is actually made. How you charge
your calls depends on your provider, equipment package, and electronic switch. Station
Message Detail Record (SMIDR) can be used to record and monitor telephone traffic. Data
obtained from SMDR is used for scoring calls. Some systems use basic calls with a callback
mechanism, while others include a timeout feature. With the callback mechanism, guests are
only charged when they answer the call. A timeout feature allows the caller to start paying for
the call after a predetermined turnover time (the interval of time since the call was made). As
calls are evaluated, they are entered in the call log file.

Call log files monitor details about calls handled by CAS. This file contains the following
details:

• Date

• Room extension number

• Phone numbers dialed by guests

• Time of call
• Duration of call

• Call charge

• Taxes and service charges (if applicable);

Most call rating systems calculate the costs and taxes associated with a call and automatically
write the necessary data into the appropriate call recording files, while other systems that
impose charges and taxes on calls require that the call recording files You may need to
manually write data to the . A call record is a printed document that contains important
transaction-supporting data about each individual call made. Call recordings can be referenced
in the guest file to resolve guest disputes over phone charges.

Call recordings are usually automatically recorded in the call traffic transaction file. This file
usually contains the data that administrators need to generate reports. Records are typically
organized either by time of call (chronological file) or by room extension (sorted file). The
report describes many management requirements.

Advantages of the CAS/PMS interface

The CAS/PMS interface offers accommodation providers a number of key benefits, as

described here.

• Improve guest satisfaction by improving guest services

• Improved guest communication networking

• Impromptu call pricing method

• Minimize phone charges

• Automatic reservation of call charges to guest folders

• Automatic call detail recording

• Detailed daily reports of various phone transactions

CAS saves the hotel telephone department both time and effort by reducing operator
intervention. Eliminating phone meter readings also reduces variability in guest phone bills,
contributes to faster checkouts, more efficient front desk operations, and more valuable time
spent with guests.

Emergency backup procedures can be a significant administrative concern for CAS and its
interface with PMS. The CAS/PMS interface is normally supported by HOBIC calls system.
However, CAS requires access to power backup and an uninterruptible power supply. CAS
storage capacity is also very important. Before purchasing a CAS and installing it in a hotel,
management should ensure that the phone traffic passing through the property is properly
controlled so that the proposed CAS has sufficient storage capacity to process and store phone
data. I need to make sure it's being investigated. Hotel management also wants to ensure that
the proposed system can distinguish between administrative (non-guest) calls and guest calls.
Other major concerns focus on system maintenance, service and after-sales service.

There are other new ways to make calls faster, cheaper and more efficiently. One of them is
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

Voice Over Internet Protocol

VoIP is a method of converting analog audio signals (which you hear when you make a phone
call) into digital data that can be sent over the Internet. VoIP allows you to make free calls over
a standard internet connection. The advantage of this is that you can avoid phone companies
(and their fees) entirely by using some of the completely free software available for making
calls over the Internet.

The most important feature of VoIP is that there are many ways to make phone calls. Below
are three different ways VoIP services are used today.

Analog Telephone Adapter- The easiest and most common method is to use a device called
an analog telephone adapter (ATA). With ATA, you can connect a standard phone to your
computer or Internet connection and use it with VoIP. ATA is an analog to digital converter.

It takes analog signals from your phone and converts them to digital data for transmission over
the Internet.

IP phone- These specialized phones look just like regular handsets, cradles and cradle phones

Key. However, instead of standard phone ports, IP phones have Ethernet ports. IP phones
connect directly to the router and have all the hardware and software necessary to handle IP
calls. Wi-Fi Phone allows a subscriber to make her VoIP calls from any of her Wi-Fi hotspots.

Computer-to-Computer- This is the easiest way to use VoIP. You don't even have to pay for
long distance calls. There are several companies that offer this type of fully usable free or very
cheap software. All you need is software, a microphone, speakers, You need a sound card and
internet connection, preferably a fast connection that you can get via cable or DSL modem.
Apart from the usual monthly ISP charges, there are generally no charges for computer-to-
computer calls, regardless of distance.

Electronic lock system

ELS has replaced traditional brass keys and mechanical locks with sophisticated computer-
based room access devices. Using conventional locks to install electronic locks on guest room
doors can be a simple task or a complex one involving major modifications.

Some systems only require a small hole to be routed from the outside to the inside of the lock
and the lock hardware retained as part of the new lock. New latch hardware or even new doors,
depending on the system.

Currently, there are numerous electronic locking systems in the hotel industry.

These include hardwired, micro-adapted, radio frequency identification (RFID) and biometric
locking systems.

Hardwired system

Hardwired electronic locking systems typically operate via a centralized master code console
linked to each controlled cabin door. The console can also be a slotted switchboard centrally
located on the front desk. In this type of hardwired system, the front desk attendant inserts a
previously encoded keycard into the console's correct room locator her slot during the check-in
process. The console will immediately send the code to the lock on the guest room door away
from the keycard.

After check-in, when the guest leaves the reception, the key card issued to the guest is the only
functional room key. The keycards issued to guests who previously occupied the same room
are no longer valid.

To do this, all controlled guest/non-guest doors must be wired to the master console.
Hardwired systems are difficult given their expensive design, but offer better security. Before
installing such systems, administrators should also identify backup power sources, as these
systems require continuous power. The hardwired lock system uses normal AC power as its
primary power source and a battery as an emergency backup.

Micro-adaptive system

The micro-assembled electronic lock system operates as an independently configured stand-

alone unit, eliminating the complex proprietary circuitry required in hardwired lock systems.
Each door in this system has its own microprocessor with a unique pre-established code
sequence. The main console at the front desk usually contains a record of all these code
sequences for each room door. Using a micro-mounted locking system, receptionists complete
the guest check-in process by encoding key cards with preset code sequences already assigned
to specific rooms. In hardwired systems, the code is sent directly from the master code console
to the control door connected to the console. Due to the micro assembly system no connection
is required between the console and the door unit. The controlled door reception console and
microprocessor are separate units. The connection between the microprocessor and the control
door is the default code sequence. This means that the reception panel should be programmed
at the same time as the door unit so that the microprocessor and panel code are the same.

Since the console and the door are separate units, it may cause inconvenience. For example,
let's say a family of four comes to a hotel and requests two rooms. The parents will live in one
room and the children will live in the next room. Upon arriving at their assigned room, the
family enters the first room to rest and does not use the second room. Therefore, the second
assigned room key will not be used. The next morning, the family checks out of both rooms.
Here, her second room door lock mechanism that was not operated did not proceed to the next
code in the preset sequence because the keycard was not used. However, the front desk main
console assumes that when a new guest checks into the same room, the last issued keycard has
already been used and there is a mismatch between the codes, so the next in sequence code
automatically. In this situation, the new guest (who receives the next key card) will find that
the door cannot be opened because the key card they received does not operate the lock. Next,
the front desk clerk must use a specially designed key card to reprogram the door
microprocessor to synchronize the current code with the front desk control panel.

An important power feature of the Micro Mount electronic locking system is that the door
microchip is powered by the battery pack, so no wiring is required.

Connects to an external power supply, which is required for wired systems. Some systems use
batteries the size of flashlights, others use D-size cells, and others use even larger battery units
that give a glimpse into the door lock system.

Features of the electronic lock system

Electronic lock systems can generate multiple levels of master keys. Most common systems are
configured to provide varying levels of security depending on your needs. You can set the
following levels:

Housekeeping staff, security guards, property managers, administrators. Some electronic lock
system designs also offer guests a "do not disturb" option. This option typically uses an
indicator that displays a notice that the guest wants privacy. If the guest later requests to have
the room ready, the license plate will be changed.
Notification is often provided by a flashing red light located on the locking mechanism.

This indicator is also triggered when the carpenter prepares the room by inserting the keycat
into the locking mechanism. A security feature built into some electronic locking systems
prevents the door from opening if a key card is present in the lock. This prevents guests from
entering the room if they forget to remove the keycard from the lock. Some systems allow a
keycard to be attached to a lock to access a room, but also track how long the keycard is
inserted in the door. If the key card remains in the locking mechanism beyond a certain time
interval, the system will scramble the card code and destroy the key card. The reason for
encryption is to provide better security for guests. If you leave your card key inside the lock, it
can be stolen and misused by someone other than the room occupants. To avoid a repeat of
such issues, hotel staff should inform guests upon check-in that the key card will be invalidated
if it is not removed immediately.

Electronic locking systems are an important feature of hotels as self-service he kiosks that
allow guests to check-in and check-out by themselves are found throughout the hospitality
industry. New forms that do not require guests to use keys or cards (such as RFID and
biometrics) and are superior to hardwired or micro-customized systems has an electronic
locking system.

Radio Frequency Identification- Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a low-cost

technology that enables wireless data transmission. It is a digital door lock system
implemented and controlled by an RFID reader that authenticates and verifies the user and
automatically opens the door. It also keeps a record of user check-ins and check-outs and
authenticates guests before they enter the room. The system also includes a door lock system
that unlocks the door as soon as the user touches the tag to the reader. User information must
match the information stored in the database.

This system works by storing all necessary information about the user. A new user is first
registered in the system and then the relevant information is written to her RFID tag. When a
registered user comes to the entry point and inserts the tag into the reader, the system checks if
it is a registered user or a fraudster. tag if the user is registered The information is checked
against user information stored on the system. If the authentication is successful, the door will
open, and after a certain period of time, the door will close.

Biometric Locks These are fingerprint scanning locks that can be installed on hotel doors.
These work by scanning your finger and storing your fingerprint. The lock opens when
someone with a specific fingerprint touches it.
Electronic Lock System Report

The most important advantage of ELS is that the administrator can easily find her ELS. A
keycard was used to open any door by date and time. Avoid confusion by communicating your
ELS capabilities to your hotel staff and guests.

ELS generally maintains an audit trail of all activity involving the use of system-issued key
cards. Some systems also print a report listing activities in chronological order. Systems that
record events as they occur are usually because they have limited memory, not because the
resulting printed output is inherently more useful or effective. These systems collect and store
activity data that can be formatted to provide printed reports as required.

Energy management system

Heating, lighting, ventilation and air conditioning are the basic requirements for a hotel to
exist. The more efficient the facilities, the better the hotel can meet the needs of its guests.
Energy Management System "EMS" Helps you save energy, control and maintain energy
costs, and integrate operational management of guest rooms and common areas. A key feature
of this system is the ability to minimize building energy requirements without significantly
impacting hotel comfort.

An EMS is a computerized control system specifically designed to automatically manage the

operation of all mechanical equipment on site. By programming this system, administrators can
determine when a particular device should be turned on, off, or controlled. For example, if a
hotel meeting room must be used from 9:00 am,

The computer can be programmed to automatically conserve energy during times when the
room is not in use, but will ensure the room reaches the desired comfort level for guests by
9am. This programming technique can also be applied to other types of devices that affect
different areas throughout the building. B. Lobby areas and hallways after midnight (when
guest activity is significantly reduced). The actual operating characteristics of EMS vary, but
common power control designs include:

• Demand management

• Duty cycle

• Occupancy sensor

Demand Control- Demand control mechanisms keep consumption levels below a certain limit
by reducing the energy load in a systematic way. A unit of equipment involved in a demand
management program is a unit that can be turned off for varying periods of time without
degrading.

Affects ambient comfort conditions. Lighting and ventilation systems in public areas can be
turned down accordingly, especially during non-peak hours at night.

Duty Cycle- The process of duty cycle is to turn off all the equipment in sequence for a certain
period of time each day. Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems typically operate
continuously to reduce energy consumption while maintaining guest comfort. However, for
large engines that cannot be stopped and started frequently, duty cycle is usually not
applicable.

Occupancy Sensors-These sensors use either infrared or ultrasonic waves to register physical
occupancy or presence in a room. When guests enter a monitored space, sensors turn on
devices such as lights, air conditioners, and heaters under their control. When a guest leaves a
monitored room, the sensor will react after a preset time frame, automatically turning off the
lights or resetting the room's temperature.

The EMS/PMS interface offers great potential for hotel energy control. For example, a hotel
with 100 rooms is predicted to be 40% occupied one night. Reducing a hotel's energy
consumption for the night becomes a key factor in deciding which rooms a hotel sells. The
hotel wants to assign guests only to the lower floors of the property. This can significantly
reduce energy requirements (compared to rooms on higher floors). By connecting the EMS to
the reception department's room management module, it is also possible to control the
allocation of rooms by reception staff and realize the required energy cost savings. In many
cases, the energy savings are also recorded in an electronic spreadsheet specially created by an
in-house microcomputer.

Comfortable environments such as guest rooms, conference rooms, public spaces and
administrative offices can be controlled from the system console. The energy management
system provides heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC levels at various remote
locations) and displays the measurements on the console screen.

The energy control of the energy management system is virtually useless if the hotel operates a
system that is not properly designed and maintained properly.

Additional guest services

Automation simplifies many additional guest services, such as setting up wake-up calls and
delivering messages to guests. These functions are often performed by devices that are sold as
stand-alone systems and can also be connected to the PMS' room management module.
The primary reason for connecting additional guest services to PMS is full coordination and
tracking of guest-related functions. While an automated wake-up call is often best operated as a
standalone, self-contained unit, it's nice to have it linked to your guest messaging system and
his PMS. The ability to notify a guest of a message waiting for them depends on the
accessibility of the PMS mechanism that connects the guest room phone and the in-room
television.

The automated wake-up system allows front desk staff to enter a guest's room number and
desired time for her to wake-up. When the correct time comes, the system will automatically It
will ring in the room and come back at regular intervals until the guest answers the phone. If
the guest does not answer after her third or her fourth attempt (because the system is
programmed correctly), the system stops the call and assumes that the guest is not available to
answer.

When the guest answers the phone, the system plays a pre-recorded morning greeting and then
hangs up. Some hotels often keep a record of all these phone calls answered throughout the day
in their systems for reference. The system's ability to keep calling until the guest actually
answers is beneficial to the organization because the operator does not have to waste time
calling the guest room. An electronic message waiting system is currently designed to notify
guests of messages waiting at the front desk. A message-waiting device is equipped with an
indicator light that flashes on the guestroom phone or television screen. The system can now
also display news on guest room TV screens.

Modern hotels use voicemail. These devices record phone messages from guests. Callers
simply leave a message for the guest on the phone. The message is recorded and can be
accessed by guests later. To retrieve a message, a guest can dial a specific phone number
connected to Voice Her mailbox and hear the delivered message in the caller's voice.

Guest operation device

Guest power devices can be located in hotel public areas or individual guest rooms. The guest
control device in the room is very user friendly. Units typically offer concierge-level service in
a convenient room. The following guest mounted devices are discussed here:

•Self check-in/check-out system

• In-room cinema system

• In-room drink service system

• Information service system

Self-check-in/check-out system

Self-check-in/check-out terminals are usually located in the lobby or fully automated hotel
entrance. Terminals come in a variety of designs, some resembling automated teller machines
(cash machines), others with unique designs and video and audio capabilities.

This machine is mainly used for guests arriving at the hotel with advance reservations. If the
guest has already made a pre-booking, the system will prompt for the booking ID.

Once you have decided on the length of stay and number of guests, the next screen will show
you the different room types available, key features, and room rates.

Based on room selection and guest availability, the reservation will be confirmed with room
type, number of people and room rent. The guest is then prompted to insert a credit card into a
designated slot on the machine for payment. Once paid, the machine creates a receipt for the
payment and also provides a keycard for the guest.

Check-in machines or terminals can also handle self-checkout procedures. Guests can use the
same credit card (used at check-in) to access and view guest files. Once the guest has
completed checkout, the system will automatically charge the guest's credit card balance and
deliver (in installments) an invoice to the guest.

Self-check-in/check-out systems are now available even for smaller properties. Benefit from
progress. The system can register guests, assign rooms, process credit card or cash transactions,
issue room keys or key cards, and print guest receipts. For the convenience of guests, many self
check-in systems have step-by-step instructions printed on or alongside the kiosk. For security
reasons, the only way to access the contents of the machine (cash) is from the back of the
machine leading to the manager's office or a secure area. Also, as a precaution, the system does
not dispense cash.

If a guest arrives late at the hotel and the hotel has to collect the charge, the guest will be asked
to collect the charge from the front desk the next morning. When guests pay by credit card,
credit authorization is secured through telecommunications facilities. If the guest's credit card
is declined for any reason, they will be instructed to use another card or pay in cash.

Recent technological advances allow guests to view guest records and check out of rooms. In
these cases, the hotel system can use the guest room computer terminals, guest room
telephones, and televisions to display guest seats. If her facility room computer is connected to
her PMS and guest billing modules, they can also easily view billing information and pay bills.
Some hotels have printers hooked up to their TVs so guests can print as needed. Self-check-
in/check-out terminals and in-room computer interfaces significantly reduce the time required
to process guest registration, check-in and check-out, regardless of the type of guest interaction
device used in the hotel. Decrease. With the advancement of technology, some automated
terminals have built-in video capabilities, allowing guests to view hotel facilities and rooms.
Automated check-in and check-out devices also help front office staff spend more time with
guests who need more attention.

Room movie system

The in-room cinema system can be connected to his PMS at the hotel, or it can function as an
independent or stand-alone system.

In-room cinema systems interface with PMS to provide this capability in individual guest
rooms via dedicated pay-per-view TV channels. Interfaces also have timing devices; once a
guest has tuned into a channel for a given amount of time (usually a few minutes), the device
will be activated and the appropriate guest account will be charged.

Since its inception, there has been frequent controversy over the publishing charges associated
with in-room cinema systems. there is. To avoid this situation, we recommend that hotels
integrate pay-TV preview channels. This allows guests to watch the program for a certain
amount of time, after which they have to pay. The guest may need to switch to the payment
sender personally for the conversion (in which case the guest cannot dispute charges paid
later). In addition, the reception staff will explain the system and fees at the time of check-in.

Standalone in-room cinema systems require guests to dial an internal service number and
request payment channel activation. Subsequently, the operator who actually switched the
program is also responsible for posting charges to the guest her account provided for this
purpose.

A phone system may not be a fully automated option, but it can be helpful if your guest is
unfamiliar with her PMS interface. Thus reducing guest disputes when billing.

In-room beverage service system

In-room beverage service systems have the ability to monitor sales over a specified period of
time and determine inventory turnover. Two of the most popular in-room beverage service
systems are non-automated minibars and microprocessor-based vending machines.

Non-automatic minibar

Non-automated minibars typically store items (for dry or refrigerated storage) in the guest
room.

The bar's opening inventory is recorded by housekeeping (as part of a regular schedule) or
specially selected room service staff prior to guest check-in. When a guest consumes
something, a staff member connects the guest room's touch-tone phone to a dedicated computer
in the bar, enters the product code and the number of items the guest has consumed, and
updates the status. The bar system's CPU transfers the consumption to the room information,
which posts the charges for the consumed items to the guest's bill. Inventories are replenished
by employees if there is more demand.

A non-automated bar system like this is very convenient for guests, but it can cost the hotel
revenue. Labor costs are high as a dedicated group of employees must be involved in the
physical inventory of each bar in the room. Sometimes employees forget to report their
consumption. Also, if a guest consumes a drink just before leaving the property, it may not
immediately post to the guest account, resulting in lost revenue for the organization.

Microprocessor-based vending machine

Microprocessor-based vending machines contain all beverages in transparent, closed

compartments. Compartment doors are typically equipped with fiber optic sensors that detect
whenever beverages stored in the compartment are removed. When a guest removes a drink
from the compartment, the sensor activates a relay to the microprocessor via a transaction,
which records it.

Any room with a microprocessor is usually wired to a CPU that stores recorded transactions.
The CPU then forwards transactions to prepare account entries, thereby forwarding them to
both the PMS and the guest accounting module for guest account data directing replenishment
of units sold.

Position. Bat system's central processing system also maintains inventory exchange

Microprocessor-based vending systems also avoid some of the problems associated with non-
automated bars. For example, hotel administrators can use a remote central console to lock in-
room vending machines to prevent theft when the room is vacant. Some systems also allow the
in-room bat unit to be locked with the room key when the guest leaves the room. Since it is
linked with PMS, there is no delay in billing. A microprocessor-based vending system is a
continuous Shrink manually.

Inventory records and thus labor costs associated with maintaining inventory records

Some microprocessor-based beverage vending systems that do not have see-through

capabilities have an infrared sensor under the bottle or can.

When a guest selects an item at the bar, the infrared beam is interrupted and a timer set by the
hotel is started. If the timeout is reached, the sale is considered complete. Otherwise the move
is saved. This timeout is allowed to allow guests to view the product before making a final
purchase decision.

Guest information service

Many large shopping centers have information kiosks to help guests find specific outlets. Many
hotels have followed suit. Typically installed in hotel public areas, these automated guest
information services allow guests to inquire about both internal events and community
activities around the city. If the terminal is connected to a printer, guests can also get a printout
(with events for a specific day).

Guest information systems, also called in-room electronic services, are important guest
amenities, which have now transformed rooms. These systems can connect to the cable
broadcast systems, several news services, transportation schedules, restaurants, various room
service menus, and might also access external computer systems via the Internet. The in-room
computers are able to link with external computer information services and the guests may
have access to the following

• Airline schedules

• Local restaurant guides

• Entertainment guides

• News and sports updates

• Shopping catalogs

•Historical places

• Stock market reports

If all the guestroom terminals are directly interfaced with a PMS, a great deal of system
processing might be required at a particular time for responding to all the activities coming
from the in-room terminals. To avoid such a situation, the PMS and in-room computers might
be connected to a remote CPU, which is then interfaced with the central processing unit of the
PMS. Since only a single connection must be made to the PMS, this configuration simplifies
the guest information services interface.

In addition to the PMS interface, in-room guest information terminals can also be connected to
the hotel's cable TV. These connections allow the hotel to inform convention-goers about
various events and happenings in and around the city, provide tourists with information about
local attractions, and provide business travelers with information about the various ancillary
services the hotel offers. can let you know.

Computer system selection and implementation

Whether a hotel chooses its own PMS or is advised by a franchisor, the quality of the PMS is
determined by examining the hotel's needs. Since any PMS you deploy requires hardware and
software, you should consider your hotel's needs before deploying a PMS. PMS should have
the following characteristics:

Reliability- The cost of a PMS is not as important as its reliability. PMS is a computer system
and can become inoperable (due to a system crash). As the PMS is the heart of the hotel,
failure during peak hours not only causes major problems for employees, but also leads to
guest dissatisfaction due to delays. PMS can fail due to hardware, software, or connectivity
issues. The PMS should always be connected to a battery or generator backup that can run the
system if the hotel power is lost due to circumstances beyond the control of the hotel. You
should maintain a backup of your system so that you can retrieve the saved data in case of
computer or server problems. Moderate cost of operation The hardware used for the PMS
should be easily replaceable. Replacement costs should not be too high and components should
be readily available. The cost of other consumables such as paper and cartridges must also be
considered. If a particular system requires special ink cartridges, special types of paper, or
special expensive hardware (printers), such systems should be avoided.

Easy to install- The hotel operates 24/7. Therefore, business interruption during the
introduction of PMS may affect the smooth operation of the hotel. Therefore, the administrator
should consider the time it will take to install a new system before choosing her PMS. In
addition, the hotel's existing data also needs to be transferred to the new system, which is
critical for operational decision making.
User Friendly- A new employee has to learn how to use her PMS. Existing employees should
be able to adapt to the new system without difficulty. With this in mind, a PMS should be an
easy-to-learn system that reduces training costs and thereby increases employee pace and
efficiency.

Interface Consolidation- Front office managers require information from a variety of sources
in order to operate the front office profitably. For example, the hotel has various service points,
restaurants, bars and souvenir shops. All guest charges are included in the guest bill. Fees can
be posted manually at each PMS. In large hotels with too many rooms, manually posting each
transaction for each guest can be time consuming and prone to data entry errors. Given the
advances in technology, these risks are unnecessary.

A networked information system is an advantage. The PMS cannot always coordinate with all
other information generating subsystems within the hotel. in consideration of that Managers
should ensure that the PMS is connected to the hotel's critical existing information generation
systems. The best of his PMS is the one that works with the best and most popular
complementary hardware and software products in the hospitality industry.

Upgradability and Upgradability- Hardware and software upgrades are released regularly by
manufacturers, most of which significantly improve the effectiveness of PMS. Problems can
arise when the hardware components of the system are not sufficient to operate the new
software system effectively. PMS software upgrades should be easy to install and minimize
system upgrade time. PMS manufacturers regularly and frequently release new versions of
their system software to meet the changing information needs of the hospitality industry.

Maintenance Requirements- PMS, like any other hotel facility, must be properly maintained
in order to function efficiently. The cost of an effective preventive maintenance program for
each PMS varies. Managers should identify and understand the time and expense required to
maximize system efficiency by providing regular ongoing cleaning and maintenance.

Availability of Quality Support Services- PMS is any computer connected to the outside
world via the Internet and is subject to hardware malfunctions, software defects, and
potentially harmful intrusive viruses. system. Since many other computerized systems interface
with PMS, problems can arise with one or more of these interfaces. Support service staff
should be easily reachable by email or phone. Access to support services must also be provided
24 hours a day, including all holidays.

Check Your Progress - 2

1) What do you understand with PMS?
 ………………………………………………………………………………………………
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2) Explain various PMS modules used in Facility Management?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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3) List down key features of Opera PMS
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20.6 INTRODUCTION TO CYBER SECURITY

With cyber threats and attacks prevalent, cyber security is a top concern. Attackers are now
using more sophisticated techniques to target systems. Individuals, small businesses, or large
organizations are all affected. Therefore, all these companies, both IT and non-IT companies,
have understood the importance of cyber security and have focused on taking all possible
measures to deal with cyber threats.

What is cyber security? “Cybersecurity is first and foremost about threat mitigation,
vulnerability mitigation, deterrence, international engagement, incident response, resilience
and recovery policy, as well as computer networking, information assurance, law enforcement,
etc.”

Also

Cybersecurity is a set of technologies, processes, and practices designed to protect networks,

computers, programs, and data from attack, damage, or unauthorized access.

• The term cybersecurity refers to the techniques and practices for protecting digital data.

• Data stored, transmitted or used by information systems.

Also

Cybersecurity is the protection of internet-connected systems, including hardware, software

and data, from cyberattacks.

It consists of two words cyber and security:

• Cyber refers to technology, including systems, networks, and programs or data.

• Security refers to protection including system security, network security, and application and
information security.
20.6.1 Why is cybersecurity important?

Here are some reasons why cybersecurity is so important in today's dominant digital world.

• Cyberattacks can be very costly for businesses.

• In addition to the economic damage a company suffers, data breaches can cause immense
reputational damage.

• Modern cyberattacks are becoming more and more destructive. Cybercriminals use more
sophisticated methods to launch cyberattacks.

• Regulations such as GDPR require organizations to exercise greater control over the personal
data they hold.

For the above reasons, cybersecurity has become an important part of business and the current
focus is on developing appropriate response plans to minimize the damage in the event of a
cyberattack.

However, organizations and individuals can develop appropriate response plans only if they
have a good understanding of cybersecurity fundamentals.

Cybersecurity Basics –

Confidentiality

Confidentiality is about preventing data from being shared with unauthorized persons.It also
means striving to keep the identities of authorized parties involved in data sharing and
retention private and anonymous.Confidentiality is often compromised by cracking poorly
encrypted data, man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks, and disclosure of sensitive data.

Standard measures to ensure confidentiality include:

• Data encryption

• Two-factor authentication

• Biometric authentication

• security token

Integrity

Integrity is the protection of information from unauthorized modification. Standard measures

for ensuring integrity include:

• Cryptographic checksum
• Using File Permissions

• Uninterruptible power system

• Backup

Availability

Availability ensures that authorized parties have access to information when they need it.
Standard measures to ensure availability include:

• Backing up data on external drives

• Implement a firewall

• Prepare a backup power supply

• Data redundancy

20.6.2Types of cyber attacks

A cyberattack is the exploitation of computer systems and networks. Use malicious code to
modify computer code, logic, or data to cause information or identity theft or other cybercrime.

Cyberattacks can be classified into the following categories:

1) Web-based attacks

2) System-based attacks

Web-based attacks

These are attacks that take place on websites or web applications. Some of the top web-based
attacks are listed below.

1. Injection attack

An attack that injects data into a web application in order to manipulate the application and
retrieve the desired information.

Examples: SQL injection, code injection, log injection, XML injection, etc.

2. DNS spoofing

DNS spoofing is a type of computer security hack. This includes inserting data into the DNS
resolver's cache. This causes the name server to return incorrect IP addresses and redirect
traffic to the attacker's computer or another computer. DNS spoofing attacks can go undetected
for long periods of time and can pose a serious security problem.

3. Session hijacking

This is a security attack against user sessions over protected networks. The web application
creates her cookies to store state and user sessions. By stealing cookies, an attacker could gain
access to all user data.

4. Phishing

Phishing is a type of attack that attempts to steal sensitive information such as a user's login
credentials or credit card numbers. This happens when an attacker poses as a trusted entity in
electronic communication.

5. Brute force

It is a kind of trial and error attack. This attack generates a large number of guesses and verifies
them to obtain real data such as user passwords and PINs. This attack can be used by criminals
to crack encrypted data or by security analysts to test an organization's network security.

6. Denial of Service

This is an attack designed to prevent users from accessing servers or network resources. It does
this by flooding the target with traffic or by sending information to the target that triggers a
crash. Attacks servers using a single system and internet connection. It can be categorized as
follows:

Volume-based attack – Its purpose is to saturate the bandwidth of the attacked site and is
measured in bits/second.

Protocol Attacks - Consumes real server resources and is measured in packets.

Application Layer Attack – The goal is to crash a web server and is measured in requests per
second.

7. Dictionary attack

This type of attack stores a list of commonly used passwords and verifies it to get the original
password.

8. URL Interpretation
This is a type of attack that modifies certain parts of the URL to trick the web server into
displaying a web page that you are not authorized to view.

9. File inclusion attack

This could allow an attacker to access unauthorized or sensitive files available on her web
server or execute malicious files on her web server using the include functionality.

10. Man-in-the-middle attack

This is a type of attack that allows an attacker to intercept connections between clients and
servers and act as a bridge between them. This allows attackers to read, insert, and modify data
in intercepted connections.

System-based attack

These are attacks aimed at compromising a computer or computer network. Some of the
important system-based attacks are listed below.

1. Virus

This is a type of malicious software program that spreads to computer files without your
knowledge. It is a self-replicating malicious computer program that replicates itself by
injecting copies of itself into other computer programs when run. It can also execute
instructions that harm the system.

2. Worms

This is a type of malware whose main function is to replicate itself in order to spread to
uninfected computers. It works like a computer virus. Worms often originate from email
attachments that appear to come from trusted senders.

3. Trojan horse

A malicious program that makes unexpected changes in computer settings and performs
unusual activities, even when the computer is idle. Mislead the user's true intentions. It looks
like a normal application, but when opened or run, malicious code runs in the background.

4. Backdoor

A way to bypass the normal authentication process. Developers can create backdoors to allow
access to applications or the operating system for troubleshooting or other purposes.

5. Bot
A bot (short for "robot") is an automated process that interacts with other network services.
Some bot programs run automatically, while others execute commands only when
givenspecific input. Common examples of bot programs are crawlers, chat room bots, and
malicious bots.

7 LAYERS OF CYBER SECURITY

The seven layers of cyber security should focus on the business-critical assets you want to
protect.

1. Mission Critical Assets - These are the data that need to be protected
2. Data Security – Data security controls protect the storage and transmission of data.
3. Application Security – Application security controls protect application access,
application access to business-critical resources, and application internal security.
4. Endpoint Security – Endpoint security controls protect connections between devices
and networks.
5. Network Security - Network security controls protect your organization's network and
prevent unauthorized access to it.
6. Perimeter Security – Perimeter security controls include both physical and digital
security measures that protect the entire organization
7. Human Layer – Humans are the weakest link in any cyber security posture. Human
security controls include phishing simulations and access management controls that
 protect a business's critical resources from a variety of human threats, including
cybercriminals, malicious insiders, and careless users.

20.6.3 Vulnerabilities, Threats and Harmful Actions

No system is immune to attack, as the recent epidemic of data breaches has shown.
Organizations that manage, transmit, store, or otherwise process data should establish and
implement mechanisms to monitor their cyber environment, identify vulnerabilities, and close
security gaps as quickly as possible. Before identifying specific threats to modern data systems,
it is important to understand the difference between cyber threats and vulnerabilities.

A Cyber threat is a security incident or situation that can adversely affect a network or other
data management system.

Examples of common types of security threats include Phishing attacks that result in the
installation of Malware that infects data, Data breaches due to employees not following
privacy his protocols, and even tornadoes that destroy company data centers. there is. Suspend
access.

Vulnerabilities are gaps or weaknesses in systems that enable threats and lure attackers to
exploit them.

Network security vulnerabilities include SQL injection, server misconfiguration, cross-site

scripting, and sending sensitive data in unencrypted plain text format. Cybersecurity experts
talk about risk when you multiply the likelihood of a threat by the damage it can cause.

Security Vulnerabilities, Threats and Attacks –

Vulnerability category

• Corruption (loss of integrity)

• Leakage (loss of confidentiality)

• Unavailable or very slow (loss of availability)

– Threat represents the potential security damage to assets if the vulnerability is exploited

- Attack is a threat executed

• Insider - initiated by an entity within your organization

• Outsiders – start outside the perimeter

Computer criminal

Computer criminals have access to large amounts of hardware, software, and data. They have
the potential to cripple many of the world's most capable businesses and governments. In a
sense, the purpose of computer security is to prevent these criminals from doing harm.

Computer crime is any crime that involves or is facilitated by the use of computers. While this
definition is certainly broad, you can consider ways to protect yourself, your business, and your
community from people who use your computer maliciously.

One approach to prevention or mitigation is to understand who is committing these crimes and
why. Many studies have attempted to identify the characteristics of computer criminals. By
examining people who have already committed crimes using computers, potential future
criminals can be identified and crimes prevented.

CIA Triad

The CIA Triad is actually a security model designed to help people think about different
aspects of IT security.

Deconstructing the CIA Triad:

Confidentiality

In today's world, it's important to protect sensitive personal information from unauthorized
access.

Protecting confidentiality depends on being able to define and enforce a certain level of access
to information. Sometimes information needs to be divided into different collections that are
organized according to who needs access to the information and how sensitive the information
really is. H. Amount of damages suffered due to breach of confidentiality. The most common
means of managing confidentiality are access control lists, disk and file encryption, and Unix
file permissions.

Integrity

Data integrity is what the "I" in the CIA Triad stands for.
It is an integral part of the CIA Triad that protects data from being deleted or modified by
unauthorized persons and can undo the damage if an authorized person makes changes that
should not be made. It's designed to.

Availability

This is the final component of the CIA triad and is concerned with the actual availability of
data. Authentication mechanisms, access channels, and systems should all work properly to
protect information and make it available when needed. Understanding the CIA Triad

The CIA triad is all about information. This is considered a central element of most IT security,
but it encourages a narrow view of security that ignores other important elements.

For example, availability helps ensure that you don't lose access to the resources you need to
deliver information when you need it, but the thought of information security is itself a
reflection of the hardware resources being used. We do not guarantee that it will not be
tampered with by anyone.

As well as understanding what the CIA Triad is and how it is used to plan and implement
quality assurance policies, it is important to understand the various principles behind it. It is
also important to understand the limitations that come with it. With the information, you can
use the CIA's triad to take advantage of what it has to offer and avoid the consequences of not
understanding it.

Wealth and threats

Wealth or Assests are valuable data, devices, or other components of an organization's systems.
Because they often contain sensitive data or can be used to access such information.

for example:

An employee's desktop computer, laptop, or company phone is considered an asset, as are the
applications on those devices. Similarly, critical infrastructure such as servers and supporting
systems are also assets. An organization's most common resource is an information resource.
These are sensitive data that you store, such as databases or physical files.

Threats are:

A threat is an incident that can adversely affect an asset. For example, assets are lost, taken
offline, or accessed by unauthorized third parties. attacker's motive
The cyber attacker category allows us to better understand the motivations of attackers and the
actions they took. As shown in the diagram, operational cybersecurity risks arise from her three
types of actions:

i) unintentional acts (usually by insiders) done without malicious or harmful intent;

ii) Intentional acts (by insiders or outsiders) that are intentional and intended to cause
harm.

iii) Inaction (usually by an insider) Inability to act in a particular situation due to the
unavailability of appropriate skills, knowledge, guidance, or the appropriate person to act.
There are three categories of motivation for this.

1. Political motivation:

Examples include target destruction, disruption, or control. Espionage; making political

statements, protests, or acts of retaliation;

2. Economic reasons:

Examples include theft of intellectual property or other commercially valuable assets (funds,
credit card information, etc.). fraud; industrial espionage and sabotage; and blackmail.

3. Socio cultural motives:

Examples include attacks of philosophical, theological, political or even humanitarian

purposes. Socio cultural motivations also include a desire for fun, curiosity, publicity, and self-
satisfaction.

Active Attack: An active attack is a network exploit where a hacker attempts to modify data
on or en route to a target. Types of active attacks:

Masquerade: In this attack, an intruder impersonates a specific user of the system to gain
access or privileges beyond what is permitted. Impersonation can be attempted by using stolen
login IDs and passwords, finding security holes in programs, or bypassing authentication
mechanisms.

Session replay: In this type of attack, a hacker steals an authorized user's credentials by
stealing the session ID. Intruders gain access and can do anything an authorized user can do on
your site.

Change message: In this attack, an intruder modifies packet headers her address to route
messages to different destinations or to alter data on the target computer.
A denial of service (DoS) attack robs a user of access to a network or web resource. This is
typically accomplished by overloading the destination with more traffic than it can handle.

In a distributed denial of service (DDoS) exploit, a number of compromised systems

(sometimes called a botnet or his army of zombies) attack her single target.

Passive attack:Passive attacks are relatively rare from a classification standpoint, but
relatively easy to execute, especially if the traffic is unencrypted.

Types of passive attacks:

Eavesdropping (eavesdropping):An attacker simply listens to the messages exchanged by the

two entities. For the attack to be meaningful, the traffic must be unencrypted. Any unencrypted
information such as B. Passwords sent in response to HTTP requests can be obtained by an
attacker.

Traffic analysis: Attackers examine the metadata sent in traffic to obtain information about
the exchange and associated entities. The type of traffic exchanged (rate, duration, etc.). If
encrypted data is used, traffic analysis can also lead to cryptanalytic attacks, allowing attackers
to obtain information or decrypt traffic.

Software attack: Malicious code (sometimes called malware) is a type of software designed to
hijack or damage a computer user's operating system without the user's knowledge or consent.
It is very difficult to remove and can be very harmful. Examples of common malware are listed
in the table below.

Attack Characteristics
Viruses Viruses are programs that damage computer systems and attempt to replicate
themselves on other computer systems. virus:

• Requires host replication and usually connects to host files or disk sectors.
• Replicate each time the host is used. • Often focuses on data corruption or
corruption.
• Typically .doc, .exe, and .bat extension
• example: Stoned, Michelangelo, Melissa, I love you.

Worms are self-replicating programs that can do many things, including: B.

Worms Deleting Files or Sending Documents by Email. Worms can adversely affect
network traffic precisely while replicating. worm:

• Can install backdoors on infected computers.

• Usually introduced into systems through vulnerabilities.
• Infects systems and spreads to other systems on the network.
• example: Emergency alert.

Trojan A Trojan horse is a malicious program that masquerades as legitimate

horse software. Because security is user-centric and user-centric, discretionary
environments are often more vulnerable and prone to Trojan horse attacks.
Therefore, if one user account is compromised, the entire environment can
be compromised. Trojans:

• Cannot duplicate itself.

• Often contain spying capabilities (such as packet sniffers) or backdoor
capabilities to allow remote control of computers from the network.
• Often hidden in useful software such as screensavers and games. •
example: Back Orifice, Nets Bath, Whack-A-Mole.

Logic Logic Bomb is malware that remains dormant until triggered. A logic bomb
Bomb is a concrete example of an asynchronous attack.

• A trigger activity is a specific date and time, the start of a specific

program, or the processing of a specific type of activity.
• Logic bombs do not duplicate themselves.

Hardware attack:

Common hardware attacks include:

• Creation of backdoors for malware or other intrusion purposes. Backdoors are not limited to
software or hardware, they also affect embedded radio frequency identification (RFID) chips
and memory.

• Eavesdropping by accessing protected memory without opening other hardware

• induce errors that interfere with normal operation;

• Manipulating hardware changes in invasive surgery

• Creating backdoors. Existence of covert methods to bypass normal computer authentication

systems

• Counterfeiting of product assets that could lead to anomalous operation and counterfeiting of
product assets used for malicious access to systems.

Cyber threats Cyber warfare: Cyberwarfare is when one country uses digital attacks, such as
computer viruses and hacking, to sabotage another country's critical computer systems, causing
damage, death, or destruction. In future wars, hackers will use computer his code to attack
enemy infrastructure and fight alongside armies using conventional weapons such as guns and
missiles.

Cyberwarfare includes the actions of a nation or international organization to attack and harm
the computers and information networks of other countries, such as through computer viruses
and denial of service attacks.

Cyber Crime: Cybercrime is any criminal activity that targets or uses a computer, computer
network, or connected device. Cybercrime is done by cybercriminals and hackers who want to
make money.

Some cybercriminals are organized, highly skilled, and technically skilled.

Cyber terrorism: Cyberterrorism is a fusion of cyberspace and terrorism. This includes

unlawful attacks and threats of attack on computers, networks, and information stored on them,
carried out to intimidate or coerce governments or their citizens to further political or social
goals. point.

Examples include hacking computer systems, planting viruses on compromised networks,

defacing websites, denial of service attacks, or the threat of terrorism through electronic
communications.

20.6.4 Need for Security Policy

1) Increase efficiency.

2) Maintain discipline and accountability

3) It determines the success or failure of a transaction

4) Helps train employees in safety competencies

There are some key cybersecurity policy recommendations outlined below.

Virus and Spyware Protection Policy:

• Detect threads in files to help detect applications exhibiting suspicious behavior.

• Use signatures to remove and repair virus side effects and security risks.

Firewall Policy:

• Prevent unauthorized users from accessing Internet-connected systems and networks.

• Detect cybercriminal attacks and weed out unwanted sources of network traffic.

Intrusion prevention policy:

• This policy automatically detects and blocks network and browser attacks.
• It also protects applications from security vulnerabilities and inspects the contents of
one or more data packets to detect malware distributed through legal means.

Application and Device Control:

• This policy protects the system's resources from applications and controls the
peripherals that can connect to the system.
• Device control policies apply to both Windows and Mac computers, while application
control policies can only be applied to Windows clients.

Check Your Progress-3

1) What are web based and system based attacks
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) List and explain 7 Layers of Cyber security in detail.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

20.7 LET US SUM UP

This chapter describes independent, stand-alone computerized systems that can be connected to
the PMS. These PMS interfaces are POS systems, call billing systems, electronic lock systems,
energy management systems, additional guest services, and guest-operated devices. A POS
system typically consists of a large number of POS terminals connected to a remote central
unit. Processing unit interfaces are typically standalone CPUs or host electronic cash registers.
If a remote CPU or host electronic cash register is connected to the PMS, data from the POS
system can be transferred to his PMS modules in various front and back offices for further
processing.

Call billing systems can also handle long-distance calls directly, distribute calls through least-
cost routing networks, and bill for outgoing calls. If your call billing system is connected to
your PMS and front office guest billing module, you can book your phone bills directly in the
guestbook. This chapter also describes the types of electronic locking systems.

Hardwired systems, micro assembly systems, RFID and biometric locks. Hardwired systems
use a key code console or main control board that determines the door lock combination and
relays that code to the door. Micro-adaptive systems rely on

A predetermined series of code numbers present on each door lock. All codes and code
sequences are stored in the front central console. Inserting the keycard into the microprocessor
lock advances the stored sequence to the next number, overriding the previous code. Audit
trails obtained from electronic lock systems form the basis of security reports used by
administrators. Radio Frequency Identification is a digital door lock system that authenticates
and verifies users and automatically opens doors. It is inexpensive and uses wireless
technology. A biometric lock is a fingerprint scanning lock that you can put on your hotel room
door. Scan and save your fingerprint. The guest's fingerprint is compared to a stored one and
the door is opened.

Computerized energy management systems are designed to automatically manage the

operation of certain types of equipment to maintain hotel comfort. By programming these
systems, administrators can determine when specific equipment should be turned on, off, or
controlled.
UNIT 23 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Structure
23.0 Objectives

23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of Project Management

23.2.1 Dimensions of project management

23.3 Process and Techniques

23.3.1 Project Management Process– Project Life Cycle

23.3.2 Techniques of Project Management

23.3.2.1 GANTT Chart

23.3.2.2 Program Evaluation and Review Technique
23.3.2.3 Critical Path Method

23.3.2.4 Kanban Management Technique

23.3.2.5 GROW Model

23.3.2.6 CIPP Model

23.4 Relevance of Project Management

23.5 Challenges of Project Management

23.6 Current Practices
23.7 Project Manager
23.7.1 Skills of project manager

23.7.2 Responsibilities of the project manager

23.8 Project Management in Facility Management
23.8.1 Facility management

23.8.2 Difference between project management and facility management

23.8.3 Hard facility management and soft facility management

23.9 Facility manager

23.9.1 Skills of the facility manager
23.9.2 Functions of the facility manager
23.9.3 Challenges of the facility manager
23.10 Trends in facility management
23.11 Let Us Sum Up

23.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, students will be able to

a) Define the project and project management.
b) Know the fundamentals, processes, and techniques of project management.
c) Understand the concept of Facility Management
d) Will be able to correlate and understand the difference between project management
and facility management.
e) Understand the role of facility management in project management.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Project is an integral part of our life. From work to household, we are daily involved in
completing some tasks which are of non routine nature but are very important and impact our
lives. There are very live examples of the project which were single-time non-routine activities.
For example, constructing War Memorial in Delhi was one project which has all the
characteristics of the project. Similarly organizing an event, constructing a house, and
developing software is a project. A project is a venture that has very clearly defined purposes.
It is a well-defined special task that must be completed in a specified time. This special task
requires resources and special activities to complete it. Like building a hotel, or constructing a
dam.A project is of non routine nature which is very specific, with a time frame. It may have
an impact on the long-term viability of the business. It is temporary in nature creating
something unique (product or service).
According to F. L. Harrison, “A project can be defined as a non-repetitive, one-off
undertaking, normally with discrete time, financial and technical performance goals.”

But every task cannot be called a project. A project can be differentiated from other activities
on the following basis. This will help in categorizing projects and understanding their role in
the success of the organization:
 It has a timeline with a specific time of the commencement of the project and the date
of completion.
 Each project is unique with clearly specified objectives, tasks, and activities
 A project has resources in the form of capital, material, time, and manpower. These
resources are allocated and limited for the project.
 The project requires a dedicated team across all departments and functions to take care
of the various activities involved in the project.
  Projects should be feasible and acceptable – economically, technically, politically,
financially, and socially.

Therefore, a project is at ask with pre-determined activities, organized, and non-routine in

nature. Projects have a time limit and pre-allocated and limited resources. The success of the
project depends on the efficient utilization of these resources. Projects are:
- Irreversible – cannot be reversed.
- Long-term impact – once a project has been taken it has an impact over a long very
long period.
- Huge investment – project asks for huge involvement of man, material, and money.
Due to the above reasons, the projects need to be efficiently managed. Project management is
the management of all aspects from start to closing. The management has to be rational,
scientific, and structured applying the techniques, tools, and skills to meet the predetermined
objectives.
According to the Project Management Institute (PMI) “Project management is the application
of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project
requirements.”
Project management is a formal discipline. It has international standards, knowledge, best
practices, and guidelines. It is the application knowledge within the defined scope of the
project. The construction of the Atal Tunnel connecting Manali- Lahaul Spiti Valley was a
project undertaken by Border Road Organization (BRO). All the above points can be
connected to the example- from objectives, feasibility, timeframe, and resources to the long-
term impact.
Through project management, organizations try to accomplish business objectives or to get
products and services to market more efficiently, quickly, and preferably before the other
competitors.

23.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management requires an understanding of the objectives, the use of appropriate

techniques and tools, and application of the knowledge and skills. Successful project
management asks for a practical and logical approach. The fundamentals of project
management can be listed as under:

Temporary: Projects are temporary with a beginning and end. A project ends when the
objectives have been accomplished. It can be considered to end when completed or
discontinued.
Objectives-Objectives are the purpose or the reasons for which the project is to be undertaken
and managed. The desired outcomes should be very clearly defined in quantitative as well as
qualitative terms. The objectives should be clear and understood by all. This clarity will help
the team in proper coordination and communication during the process of project management.
The project is considered complete only when the objectives are achieved. For example,
constructing a metro connecting city A and city B which is 40 km is objective and will be
considered as achieved when the construction is done.

Time limit-Every project has a well-defined starting and ending date. They cannot be
considered as ever going process. As in the above case, the time frame can be given for 2
years. After that, the maintenance of the metro is never ending process but it is not to be
considered a project.

Unique- Every project is unique and different from other projects. The purpose, resources,
location, and feasibility make them unique and different. The construction of a metro between
city A and city B is totally different from the construction in city C and city D. The purpose,
the people, the authority, and the resources will be different for both projects. Although if both
projects arewith the same company the support services to both projects can be provided by
facility management. The concept of facility management will be discussed later in the unit.

Complex- Projects are complex in themselves. The feasibility of the project, managing limited
resources, meeting the timelines, scheduling, and rescheduling as per the need make it overall a
complex system that needs skill and technical understanding of the various aspects of the
project. They need special tasks to be completed and coordinating multiple special tasks at a
time makes it complex.

Teamwork- A project involves diverse activities. The team consists of specialized people who
will be working on the specialized activities. The well-coordinated team efforts are required for
the successful management of the project.

Risk- Every project involves risk as it works under an uncertain environment that is subject to
change, sometimes these risks are visible and sometimes they may not be visible although they
are always present. Breakdown of machinery, delay in availability of material, and change in
the technology, change in legislature \ can be some of the risk elements in long-term projects.

Subject to change- There are many environmental factors working during the life span of the
project. Some of these factors can be controlled but many factors are out of control. The
project should be flexible to adjust these changes. Maybe the route of the metro from city A
and city B passes through some forest area. Maybe the route needs to be changed as per the
directions received from the authorities.

Customized- Every project is different. All the projects are customized as they have different
objectives, resources, and time limits. No two projects are the same.

23.2.1 Dimensions of project management:

Project management is a specialized task with defined objectives. The five dimensions are:

Scope: The scope of the project should be defined. As in the above example, the scope of the
project is to build a metro between city A and city B.

Quality: The assessment of the quality is important. The method of measurement of quality is
one of the dimensions of project management.
Time-The period or the tenure of the project in which it has to be completed as per the
objectives and the scope is important.
Cost- Cost or the budget is an important dimension that defines the nature,type, and extent of
the project.

Risk-Projects are done under certain risks which are unknown. Project management
understands and forecasts these risks. The various techniques help to assess the risk associated
with the project so that the same can be managed.

Check Your Progress-1

1. What is a project? Look around your surroundings and list 5 such ongoing and completed
projects.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Write down the features or the fundamentals of the projects which you have observed in the
project as per the list of projects prepared by you in (1).
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

23.3 PROCESS AND TECHNIQUES PROJECT MANAGEMENT:

23.3.1 Project Management Process – Project Life Cycle

The project involves a series of processes. The processes are the various phases of the project
life cycle. A project has a life cycle just like any product, project, business, or industry.
Dividing a project into phases gives direction to the project. Phases divide the total work of a
project into small manageable components, easing the process of monitoring. The project life
cycle can be elaborated in the following stages.

Initiation -The first stage is the stage of understanding the project. The purpose, risk,
timelines, uniqueness, and resources should be explored. It is the beginning of the project
where the project is explored, defined, and elaborated. The feasibility of the project is checked
along with the decisions related to who is to carry out the project, and who will be involved. A
project proposal includes all these points. The initiation phase answers the questions like - Why
this project? Or whether it is feasible or not? What are the required resources? What will be the
duration and cost of the project?

Planning -The second stage is planning. This also requires working out the required team, and
resources. It is the division and outlining of the project before its execution. In this stage,
planning is done to find out what the project will demand, when to schedule, who will be
benefited, the quality required, and the budget. This stage will include preparing schedules,
staff, resources, budgets, risks, etc.

Execution- The third stage is execution. The project is implemented as per the planning done
in stage 2. During this stage, the project comes into action and a major part of the project work
takes place. The actual product is produced during this stage (For eg., a house, dam, or road).

Monitoring -The fourth stage requires monitoring of the project. This helps to keep a check
whether everything is going as per the plan and the timeline. The changes can be made as and
when needed to be on track. Monitoring is used to control. Standards time, standard cost, and
checks are used for control. Various reports are prepared to check and control.

Closing-Last is the closing stage. This is the end of the life cycle when the objectives are
fulfilled, the results are analyzed.
 Initiation
(STAGE -1)

Planning
Closing
(STAGE -2)
(STAGE -5)

Monitoring
Execution
(STAGE -4)
(STAGE -3)

Fig- 23.1 – Life Cycle stages

23.3.2 Techniques of project management

Techniques are always specific approaches. It is a logical and rational way of applying skills,
experience, and tools to carry out specific activities or tasks to fulfill the project objectives.
Some of the techniques in project management are:

23.3.2.1 GANTT chart

Gantt chart is developed and conceived by Henry Gantt. This technique is a horizontal bar
chart. The bar chart illustrates the schedule and activities of the project over time. The
technique highlights the work to be completed specific days. A bar represents a specific
activity and it represents its duration — its start, and finish dates. The bar stands for the
scheduling of the task. Other geometrical signs within the chart represent important aspects of
a project. The Gantt chart is simple and low-cost. It is a standard format for displaying project
schedule information. A Gantt Chart has the following details:

 The start dates

 The project tasks
 Name of the team member for each task
 Time when tasks finish
 Total duration of each task
 Task dependencies and landmark
No. Task Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug
1 Strategy
2 Registration and funding
3 Initial market survey
4 Ist phase of marketing
5 2nd phase marketing
6 Costing
7 Cash flow analysis
8 Finding the sources of funding
9 Finalizing the project
10 Funding

Fig 23.2- Gantt Chart

23.3.2.2-Program evaluation and review technique (PERT)

PERT is a network analysis technique. This technique is used to estimate project duration when
there is a high degree of uncertainty. The basis of PERT is constant task analysis, estimating
the time and budget. The U.S. Navy Special Projects Office developed the technique in 1957.
The technique is useful when:

- Project is complex with non routine tasks.

- Large projects
- Complex requirements
Fig 23.3 – An example of PERT Chart

23.3.2.3-Critical Path Method (CPM)

The technique is used to estimate and monitor the overall duration of a project. It divides the
project into tasks. Each task has an estimated duration and is organized by delivery based on
rationality and any dependencies. By adding the duration of the longest sequence of tasks, an
estimate of the overall project duration is done. When any task gets delayed, the overall project
duration increases.
Fig 23.4 – Example of CPM

23.3.2.4 Kanban project management

The Kanban Project Management technique is of Japanese origin. The word “Kanban” means
the billboard. Kanban is a visual planning board. It arranges work items into development
columns and then tracks progress on it. The benefit of this method is that it makes the work
transparent.

A Kanban board consists of:

1. “To Do” column — define a task to work on in the future

2. “Doing” column — place here when start working on a task.

3. “Done” column — When the work is finished.

 TO DO DOING DONE
• task 6 • task 3 • task 1
• task 7 • task 4 • task 2
• task 5

Fig 23.5 – Example of KANBAN

23.3.2.5-The GROW Model

The model was developed by John Whitmore, the technique helps in setting goals, designing
plans, and achieving them. GROW is an acronym for Goal, Reality, Obstacles/Options, and
Will/Way Forward.

 Goal: An objective to achieve. The goals should be clear, smart, relevant, and
understood by all.
 Reality: understanding of the current situation, issues, and challenges.
 Obstacles/Options: Roadblocks in achieving the goals and solutions or ways to
overcome them.
 Will/Way Forward: Action plans to overcome the obstacles.

23.3.2.6 Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) Model

CIPP is the framework to evaluate the project at various stages of project management. CIPP
means – Context, Input, Process, and Product. The model was developed by Daniel
Stufflebeam in the 1960s and is used to assess the various scenarios and give feedback for
continuous improvement.
Fig 23.6: CIPP Model

These techniques make the task of project management easier and more accurate. It helps in
the management and efficient utilization of limited resources. Which techniques to be used
depends on the need and the utility of the techniques at that time.

Check Your Progress -2

1. What are the various reasons for using various techniques for project management?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Highlight the real-life situations where any of these techniques can be used.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Which of these techniques can be used:
a. to calculate the time required for the completion of each task.
b. Flow of the task according to the process.

23.4 RELEVANCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

A project is an activity that has a clear definite purpose and time frame. They are unique and
different from past projects. The projects are very complex systems that require many
specialized activities at a point in time. The more complicated the project, there is more chance
of chaos. Therefore, proper planning and execution are required. To avoid confusion, it is
required to set clear plans and processes from the start to the completion of the project. It is the
art of managing a project and delivering finished products or services. Project management
includes identifying requirements, defining clear objectives, and ensuring that purpose is
achieved. A structured and scientific approach is required to face the challenges. Project
management requires a project manager, a team, and a management system. Organization
structure, information processing, and decision-making are required for efficient project
management. The focus is on integrated planning and control. The relevance or the importance
of project management can be listed as under:

Plan and Schedule- Project management sticks to the agreed project schedule, inculcating
discipline. This helps in avoiding delays and unnecessary increases in the time or the cost of
the project. A clear path is determined through the project life cycle.

Teamwork- People work as a team for a specific purpose and with clear planning. They
specialize in their work and understand the importance of teamwork for the completion of the
project. They are benefited as a team through the knowledge and experience of others. This
works as a motivation to come together as a team and collaborate on a project.

Best utilization of resources: Projects have limited and pre-allocated resources. They cannot
be increased easily as they are expensive and will increase the overall cost of the project or will
delay the project. Project management ensures to keep a track of the developments in the
project with regular monitoring. Monitoring and control help in the best and most efficient
utilization of all the resources.

Cost Control- project management keeps costs under control as per the scope, objectives, and
budgets allocated. Project management manages the risk of overrun budgets.

A reservoir of Knowledge- The companies doing more and more projects gain experience
gradually. The experience serves as a knowledge bank to such companies.

Quality Control- Quality is the most important part of any project. Project management
identifies the standards or the criteria and ensures the same is maintained during all the phases
of the project life cycle. Identifying, controlling, and managing standards helps to deliver a
high-quality product/ service.

Corrective Actions- Whenever any deviation is noticed from the plan, the project management
team must put it back on track. If the deviations are not checked or corrected the risk of non
completion of the project on time, increase in cost or compromise on the quality may result.
The project management handles such situations and tries to put all as per the planning.

Continuous monitoring and control- Project management controls projects and ensures they
are on the right track and within the stipulated budget. Project deliverables should be managed
well.
Interdisciplinary approach-Project management help in handling complex, costly and risky
assignments by providing an interdisciplinary approach. It is a team made of people from all
disciplines – management, engineering, technical, and so on depending on the requirement of
the project.

Competition-Due to the increased competition, quality products are required. Standardization

of the products and awareness about the products and services have increased the importance
of project management. Many certifications require project management for doing business.

Awareness- Customers are nowadays more aware and expect more customized and quality
products and services instead of traditional ones. This requires a dedicated and professional
team to understand the needs of the customers.
Managing many Projects – Due to the increased competition and more customization,
organizations are handling many projects simultaneously. These multi-project organizations
require a dedicated team for all projects. All projects are unique in nature and risk. They need
to be managed professionally.
Emerging Economies-Due to developing economies an explosion of demand for goods and
services is noted. There is a huge need for new projects to meet these demands. Therefore, the
need for project management professionals has gradually gained momentum.

23.5 CHALLENGES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

It is the body of knowledge and dealing with resources. Challenges are crucial to the success of
the projects. Most of the projects face many challenges as they have the factor of uncertainty
and other constraints of time and resources. There are many other factors also which have
added to the various problems faced by the project management team.

- Communication-Lack of effective communication or poor communication on the

various matters related to the project may create misinterpretations or
misunderstandings. This is the challenge that can be very harmful if the messages,
orders, or tasks are not properly or timely communicated to the right person.
Communication also includes clarity in the roles, responsibilities, accountability, and
directions. A formal communication network is required with the methods of
communication may be by circulars, notices, memos, email, meetings, and phone calls,
during the project life cycle.
- Project Definition and Planning- There is always a challenge to match between goals
of the project and the business objectives of the project management companies due to
poor planning. Some companies fail to put sufficient time and effort into planning to
 ensure those projects are aligned with a core business strategy. This requires a proper
sync of the business core value and financial benefits of the project. The same is to be
reviewed by the top management.
- Ensuring Accountability and responsibility: Fixing the responsibility and
accountability ensures proper execution of the plan is a big challenge. This requires
making all the project team members accountable and responsible for the task assigned
to them. This should also be communicated to them along with the importance of the
role played by them in the whole project cycle.
- Managing people- People management is the biggest challenge for the project
management team. There can be various issues related to the recruitment of people,
teamwork, conflicts, and cultural and cross-cultural management issues. The project
management teams need to understand the team members and deal with them
accordingly. This requires interpersonal skills to understand and solve the issues related
to the people.
- Resource Allocation: A major challenge of project management is the allocation of
resources. Cost management, estimation, monitoring, and controlling the resources are
various aspects that keep the team at risk of losing control of the project. They struggle
with budgets or acquiring sufficient resources. Changes in prices, insufficient
deliveries, delays, changes in specifications, and inconsistent service delivery are the
day-to-day issues faced by the project management team.
- Stakeholders’ management – The stakeholders- internal and external come with
varied expectations from the project. It is difficult to meet a stakeholder’s new
demands and requirements in the mid of the project when the planning has already been
done. Now the change in the expectations or results will ask for planning again.
- Risk Management – There are various risks associated with project management.
Financial risk, environmental risk, social risk, design risk, political risk, legal risk,
operational risk, technological risk, and so on. As the project management team, these
risks must be forecasted and it should be ensured that they are managed. But whatever
may be the technique used for forecasting the risk or the uncertainty is always there.

Check Your Progress-3

1. Mention the various challenges of project management. Give suggestions to overcome

these challenges.
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Write down the relevance of effective project management keeping in mind any project
going on in your surroundings.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

23.6 CURRENT PRACTICES IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management is evolving and critical business across all sectors. Now organizations are
adopting a project-based approach. Due to social, environmental, technological, and economic
changes, project management has evolved and adapted to changing conditions to remain
relevant and meet future demands.

Technological Advancement
Technology has changed the methods, tools, and techniques. The approach has changed from
traditional to digital. The documents are in digital format which are safer and more secure. The
technology has enabled the project management team to use data-driven methods of
scheduling, monitoring, planning, costing, and controlling. Advanced methods have made
forecasting more fast, easy, and more accurate. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
have made the task easier and more accurate for project managers. Risk assessment and
intelligent scheduling are some of the other advantages of technology to project management.
Sustainability
The change in the mindset of society asks for a more environmentally sustainable and
responsible approach in all project management activities. There is pressure to include a
sustainable element. Sustainability is balancing social, environmental, and economic interests.
Sustainability is about both long-term and short-term orientation to find the most sustainable
solution with the lowest impact on the environment. Nowadays projects are expected to ensure
the element of sustainability with the least harm to the environment.
Tailor made approaches
The current practice of project management companies of not restricting to international
project management standards or other methodologies is gaining momentum. Project
management companies are now creating a project management methodology that is
customized to the unique project environment. The projects are more flexible with critical
thinking. This new change requires more complex project management skills.
Increasing demand for the project management team and skill
Due to the change in the business environment, there is a systematic increase in the project
manager and project team member knowledge in all areas. Hard skills, soft skills, technological
skills, analytical skills, data analysis design thinking, machine learning emotional intelligence
are the areas where there is a demand for the specialist. Strategic advisor, Innovator, and
Versatile manager are some of the new upcoming roles for people looking for careers in project
management.

23.7 PROJECT MANAGER:

The project manager must manage the constraints and must work in a dynamic environment
with a specialized group of people. There are timelines and limitations to the resources. The
risk involved in the project makes their work more challenging. To manage the project there
are some expertise or skill required.
23.7.1 Skills of project manager
a) Leadership qualities-A project manager should have the skill to lead the team and set
an example for others. He should have the vision and the ability to communicate it to
others.
b) Change manager- The project manager should have the ability to thrive on change and
set new boundaries.
c) Communication skills: The ability to communicate is the most important skill. The
position requires clear communication about goals, targets, roles, responsibilities,
standards, guidelines, timelines, performance, expectations, control measures, and
feedback. There is a need for two-way communication for successful project
management. This skill also asks for a good negotiator.
d) Setting an example for others: A project leader’s actions, and not words should be the
modus operandi. Commitment to the work and ethical behavior are the required skill of
an efficient project manager. The integrity of the project manager sets the benchmark
for others.
e) Positivity and Enthusiasm: Simple with a positive attitude and enthusiasm for the
work is the skill needed for the project manager.
f) Tolerance- There are always chances of delays, differences in opinion, or conflict. The
project manager should have the ability to tolerate and understand the situation before
giving reactions.
 g) Self-evaluation- Managers should have the ability to evaluate their self-actions and
accept reality.
h) Good personal management skills- The managers should have the ability to
understand that individuals are different, they react differently in different situations.
The manager should have a sympathetic attitude while solving issues related to people.

i) Problem-Solving Skill- The manager should have excellent problem-solving skills

themselves.
j) Time Management – Good time management ensures the timely completion of the
project life cycle.
k) Update with the latest technology and changes- he should be aware of the latest in
their field.
23. 7.2 Responsibilities of a project manager

Project management is a combination of art and science, and, the his job is to set the project on
the right track. A manager is responsible for certain activities, solves technical problems, acts
as a negotiator when pressures arise and make appropriate trade-offs among resources, time,
cost, and scope of the project. He also innovates and adapts to changes. Some of the
responsibilities of a project manager include:

 Identifying project objectives, resources, and scope.

 Planning various activities throughout the project life cycle.

 Directing the team’s efforts

 Negotiating and managing time

 Monitoring all the activities to check for deviations and to take corrective actions.

 Documenting all the tasks throughout a project

 Ensuring all tasks, deliverables, and materials are delivered as per the timelines
decided in the planning process.

 Managing all resources to avoid delays.

 Coordinating between the various task and the people.

 Effective communication of the project status with stakeholders

 Forecasting the risk and strategically eliminating potential risks

 Ensuring quality and successful completion of the project

23.8 PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN FACILITY MANAGEMENT:

23.8.1 Facility Management

Project management and facility management (FM) are two different concepts. Project
management is one of the functions of FM. The facility manager may be controlling many
projects. As we know the project is a non-routine, temporary task taken for a particular purpose
for a definite period. Each project is different from the others. The project management team is
separate for all the projects. But all these projects must be aligned to use the support services
and contribute to the overall core business value of the organization. Each project team works
on a separate set of objectives, resources, and risks. But the overall management of these risks,
resources, and objectives is done by the FM. FM is the management of non-core services
which helps the organizations to work best of their efficiency. It is the holistic management of
technology, people, place, and process to realize the objectives of cost-effectiveness,
productivity, improvement, efficiency, and employee quality of life in the organization which
supports the core objectives of the organization. FM ensures the operational needs of projects.
Realizing the best value for the money by providing quality goods and services, ensures
customer satisfaction. Building suppliers’ relationship by understanding the competition gives
a competitive advantage. FM implements practices that reduce or eliminate the risks.
According to International Facility Management Association (IFMA) FM is:
‘The practice of co-ordinating people and the work of an organization into the physical
workplace.’
‘An integrated management process that considers people, process and place in an
organizational context.’
FM ensures the flow of appropriate support services – best quality, timely, and economical so
that the organization can concentrate on core business activities. These support services can be
from suppliers, customers, and contractors. Such services or facilities ensure that the workplace
is safe, secure, and fit for its purpose. For example, ensuring cab services for the staff, Child
care facilities for female staff, electrical or lift maintenance, etc. FM is a business function. It
needs to be innovation, basic research, and application of best practices.

23.8.2 Difference between project management and facility management

PROJECT MANAGEMENT FACILITY MANAGEMENT

Creates and produces the final project. It provides the support facilities that already
exist for the organization.
Temporary process Permanent process
Focuses on the management of the Focuses on providing support services to the
project project
A project manager is more responsible to Responsibilities are less as compared to the
the project project manager
The process includes- initiation, The process includes- facility identification,
definition and planning, implementation, planning facility, operation, and maintenance
monitoring, controlling, and closure. of the facility, collecting information, and
analyzing the performance of the facility.
Increase in productivity, organized and Improved performance, cost analysis, space
defined plan, effectiveness, and efficient optimization, asset tracking, and operational
processing are the benefits of project efficiency are the benefits of facility
management management

23.8.3 Hard facility management and soft facility management

The functions performed by the facility management can be divided into two broad areas:
Hard facility management- Hard facility management refers to the activities performed to
maintain the physical facilities in the organization. Examples can be fire safety management,
equipment or lift maintenance, electricity, and plumbing services.
Soft facility management –Soft facility management refers to the activities performed to
manage people and organizations. Examples are waste management, pest control, landscaping,
security, housekeeping, space planning, catering, etc.

23.9 FACILITY MANAGER

A facility manager is a person responsible for the overall management of all the facilities in the
organization. The facility manager has to coordinate all the activities in an organization and has
to provide uninterrupted quality services which will support the core business. The following
are the skills and functions of the facility manager.

23.9.1 Skills of facility manager:

Facility management is an integrated approach therefore, the facility manager has to be well-
equipped with management, technical, social and interpersonal skills. The skills can be listed
as:
Real estate management skills – building performance, site selection and acquisition,
environmental services and workplace design, lease, and legal diligence, building audits
• Financial management skills –financial planning and execution, accounting, finance,
purchasing, and supply, and legal aspects, budgeting formulation, and execution.
• Management skills –planning, organizing, direction, implementing, controlling,
organizational structure, and behavior.
• Innovation and change management skills – technology, ICT and information
management.
• Human resources management skills – motivation, leadership, employment law, health,
and safety.
• Space planning and management skills – space inventory, and space allocation.
23.9.2 Functions of facility manager:
The functions of the facility managers are very elaborate. The following points give an idea of
the various functions:
 Preparing budgets, managing costing centers, and understanding the critical success
factors and key performance indicators.
 Leading and motivated the facilities management team.
 Best utilization of space and disposal of surplus space.
 Coping with new legislation and the changing workplace.
 Managing workplace productivity.
 Managing the health and safety of the people
 Keeping a track of technological innovation, ICT, and systems.
 Benchmarking costs and performance
 Selecting and managing the team.
 Clearly defining the project objectives and targets.
 Understanding the risk.
 Managing the risk
 Change management.
 Negotiation with the suppliers, client, and host organization.
 Problem solution.
 Reporting
 Measuring performance

23.9.3 Challenges of the facility manager

The profession of a facility manager is full of challenges. They need to be well equipped with
the latest happenings and changes in their area. They directly affect the organization’s core
businesses if there is any lacking in support services. Future challenges for facility managers
are:
Outsourcing: As most of the facilities are outsourced, maintaining an uninterrupted supply of
quality goods and services is a challenge. Due to the increased competition and cost cuts,
maintaining good relations with suppliers is a challenge for managers.
Proactive Maintenance: Proactive or preventive management of the facilities is very difficult.
It needs information and timely analysis of the information to reduce the repairs and
maintenance.
Change in demographics of the workforce: The creation of digital workspaces and shared
office spaces have challenged the manager for effective space utilization.
Hybrid or Work from Home: The change in the work culture has reduced the time people
spend in the office or using the facilities. These facilities are already created and now need
proper management for efficient utilization.

23.10 TRENDS IN FACILITY MANAGEMENT

 Outsourcing of business support services- locally and globally.

 Reduced need for property and real estate due to the change in the demographics of the
workforce.
 Attracting the best in a class of employees and the best utilization of their efficiency.
 Multiple locations for employees.
 Flexibility of the workforce.
 Integration with other facility services such as IT or human resources.
 Integration of facility management as organizations operating across international
boundaries.
 Fast-changing technology.
 Influence of corporate cultures and governance.
 Political impact.
 International standards and competition
 Legislation

Check Your Progress- 4

1. Differentiate between facility management and project management.
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2. List some more challenges faced by facility managers with a sustainability perspective.
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23.11 LET US SUM UP

Projects are non routine nature time-specific tasks that need to achieve some predetermined
objectives. It needs a scientific and systematic approach as many specialized tasks are
performed by the team. The project manager must be skilled in understanding the various
phases of the life cycle of the project and delegate tasks accordingly to the team. Efficient
coordination, control, and communication are required for the completion of the product within
the time with limited cost and other resources. The framework of project management ensures
that the project is completed as committed and the delivery of agreed-upon goods or services is
done. Efficient project management ensures the success of the project. Project management is
considered an art also as it has to manage the socio cultural aspect also. Facility management is
a field that has emerged as a profession to integrate all the aspects of management and provides
support services to the core business. Project management can be one of the functions of
facility management. A facility manager may be looking after more than one project at a time.
The project manager is responsible only for the project assigned. Project Management and
Facility Management are emerging fields as all sectors of the economy are becoming more
complex. Organization requires efficient project manager and facility manager to enhance
efficiency and productivity.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Go through the relevant sections in the unit and frame your answers.