Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Additive Manufacturing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addma

Review

Binder jetting: A review of process, materials, and methods T

a b,⁎
Mohsen Ziaee , Nathan B. Crane
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 E Fowler Ave, Tampa, USA
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Binder Jet printing is an additive manufacturing technique that dispenses liquid binding agent on powder to
Binder jetting form a two-dimensional pattern on a layer. The layers are stacked to build a physical article. Binder Jetting (BJ)
Powder deposition can be adapted to almost any powder with high production rates and the BJ process utilizes a broad range of
Wetting technologies including printing tehniques, powder deposition, dynamic binder/powder interaction, and post-
Post-processing
processing methods. A wide variety of materials including polymers, metals, and ceramics have been processed
Sintering
successfully with Binder Jet. However, developing printing and post-processing methods that maximize part
Materials
performance is a remaining challenge. This article presents a broad review of technologies and approaches that
have been applied in Binder Jet printing and points towards opportunities for future advancement.

1. Overview
Additive Manufacturing (AM) creates physical models or objects
directly from computer-aided design (CAD) models with very limited
geometric constraints through a layer-by-layer process. AM can be ap-
plied to virtually any material using a variety of techniques [1]. Each
technique has specified applications and has its own limitations [2].
Many common AM methods utilize a heat source to fuse raw materials
together and create the object. Others utilize light to selectively cure a
liquid crosslink. In contrast, binder jetting glues the particles to form
the geometry layer by layer so no heat is required during fabrication.
Additionally, unbound powder temporarily supports unconnected por-
tions of the component that allows internal volumes to be formed so
that waste of materials is noticeably reduced [3].
Binder Jetting (BJ) was invented in 1993 at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology [4]. Two years later Z Corporation obtained a
license for the process from MIT [5]. Several companies became suc-
cessful machine developers such as ExOne, ZCorp (purchased by 3D
Systems in 2012) and Voxeljet to process different materials [6,7]. As
patents expire, additional companies are entering the marketplace in-
cluding startup Desktop Metal [8] and HP [9].
BJ offers many potential advantages as an AM process. For example,
it can work with virtually any powdered feedstock and can incorporate
functionally-graded materials. BJ systems also have a relatively high
build rate compared to other printing processes like material jetting
because it only needs to print the binder—a fraction of the total part
volume. For example, a 100-nozzle print head can create parts at up to
approximately 200 cm3 /min [10]. Machines are available with large
build volume such as 780 mm × 400 mm × 400 mm for metal parts and
for sand casting machines are available for continuously manufacturing
parts with width and height of 850 mm × 500 mm with no limitation
on the length [11,12]. However, the process creates a part made of
powder particles that are bonded together. This is typically called a
‘green’ part which is then post-processed to final properties. The quality
of these final products controls the application space for the process.
These final properties depend on many process parameters including
raw material, powder bed formation, build parameters, and post pro-
cessing methods. Much research has been and continues to be done to
more fully realize the process’s potential [13].
Fig. 1 illustrates a typical binder jet system. For each layer of the
part, a layer of powder is spread—typically using a counter-rotating
roller. Afterwards, an inkjet print-head jets the liquid binding agent to
the powder bed to create the 2D pattern for the layer. Some binder/
powder systems may use heaters to help control moisture and curing,
but heat is not a basic process requirement. After each layer, the build
platform is lowered to make room for the next layer and the process is
repeated. The as-printed parts are fragile and typically are post-pro-
cessed to improve the mechanical properties [3,14].
While binder jetting has received less attention than low cost
methods like fused deposition material and direct metal methods, it has
a strong potential for high speed and low cost manufacturing. This
combined with the expiration of the early patents has generated an
increased interest in this process from both industry and academia.
There are a number of review articles that address aspects of binder

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nbcrane@byu.edu (N.B. Crane).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.05.031
Received 4 December 2018; Received in revised form 30 May 2019; Accepted 30 May 2019
Available online 22 June 2019
2214-8604/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
Fig. 1. Binder jetting system schematic.
jetting in the context of broader reviews of additive manufacturing
[15], specific materials [16–18], and applications [19–25]. There have
been several focused reviews of sub areas of BJ such as ceramics [26],
and sand casting [27]. The readers are referred to these excellent re-
views for additional details. The binder jetting process brings together
many different technologies to create a low-cost AM method that can be
applied to a wide variety of materials. This article will review key
concepts in each of these areas starting with how the layers are formed
and the binder deposited. It also addresses the materials, post proces-
sing, challenges for mass production using BJ, and some applications of
binder jetting in various industries [23]. This review surveys the
breadth of the BJ process and an indication of the range of techniques
that have been utilized in its implementation.
2. Powder deposition
Powder is the foundation of the BJ process. Therefore, the powder
deposition mechanism is a key component to building parts reliably and
quickly. While powders can flow similar to fluids, their behavior is
much more complex. Inter-particle forces can vary with size, shape,
composition, and humidity and may require different approaches to
reliably form dense, defect-free layers. The powder flow characteristics
determine the deposition method. Typical BJ powders (30 μm or larger)
are processed in dry state though smaller particles have been deposited
and spread successfully though more careful tuning of the process
parameters. Special powder treatments may be required [28,29]. Al-
ternatively, small powders can be formed into agglomerates. For the
finest size ranges, the powder is often dispersed in a fluid to improve
packing density and consistency.
One of the primarily concerns in BJ is the packing characteristics of
the powder layer. Since there is generally negligible densification
during printing, the spread density and pore uniformity is incorporated
into the green part and impacts the final properties and dimensional
accuracy of the final part. The green part density determines the
shrinkage if the part is to be sintered for full density. These issues are
discussed in the post processing section.
For monosized spherical powders, the theoretical packing density is
approximately 60% of the true density [30]. For peak performance,
many applications require full densification—commonly through pres-
sureless sintering. Effective densification typically requires green den-
sity greater than 50%. Any variations in density can produce distortion
during densification. Theoretical studies on optimal packing config-
urations provide a helpful guidance on feasible limits [31–33], but most
real powders deviate significantly from the ideal. For example, they are
rarely monosized and may not be spherical or smooth. Discrete element
modeling is a powerful tool to better understand powder packing and
handling processes. For further information, the reader is referred to
recent papers applying the method to powder handling for AM [34–38].
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
2.1. Dry powder
Powder is an attractive raw material in AM because it can be dis-
pensed and many materials are available in a powdered form. The ideal
powder material will uniformly flow like a liquid with negligible force
between the particles. Usually powders greater than 50 μm flow with
small shear force but with declining particle size, handling challenges
arise as the free flow behavior weakens due to the forces acting between
the powders [39]. However, the properties of the final part generally
increase with smaller powders due to improved density after sintering
[40].
Flowability of a dry powder can be quantified via a number of
measurements such as static repose angle, Hausner ratio, mass flow
through an orifice, and powder internal cohesion [41–45]. Yet, the
flowability characteristics may deviate from the predictions due to
differences in the flow fields or changes such as moisture absorption or
oxidation. Typically, powders with larger apparent density and smaller
Hausner ratios (tapped density/apparent density) perform better in
spreading [28]. In some cases, additives and/or powder coatings may
be applied to improve powder spreading. Drying the powder is often
helpful as well [46,47].
While flowability is a prerequisite for layer formation in BJ, it is
insufficient to guarantee successful printing. For instance, Butscher
et al. indicated that large calcium phosphate powder (with d50 = 51
μm) show excellent flow behavior but the layers displace during the
process and the printing fails. They found the mean particle size in the
range of 20–35 μm as the compromise for required flowability, powder
bed surface roughness, and good spread density [48].
2.2. Spreading method
A proper deposition mechanism is key to building the parts reliably
and quickly. A variety of early deposition methods were examined for
laying down uniform layers, some of which were not able to meet the
industry demands [49,50]. In one common approach, the feedstock is
placed next to the build platform in a feed piston that is raised to
provide material for layer formation. An alternative to the above
mentioned way, is using the hopper feeding system [51]. The reservoir
in this case is above the powder-bed rather than beneath. To fluidize the
powder, the hopper shakes and deposits the powder from the reservoir
in front of spreading tool. Multiple hoppers could be incorporated to
change the material layer-by-layer enabling process of multi-material
parts in a single print job [52].
Variations on these basic methods have been studied and shown to
have some ability to improve powder spreading [53,54]. Researchers
have shown that the roller rotation rate and traverse speed has negli-
gible impact on powder packing unless the spreading tool is vibrated to
reduce the inter-particle shear force [54]. Seluga demonstrated an in-
crease in spread density of fine (< 15 μm) coated 17-4 pH steel powder
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
from 39% to 51% by adding vibration to a roller. However, the roller
ridged the layer surface and required a second pass with no rotation just
to smooth the layer surface [55].
The dry powder can be further compacted by performing double-
smoothing method. Such procedure involves two levelling steps with
dispensing an additional layer of powder in the interim. Shu reported a
drastic improvement in green density of alumina from 43% to 70% by
switching the spreading mechanism from vibrated rotational roller to
double-smoothing method [56]. This method is advantageous over the
conventional roller system in terms of the resultant green density, re-
stricting layering defects and uniformity within printed parts [56].
Further packing the materials can be achieved using mechanical
vibrating compaction techniques and/or by applying acoustic energy to
the deposited powder. Sachs et al. integrated an acoustic transducer
system to supply acoustic energy to the surface layer into a BJ system.
Platen and blade vibration was used to settle the powder therein [57].
However, they did not compare the density increase obtained with this
spreading system.
2.3. Multimodal powder mixtures
To increase spread density beyond the monomodal packing limits,
one proven solution is the use of bimodal powder mixtures in which
fine powders are added that fit in the spaces between the larger parti-
cles [58]. The analytical evaluation of the particle packing is built upon
two primary theories proposed by Furnas [59,60] and Andreasen [61].
In these studies, the models repeatedly have used four parameters to
evaluate porosity level in the packed particles; particle shape, modal
size differences in multimodal distributions, mean particle size and size
distribution [62–69]. Packing fraction has been computed or measured
for monosized particles of various morphologies, e.g. for discs [70], thin
rods [71] and ellipsoids [72]. However predictions of these models may
deviate from the actual packing density due to dominancy of a particle
size, wall friction, wedge effect, etc. therefore the powder packing
theories have been developed to be more inclusive and better predict
the experimental packing densities [73,74].
Due to the limited experimental control on powder arrangement,
the packing density of feedstock mixtures has been experimentally
studied in many references [75–80]. The results of the studies demon-
strate that high packing density can be achieved when the volume
fraction of fine powder is between 20–40 Vol.% (see Fig. 2) [81,82]. Liu
et al. reported that by adding 31% fine copper powders to the coarse
Fig. 2. Micrographs of sintered material show the variation in pore size and volume due to varying volume fractions of coarse (100 μm) to fine (10 μm) in sintered
K418 alloy. (a) 0:1 (b) 1:1, (c) 2:1 (d) 4:1 (e) 6:1 and (f) 1:0. The powder feedstock of 80 Vol.% coarse attained the highest density [73]. Pores appear dark.
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
bronze powder, the tapped green density improves from 59.3% to
72.3% [83]. The experiments conducted on the Gaussian and log-
normal size distribution bimodal mixtures proved that the packing
density depends upon the compositions of the binary and packing
density of the individual compositions. Maxima occur at compositions
of 55–75% larger component and increasing mean-size ratios lead to
greater packing densities [84].
In BJ systems researchers achieved smoother surface finish [85] and
greater fired density by using multimodal material though other studies
have shown decreased sintered density with biomodal powders [82].
These effects are discussed further in Section 5.3. On the negative side,
the fine additives increase the required pressure and time for binder
infiltration into the powder-bed which can result in printing problems
such as balling [86]. In spite of the rich body of analytical and empirical
works on powder packing, these principles are not applied extensively
in powder selection of layer-wise AM methods since adding fine ma-
terial is associated with a risk of poor flowability and size separation in
handling [87].
2.4. Fine powders
Spreading of fine particles is a prime obstacle in layer-wise AM
processes [47]. Fine powders have more surface area that makes them
sensitive to environmental conditions [88] and amplifies the impact of
inter-particle forces that reduce flowability during handling and feeding
process [89]. This results in non-uniform powder packing and shrinkage
variations that cause distortion during sintering.
Yet, smaller particles are favorable for higher resolution and thinner
layers [90]. Additionally, high specific surface energy of finer powders
improves sintering characteristics. This is particularly valuable in fab-
ricating materials with high melting points such as ceramics [91] or
tungsten [92]. Pressureless sintering of refractive materials require very
high temperature and long sintering time which leads to undesirable
grain growth and weak mechanical properties which are offset by
smaller particle sizes [93]. These advantages of small powders have
motivated exploration of new ways to tackle fine powder spreading.
If the particles spread well and create uniform layers, the powder
feedstock with large and small particles creates better packed layers as
shown in Fig. 3 [94]. Several strategies have been attempted to improve
the spread density of fine powders. For example, press-rolling has
successfully improved the deposition homogeneity of fine powders
[95]. Other practices to improve bed density include modification of
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
Fig. 3. Comparison of apparent density, tap density and green density for different powder feedstocks of copper. The median size of each powder mixture is presented
on X-axis [94]. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
the particles’ morphology to mitigate surface roughness [96–100],
adding nano-sized guest particles [98], and use of powder agglomerates
[29,101–103].
2.5. Slurry
As particles reach approximately one micron in size, electrostatic
and other forces dominate gravity. The density and consistency of
spread powder layers decreases until dry spreading is impractical
[104]. To overcome the challenge, the powder can be dispersed in a
liquid to form a slurry [105]. The slurry is deposited on a porous
medium to wick out the liquid and then selectively stabilized by jetting
binder to form the geometry [106,107]. During slurry deposition, the
interaction of solid, liquid and gas phases may result in critical chal-
lenges such as bleeding, bubbling, cracking and segregation [108–111].
A typical slurry formulation involves plasticizer, binder, dispersant and
defoamer that necessitates optimization of the constituents. Theoretical
models [109,110] and computer simulations [112–114] provide in-
sights to tailor rheological characteristics of the slurry. Investigation on
minimizing crack formation is carried out by stress relaxation test in
which the substituents fractions can be optimized [115–117]. However,
in many cases, optimal amounts are found by trial and error
[105,107,118–121]. Metals are difficult to process by this route as their
higher density makes them less stable and the fine particles are highly
susceptibility to oxidation. Recent work on screen printing of Titanium
illustrates some of these challenges [122].
Slurry layering is rather a slow process; however, it has some ad-
vantages over dry spreading in terms of the print resolution, smaller
feature definition and improved sinterability [123]. Another benefit is
that porosity and composition can be varied by depositing different
materials separately from nozzles [124,125]. Fine alumina is the most
common ceramic processed by slurry BJ. Grau et al. demonstrated that
the layers of alumina can reach green densities of 60%–67% and exceed
99% of the theoretical density after firing [125,126]. They also men-
tioned that the stair-stepping defect was nearly eliminated for layer
heights of 100 and 150 μm and that the surface finish was significantly
improved compared to dry processing [125,126].
Several other materials have also been used in slurry-based BJ.
Wang et.al produced gradient-index lenses with Alumina-doped silica
[127]. Further examples of slurry processing include; Nickel oxide–yt-
tria stabilized and lanthanum strontium manganite to create porous
structures for full cells [128] and tungsten carbide/cobalt oxide to
create tungsten carbide cobalt [129]. Some metal oxides could be re-
duced to the corresponding metals through the thermal-chemical post-
processing [130,131].
Slurry deposition in binder jet context shares many aspects with
traditional ceramic fabrication methods [132,133]. The first step in
creating a layer is depositing slurry evenly on a porous substrate such as
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
plaster through slip or tape casting [123]. In the slip cast method the
individual deposited lines of slurry are deposited then stitch together
and slip cast while in the tape casting a thin film of the paste is levelled
by doctor blade in one pass [105]. Before depositing a fresh layer, the
previously deposited material has to be dried. Otherwise bleeding
makes ragged dot edges [108].
The slip-cast method is prone to forming an undulating surface
where the discrete deposition paths stitch to each other. The inter-line
defects compromise the strength of the printed part [120]. Bjorn used a
single orifice raster system and examined three devices to mitigate the
stitching defect; spinning arm, moving belt and bicycle wheel apparatus
out of which the last device was able to create smooth surfaces with the
barely seen ridges in a particular operating window [105]. He showed
that if the time between deposition of adjacent lines was reduced suf-
ficiently, the ridges could be practically eliminated [104,119].
Tape casting is primarily used in manufacturing the substrates.
Benefits of tape casting include easy control of the sheet thickness,
higher production rate, smaller device footprint and tailoring the
powder concentration for each layer [134,135]. These advantages make
it a preferable route in producing ceramic microelectronics such as
radio frequency (RF) resonators, capacitors and dielectric insulators
[120,136,137].
3. Binder selection
Selecting an effective binder is key to the success of BJ. The binder,
in the first place must be printable. An ideal binder would have low
viscosity which allows the stream of individual droplet beads to form
and then break off from the nozzles rapidly [86]. Also, binder must
have stability against the large shear stress induced by printing [138].
Additional criteria include good powder interaction, clean burn out
characteristics, long shelf life, and acceptable environmental risk
[139,140]. In general, the primary particle bonding methods are clas-
sified as In-Liquid and In-Bed binding. In the former, the binding agent
is entirely carried by jetted liquid. In the latter a rheologically simple
liquid is printed and interacts with dry glue particles embedded in the
powder bed. The interparticle bonds are initiated upon hydration
[141,142]. In some cases, the binder is a solvent that facilitates fusing
of the particles. This is most often practiced with polymers, but has also
been demonstrated for magnesium [143]. This reduces contamination,
but may also reduce sintering densification as the solvent essentially
promotes surface diffusion—a non-densifying sintering mechanism as
seen in [144].
In comparison with In-Bed mechanism, the In-Liquid solutions
[145–147] cause more premature failure of print-head due to drying of
the glue agent in the nozzles but offer wider range of powder systems
[14,124,148–150]. Commonly used In-Liquid binders that contain or-
ganic cross-linking agent [151] are butyral resins [152], polyvenyls
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801

[153], polysiloxanes [154], polyacrylic acids (PAA) [155] and acrysol

[156]. They typically decompose thermally during post-processing and
leave little residue [141,157,158]. Photo-curing polymers can been
used to reduce challenges in binder migration after printing [159].
The adhesive agents in the In-Bed binding mechanism are usually
dissolved and may leave voids in the structure. Therefore, this binding
formulation is not favorable to produce dense high strength objects
[141,160,161]. Instead, researchers have fabricated porous structures
by composition of aqueous solutions and In-Bed agents such as starch
[160], dextran [160] and maltodexterins [162]. Silica colloids are an-
other well-known exemplary of the inorganic solution that interact with
an acid e.g. citric acid and undergo a pH reduction from ˜ 9–9.5 to ˜7.5
preventing binder from excess migration [86].
The inclusion of nanoparticles in binder has been investigated in
several publications [163,164]. The goal is that jetted nanoparticles fill
the voids between the larger powders to improve sinterability and re-
duce shrinkage [165,166]. The nanoparticles sinter at lower tempera-
ture and can fuse the large particles to each other to improve green
body strength [167]. For some applications, the inorganic suspensions
are preferred over the organic binders as they leave less impurities in
the final part. Bai et al. ink-jetted standard organic binder, colloidal
organic and inorganic binder (with nano-sized copper) to process
copper powders. They concluded that the inorganic colloid binders
yielded the highest final density [167]. Volumetric shrinkage during
sintering was reduced somewhat, but the sintered density was not sig- Fig. 4. The trace of 6 passes on coated/deformed 17-4PH with 200 × . The top
nificantly improved relative to standard organic binder. This is likely edge was the last edge printed. Copyright permission from [28].
due to the very large range in pore sizes that were generated. Repeated
printing was attempted to improve the performance, but this was lim-
empirical have been done to measure relationships between key
ited by the reduce transport of binder as the surface pores filled with the
printing variables such as saturation and layer thickness [177,178], but
nanoparticles. The suspension with organic binder resulted in nearly
the conclusions are likely to be specific to the particular machine and
the same final density as the regular organic binder but with improved
material system used. There is currently insufficient knowledge to
mechanical properties due to smaller grains in the sintered part [167].
predict the impact between process parameters and printed part di-
In some cases, the application of the manufactured part needs to be
mensions. These issues are discussed further in Section 7.
considered in selecting the binder formula. For example, when printing
Binder quantity is function of multiple parameters; The droplet
molds or cores for sand casting, the existing binder in the printed mold
dispensing duration and frequency, the binder droplet size, and the
is exposed to the molten materials at high temperatures. This requires
spacing between printed lines can all effect lateral and vertical migra-
considering the burn out characteristics of the binder as it could po-
tion of binder during feature formation [179]. On standard binder jet
tentially create gases that trap during the process causing defects in cast
systems, the saturation level and drying conditions are typically opti-
products [140]. No-bake binders such as furan meet the constraints and
mized by trial and error. The printing saturation level is defined as the
predominantly are used in such applications [168]. It should be noted
percentage of the powder void space that is filled with printed binder.
that, the amount of binder has to be carefully managed to avoid both
Typical saturation levels are around 60% but effective bonding may be
excessive gas evolution during casting [169] and mold/core structure
achieved at much lower levels with some reactive binders [14]. In some
erosion [170]. An exhaustive review of the binding methods and for-
cases, saturation above 100% is used to increase green strength or
mulation can be found in reference [141].
material doping [180]. Typically, the binder is partially dried after each
printed layer. This helps to improve spreading of the next layer by re-
4. Printing
moving surface moisture and can also reduce the saturation level to
decrease the chance of bleeding. As saturation level depends on the
The product quality depends on the nature of the interaction be-
void fraction of the spread layer density, an alternative printing para-
tween the printed droplets in the powder. This process is complex and
meter termed the “binder level” is defined that is powder bed in-
highly dynamic. The nature of the interactions defying ready general-
dependent. The binder level represents the fraction of the total part
izations as they vary significantly with the density, size, shape, and
volume that was filled with binder and can be related to the saturation
wetting properties of the powders. Sometimes specific combinations of
level given the powder bed fraction packing [29,181].
powder and printing patterns can generate remarkable edge quality as
A number of efforts have been taken to apply the optimization
seen in Fig. 4. While some work has been done to simulate the powder
processes to tune the saturation level. For instance, the Taguchi opti-
ink processes [171,172], this is a very challenging computational pro-
mization method was utilized for stainless steel 420 [182] and 316 L to
blem due to the complex fluid/powder interactions. Most work is still
identify the equilibrium saturation level. The resultant parts showed
based primarily on experimental methods.
enhanced mechanical properties [183]. Recently Miyanaji et al. in-
The mechanical properties and aesthetic quality of the part strongly
troduced a physics-based model based on the binder and powder bed
depend on the volumetric binder quantity. Insufficient binder cannot
interactions to precisely determine the saturation level [184]. They
join the powders firmly and the printing process will fail [173]. By the
reported that the internal microscopic surface areas that do not con-
same token, excess binder may cause enlargement of printed lines [174]
tribute to the wetting of the powder could result in overestimation of
and/or bleeding which in turn is deleterious to dimensional accuracy
the optimal saturation levels [184]. Aside from the models, the ex-
[10]. In a study of gypsum-based powders, Kafara et al. showed that
perimentally derived graphs like the one shown in Fig. 5, can correlate
saturation levels had a complex impact on shrinkage, distortion, and
saturation level to hydraulic permeability, and precisely determine the
strength [175]. While strength is generally expected to increase with
saturation level as they incorporate complexity of the real cases
increased saturation, this is not always true [175,176]. Several other

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M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801

4.1. Wetting of powder

In BJ, the binder and powder interaction is both profoundly im-

Fig. 5. A typical capillary pressure-wetting fluid saturation curve [86].
[86,184,185].
In order to define sharp edges and clean geometries, the droplet
generator must emit a precise amount of binder and the binder droplets
must be accurately placed in the desired areas of the powder bed. The
binder droplets form clusters of bound particles known as primitives
when they impact the powderbed. The primitives coalesce with de-
position of additional droplets to form lines, layers, and entire parts.
Davis suggested that the stability of the liquid depends on the contact
angle of the liquid on the medium and conditions of the moving fluid
interface [186]. This was later confirmed for a number of inks and
mediums [187–189].
Two major technologies to generate binder droplets in 3DP are
continuous jet (CJ) [190] and Drop-on-Demand (DoD) [191] both of
which have a few sub-categories [192]. In CJ print heads, the ink is
vibrated near the Rayleigh frequency of the stream at high frequencies
namely ˜100 kHz to squeeze out a constant stream of the droplets [193]
making it a favorable choice for high printing rate and large coverage
areas. To control the continuous stream of droplets, an electrostatic
field is utilized to deflect any unwanted droplets to a reservoir (gutter)
for recycling. Also the droplets can be steered to mitigate the step stair
defect at the edges of the 2D slices [28], though surface energy mini-
mization tends to smooth out these effects significantly anyway. The
DoD print heads generate droplets at a lower rate - on the order of ten
portant and very complex due to the 3D dimensional pore geometry and
significant kinetic energy of the droplets. Thus far, researchers have
performed many experiments and proposed multiple models to predict
the binder droplet interaction with the loose powder-bed. Most begin
with the behavior of sessile droplets [202]. One of the first studies on
interaction of a liquid on a porous medium was conducted by Wenzel
wherein the model predicts the contact angle of a liquid resting on a
porous medium with homogeneous chemical composition [203]. If air
pockets are trapped in the recesses, the heterogeneity of the surface
increases the hydrophobicity of the surface. Sessile drop contact angle
is predicted by the Cassie-Baxter model [204]. The two models are
applicable in many cases [205–211] yet are insufficient to explain the
kinetics of the droplet impacting the powder-bed surface.
The roughness and pore network of the powder-bed act as a surface
texture that tends to amplify the inherent tendency toward wetting or
nonwetting behavior. It can turn a weakly wetting surface into a non-
wetting surface. [86] However, overtime the liquid may slowly in-
filtrate into the powder to reach a Wenzel state due to the capillary
force and to lesser degree gravity [212–216] such that the liquid begins
to migrate through the particles [217–219]. Less wetting powders can
also form liquid marbles and hybrid structures [202,220].
Later models incorporated the impact of a droplet on a rigid porous
substrate. The models relied on experimental works and demonstrate
that the Weber and Reynolds number are the two key dimensionless
numbers in droplet spreading on the substrate [221–223]. The actual
powder-bed tends to have a heterogeneous bed structure with the
presence of macro void spaces. Hapgood et al. defined a new parameter,
effective porosity (εeff ) , to propose a two phase model to incorporate the
large void spaces [224]. The equation can also include gravity and
viscosity and is analyzed using functions such as Lambert function
[225]. Bai et al. proposed measuring the contact angle of a sessile, mm-
scale droplet on a powder during wetting to estimate the powder
wetting properties as a preliminary screening and method to identify
preliminary printing parameters [226].
Aside from these models, researchers have used imaging techniques
to study the actual case of binder and powder-bed wetting interaction
by ejecting a single droplet on surface of the powder-bed [227]. The
fluid properties, impact kinetics coupled with surface geometrical
morphology and compositions have been examined for a variety of the
materials and impact conditions. The summary of such studies is pre-
sented in Table 1.
In a typical binder dispensing process, the wetting steps are related
Table 1
Summary of the reported works on wetting of a powdery medium.
Research objective Variables Reference

kHz or less. Further advantage is that in defining sharp edges where a Droplet rebound Impact velocity [228,229]
high accelerations is induced to trace around small radii, DoD print Wetting liquid [228]
heads are preferred [28]. Droplet spread thickness Powder size [40,202]
Typical ways to create pressure pulses to issue droplets are piezo- Impact velocity [171,228]
Wetting liquid [171,202]
electric transducers [194] and fast acting heaters [195]. The other al-
Droplet spread diameter Powder Size [40]
ternatives technologies for these systems are liquid spark jetting Impact velocity [228,230]
[196,197], electro-hydrodynamic inkjet [198], electro-rheological fluid Humidity content [228]
jetting [199], focused acoustic beam ejection [200]. Comprehensive Droplet penetration time Powder bed [202,231,232]
characteristics
information on these various methodologies can be found in references
Wetting liquid [202,224,228,229,232]
[199,201]. Commercial BJ systems are predominately based on the DoD Impact velocity [224,228,229,233]
technology using large numbers of print nozzles to increase printing Humidity content [228]
speeds. Agglomeration Impact velocity [234,235]
Wetting liquid [234,235]
Powder characteristics [236]
Formation mechanism [235]
Saturation level [237]

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M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
to the droplet/powder size ratio. If the droplet is larger than the
powder, the granulation is comprised of four stages; droplet formation,
droplet coalescence and overlap, binder migration into the powder and
binder dispersion by mechanical mixing. In case that the droplets are
smaller than the powder unit, the liquid coats the powder, then imbibes
to the powder bed by capillary pressure [238]. In actual case of BJ,
there is a distribution of powder size and thousands of individual dro-
plets per second strike the surface at 9–10 m/s [86]. The kinetic energy
of the droplet is of the same order of magnitude as the surface energy of
the wetted powder. Interactions with adjacent droplets can have a
significant impact on droplet absorption characteristics making the
interactions more complex [239]. The impact and binder infiltration
could be a root cause for some printing defects. For example, the dro-
plet momentum disturbs the powder-bed and may eject the particles
from their original place. This problem is often found in processing the
fine particles and is referred as ballistic ejection. Efforts have been
taken to tackle this issue by enhancing cohesiveness of the powder-bed
through adding moisture and/or a chemical fixative [240].
Other printing common printing problems are balling and splashing.
In the former, binder infiltration is slower than the binder delivery.
Therefore, the binder droplets coalesce to each other on the powder-bed
surface and then form large liquid beads to reduce surface energy. The
“balls” can form liquid marbles consist of a liquid core with a sur-
rounding powder shell, which can be dried to form a hollow granulate
[231]. These balls usually cause difficulties in spreading subsequent
layers. To overcome this defect, the droplet printing pattern needs to be
changed or the wetting of the powder/binder system needs to be im-
proved. Improved wetting can be achieved by altering surface tension
of the binder, binder viscosity, powder size distribution and shape (see
Fig. 6) [94], or coating the powders with wetting agents [30]. Droplet
infiltration rate can also be increased by using smaller droplets [185].
In splashing phenomena, the binder droplet disintegrates into
smaller satellite droplets [241]. The break ups mostly occur in the last
stage of spreading [240], rebounding [221] and in rare cases at the
beginning of the contact because of the perturbations [240,242]. The
Weber number along with the underlying surface roughness predict the
conditions that prevent splashing [223,243].
During binder infiltration, the binder migrates into the pore net-
work. As a result, the air pockets are partially filled with binder. The
percentage of the pores filled with fluid is defined as the saturation
level [29]. As Bredt showed, the liquid permeation in loosely packed
powders depends on saturation level and capillary pressure which are
inversely related to each other [244]. However the product of the two
factors does not impact the liquid wicking direction and the pore size
distribution in the powder compact is the key variable [185,244]. A
given powder/binder combination had a characteristic relationship
between primitive size and powder volume. However, the authors did
Fig. 6. The tendency for pores to accumulate along the layer boundaries and the effect of altering size distribution to improve binder/powder wetting-and interlayer
bonding. (a) monosized 5 μm copper powder (b) bimodal copper powder of 30 μm (73 Vol.%) and 5 μm [94].
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
not examine the impact of drying nor the interactions between adjacent
lines or layers.
As smaller pores exert more attraction than large voids, binder is
transported unevenly and a pressure gradient is created. The gradient
reduces as the particles rearrange until a uniform pressure is attained
through the moistened powder volume [245]. If the equilibrium is
realized rather late, two defects might appear in the print; feathering
and bleeding. The undesirable migration of binder at the particle scale
outside the intended geometry is known as feathering. Feathering de-
grades the feature sharpness. Bleeding is the severe form of the defect in
which the gravitational force overcomes the capillary pressure and the
liquid flows downward beyond the print boundaries causing significant
loss of geometric accuracy [244].
Several different strategies have been applied to control bleeding.
On commercial BJ machines, the saturation level is an adjustable
variable and is often reduced in the initial layers to allow for some flow
from later layers. The bleeding is further controlled by enhancing
evaporation of the binder –typically by passing a heat lamp over the
bed. Another option is using a viscous binder which may cause dis-
pensing problems and shorten the print-head service life [23].
Additionally, in some cases, a second phase of material is mixed into
the bulk powder to alter the rheological properties of the binder as it
penetrates into the powder-bed [246]. The migration control substance
can either be dissolved by the binder or initiate a chemical reaction to
form a gel, both of which will decrease hydraulic conductivity in the
compact by increasing the binder viscosity [245]. However, this ap-
proach, up to present, is applicable to a limited material systems- as
discussed in “Binder Selection” section.
4.2. Droplet spacing/line spacing
The landing position of the droplets depends on print head speed,
drop-to-drop distance and line spacing. These variables can be ma-
nipulated to adapt the patterning strategies [85]. Often, the print heads
are spaced farther apart than one line spacing so multiple passes are
made to cover the entire bed. It is also possible that they would print
every other droplet so that they have time to absorb before printing the
droplets between them. This can reduce balling, but adds a second pass
and reduces the production speed.
Ideally, the individual droplets quickly absorb into the powder bed,
coalesce and leave cohesive primitives after solidification [247]. The
line spacing must be sufficiently low that the formed lines stitch to each
other and create a cohesive layer [248]. Theory suggests that the dia-
meter of a single primitive line can be estimated by multiplying the root
square of the droplet spacing in a constant value-which depends on the
combination of binder and powder-bed [249]. In practice, however, the
mean diameter varies with droplet size, dispensing rate, binder incident
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
velocity, powder morphology, binder dose and wetting condition
[117,201].
Small line spacing increases printing time and poses the risk of
oversaturation and bleeding while excessive spacing causes marginal
stitching between lines. A study on a bimodal alumina showed that
when droplets land at closer distance to each other the resultant line
segment would be defined cleaner. However there is a lower bound for
the droplet spacing as otherwise the high binder dose degrades the
resolution of the print by forming large diameter lines [85]. The
smoothest geometry was achieved with smaller drop spacing with
heating to remove excess liquid after binder printing [30].
4.3. Print strategies
There are three scanning alternatives: vector, raster and vector trace
with raster fill. Due to interactions between droplets after printing, the
printing strategy can have a significant impact on the final part quality.
In vector scanning, a stream of droplets generates the outline contour of
the part geometry and moves inward to progressively trace smaller
contours until the entire layer is completed. Vector process is the most
accurate process and produces the smoothest exterior, but is also the
slowest as it is limited to a single printing nozzle per part. The layer
printing time depends on the complexity of the layer. A more detailed
discussion on the vector operation and assessment of resultant test
geometries can be found in reference [250].
In raster scanning, the print head traverses in the X direction.
Between the steps the print head moves in the Y direction and the
process starts over for the new line path. As a result, a stair-stepping
effect may appear from line to line similar to that in the z direction
[251]. The major benefit of the raster system over the vector based
machines is the ability to increase speed with additional nozzles and
simplified mechanical motion requirements. Since the print head moves
over the entire object footprint, the layer time is independent of the
part shape and system printing efficiency increases with higher fill
fraction. Some systems subdivide the fill area into smaller square re-
gions and use raster scans between the squares [6]. Rastered surface can
sometimes be improved by printing in just one direction or by reducing
the printing speed [241].
Vector trace with raster fill combines the vector and raster scanning
styles. It has the same footprint as the vector approach but speed is
increased by using all the nozzles of the print head during the raster
phase of printing. The vector trace with raster fill scanning style dras-
tically increases the layers definition rate and shortens the required
time to complete the print [30]. Further, compared to the raster
printing, an improved surface finish as well as cleaner edges can be
attained [251]. Seluga showed that the number of vector passes could
impact the quality of the line. He reported a significant improvement in
line quality after two vector passes on fine 17-4 pH powders, which
demonstrate that droplets and lines interact with adjacent features
during printing. To get improved straightness and smoothness, multiple
vector passes should be implemented before raster filling (see Fig. 7).
4.4. Layer thickness
Of the key variables, the layer thickness is a dominant factor on the
print characteristics. Thinner layers mitigate stepping stair defect and
for most powders improves the mechanical properties of the print but it
increases the production time [10,91]. Doyle et al. investigated layer
thickness effect on 420 stainless steel with bronze infiltrant. They re-
ported around 30% increment in ultimate tensile strength by reducing
layer thickness from 200 μm to 50 μm because the chemical compo-
sition of the final part required lower amount of bronze infiltrant [252].
The strength change was correlated with a significant reduction in
bronze infiltrant at the smaller layer thicknesses. Thus, the strength
difference is likely due to a change in the green part density with layer
thickness [1]. In parts that are sintered without infiltration, this would
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
Fig. 7. The effect of number of vector passes on the inner edge quality. The
number of vectors increases from 1 pass on the left to 3 passes on the right. The
left edge in each image was the last side printed. The final printed surface (left
side) is smoother than the first surface (right side) after the 2nd and 3rd pass
[28].
likely be seen as reduced sintering shrinkage and/or increased final
density for smaller layer thickness.
The orientation of the print can also be manipulated to accom-
modate the print(s) in the build envelop or to reduce the printing job
time. There are inconsistent conclusions as to the print orientation role
on the print characteristic. Doyle reported that the mechanical char-
acteristics of the 420 steel powders print negligibly depends on or-
ientation [1], whereas Farzadi et al. showed that orientation does
matter for plaster-based powder and a water based solution with 2-
Pyrrolidone as a binder [253].
5. Post-processing
After the printing step, the green body is embedded in unbound
powder. To convert the part to an end-use product, a series of post
processing steps must be completed. The applicable steps depend on the
desired properties, and the powder/binder combination used. Key as-
pects are summarized below.
5.1. Powder removal
After printing, the part must be separated from the unbound
powder. However, some binders require post processing to achieve
adequate strength before the parts can be extracted. The binder
chemistry determines the curing process which might include drying,
thermal curing, reduction of a salt-based binder [254], or conversion of
a preceramic polymer [248]. Most commonly, the powderbed is heated
in a furnace to remove residual solvent and possibly initiate reactions
such as cross-linking of the binder. Further polymerization can be
carried out by using other curing options include visible light, vacuum,
heat, and pressure [255]. The key requirement in all the treatments is
that they must not alter or consolidate the unprinted regions.
Depowdering can be delicate work. For the slurry based BJ, part
retrieval is trickier. Due to the fine powders and organic additives ty-
pically used to stabilize the slurry, the unprinted regions are cohesive
and cannot be simply brushed away [256]. Instead, the unprinted re-
gion of the powder bed is re-dispersed in a liquid solvent or ultrasonic
cleaning bath [257]. The unprinted powders retrieved in powder re-
moval can usually be re-used. While some applications such as casting
molds/cores can directly use the cured green parts, most applications
require additional post processing to improve the properties.
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
5.2. Debinding
In most metal and ceramic material systems, BJ binders are re-
moved during post-processing. Most BJ binders are based on organic
compounds that decompose upon heating. However, the removal con-
ditions (debinding) can have a significant impact on the final properties
of the part both by affecting the densification process as well as chan-
ging the composition if a residue is left. Typically, the binder and de-
binding methods are selected to minimize residual though some binders
are selected specifically to locally alter the composition as discussed in
Section 6.5.
Similar process challenges are also seen in other powder-binder
systems used in powder injection molding (PIM), fused filament fabri-
cation (FFF) with metal/ceramic-loaded filaments, and stereo-
lithography with ceramic-loaded photopolymers. While debinding
techniques developed for these processes may also be relevant to BJ,
PIM and FFF typically have much higher loadings of binding agents
(> 25% by volume) compared to ˜1-10 vol% in BJ. These systems ty-
pically require a two-phase binder. One phase is designed for easy re-
moval while the second maintains the green part strength until diffu-
sion bonds form between particles. When the first phase is removed, an
interconnected pore space is created to allow the second phase to es-
cape without generating internal pressures that might damage the
components. Thermal debinding, catalytic debinding, or solvent ex-
traction are common methods for the first stage [258]. An alternative
method, wick debinding, utilizes capillary forces to absorb a molten
phase from the bound part into a wicking material to reduce environ-
mental impact from decomposition byproducts and solvents [260]. The
second phase of binder extraction in PIM is commonly based on thermal
decomposition. This phase is very similar for BJ, PIM, and FFF.
Thermal debinding parameters are often developed using thermo-
gravimetric analysis of the dried binder in the sintering atmosphere to
identify key decomposition temperatures [258]. The heating may be
slowed or paused for a period in these temperature ranges to assure full
binder removal without excessive gas pressures in the pores. Gas
transport and component heating can be slow—especially when parts
are buried in refractory powder to provide support during sintering. Wu
et al. [261] showed that vacuum debinding of alumina-loaded slurry
achieved higher density with shorter processing time than thermal
debinding at atmospheric pressure. The composition impact can depend
on the particle size and atmosphere. Smaller particles are more likely to
absorb carbon due to their increased surface area. In some cases, oxi-
dizing atmospheres may be utilized to improve binder removal while
reducing atmospheres are required for optimal sintering of most metals
[259]. The final composition and resulting properties can be sensitive
to the atmosphere composition during post-processing [262].
Effective debinding is critical to optimizing post-processing methods
to achieve higher properties, accuracy, and consistency. However, little
quantitative work has been published on debinding of BJ components.
5.3. Sintering
Sintering is a high-temperature heat treatment that densifies and
strengthens green parts by transferring chemical bridges to mechanical
bonding [263]. This post-processing step is a common practice in in-
dustrial powder production and BJ-fabricated parts [264,265]. The
conventional metal presssing processes utilizes pressure to quickly
create high density green parts that sinter with reduced shrinkage. But
this is impractical for most 3D-printed geometries with complex and/
nor delicate features. Pressureless sintering techniques from starting
densities around 50–60% are used for BJ parts [266].
Powder injection molding creates green bodies with similar green
densities. BJ post-processing is simplified by a reduced level of binder
compared to powder injection molding, however, it is typically ham-
pered by a coarser powder [264,265]. For sufficiently small particles,
sintering can approach full density (> 99% of theoretical) if the green
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
body is sufficiently dense [267,268]. Typically, this requires green
density greater than 50%. At lower densities, the pores tend to coarsen
with minimal densification. Sintering densification is accompanied by
shrinkage [269,270]. This shrinkage is typically in the range of 15–20%
depending on the density of the green parts.
During sintering, the parts are heated and mass transport (pre-
dominately diffusion) reduces surface free energy and the pore fraction
in the compact. Smaller particles favor sinterability of the compact
thanks to higher surface energy [29,271]. The particle morphology also
influences sinterability [272]. Additionally the shape of powders de-
termines how the powders pack in the green state and thus the density
of the sintered print [273]. Depending on the material phase present in
the process, sintering is divided into two main classes; i.e. solid state
and liquid state sintering [274] which have been discussed in books
[274–277] and review articles [278,279].
Solid state sintering includes three overlapping stages starting from
initial stage and followed by intermediate and final stages respectively
[276]. Reduction of the surface free energy alters the geometry of the
raw material and diffusion transforms the weakly bonded compact to a
dense object by non-densifying and densifying mechanisms [280–282].
Surface-dominated sintering and/or low initial starting density can
produce surface energy reduction without significant densification.
However, most processes utilize high temperature and higher starting
densities that favor densification during sintering. The quality of the
sintering process for BJ green parts, in general, depends on powder
variables (size, additives, etc.) and the process conditions. For metals,
full densification typically requires mean particle sizes below 20 μm
[30]. When larger particles are used, sintering can increase the strength
by replacing binder bonds with metallic bonds. However, significant
porosity remains which is undesirable for many applications [283].
Numerous theoretical models for initial [284–288], intermediate
[289–291], and final [292–295] stages have been proposed and criti-
cally reviewed in literature [288,296].
Liquid phase sintering (LPS) can be considered to be a particular
case of reactive sintering in which a liquid forms out of the solid phase
at the sintering temperature [297]. LPS generally is divided into three
stages; rearrangement [274,298–300], solution reprecipitation at con-
tact points [301–307], and finally, solid-state skeletal sintering that
completes densification [308,309]. Microstructural coarsening always
occurs during solution-reprecipitation and there is disagreement in the
literature as to the role of solid grain coarsening in densification
[310–315]. The advantages of the LPS over the solid state sintering
process are: faster sintering, lower sintering temperature, better control
of microstructure and less residual porosity in the sintered products
[316]. LPS sintering can also achieve densification using larger powders
that are easier to spread. The surface chemistry and morphology of the
grains can be altered by introducing additives to LPS systems to im-
prove densification [317–319]. Such substances promote the liquid-
solid wettability and facilitate the liquid flow between the grains
[320–322]. For instance, Humenik et al. reported a decline in contact
angle from 30° to 0° after addition of molybdenum to the nickel-titanium
carbide. This led to improved hardness and impact resistance in the
final part [323]. Further examples of the sintering aids in powder me-
tallurgy can be found in references [324–326]. These have potential
uses in BJ part sintering.
Thermal energy during sintering of some mixed constituents triggers
reactions in the compact and forms new phase(s). The reaction is nor-
mally exothermic and may favor sintering kinetics. In such a sintering
approach, the liquid is driven through the matrix by a decrease in the
total Gibbs free energy [327]. The blended powders diffusionally in-
teract and generate a compound as the final product. The sintered body
is densified simultaneously by sintering and reaction. Still, the reaction
usually produces a porous compound and care is needed to control the
process [328]. Addition of Li2O-B2O3-SiO2 glass (LBS) into Ba-Zn-Ti is a
good example of this reactive sintering where the reaction provides
extra energy at the early stage of sintering and maximum sintering
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
Fig. 8. Comparison of green part and sintered densities for different powder
mixtures (monomodal, bimodal, trimodal) of metal BJ parts. The results for
samples that include sintering aids such as Boron compounds are plotted se-
parately (‘with SA”) from those without (‘no SA’). Datapoints showing sig-
nificant loss of shape due to excessive liquid formation are not included in the
chart. [265,267,330–337]. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
temperature drops from 1150 °C to 875 °C [329].
Particle size distribution plays a key role in the sintering densifi-
cation of green parts. Mixing powders of different sizes to create mul-
timodal particle size distributions can significantly increase the green
density [61,73,82,261,338,339]. Higher green density reduces the
shrinkage required for densification. However, the increase in green
density from multimodal powders does not always increase the final
sintered density.
Fig. 8 summarizes green and sintered densities from the BJ litera-
ture based on the number of powder components (monomodal, bi-
modal, trimodal) and whether sintering aids (SA) were used. While
multimodal powders generate higher green density on average, many
do not densify effectively. Sometimes, the sintered density is compar-
able to or below that of parts made from traditional narrow particle size
distributions. Those that did densify effectively typically utilized liquid
phase sintering which is promoted by most sintering aids. In the papers
summarized in Fig. 8, multimodal powders achieved densities > 90%
only when using sintering aids.
Significant efforts have been made to address these challenges with
finer particles and liquid phase sintering. However, these changes in-
troduce new challenges as finer powders are harder to spread and in-
creased densification typically increases sintering shrinkage.
Additionally, liquid phase sintering can increase slumping if excessive
liquid phase is created [267]. Powder size can alter slumping sig-
nificantly. For example, a coarse-fine blend in which the particle size of
coarse powder is at least 5 times larger than the size of the fine fraction
sintered below the solidus point, the mixture can be sintered over wider
temperature ranges with no slumping. This is known as blended powder
solid-supersolidus liquid phase sintering [83]. This method was de-
monstrated in densification of Inconel 718 and is stated to be dependent
on powder characteristics, fine particle fraction, and binder chemistry
[340].
Where full density is not achieved by sintering alone, additional
post-processing can be done. The appropriate techniques depend on
whether the porosity is interconnected or closed. If the porosity is open,
infiltration can be very effective, but usually creates a composite final
structure. For closed porosity, hot isostatic processing can substantially
reduce or eliminate pores to improve final properties [341,342]. Ty-
pically, density must reach 90–92% density during sintering to create
discrete circular pores that are amenable to hot isostatic pressing.
5.4. Infiltration
Infiltration is the process of filling a porous body with a
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
Fig. 9. The microstructure of D2 tool steel system using TLI with a 25–53 μm
powder size [346].
liquid—typically using capillary wetting as the driving force. The in-
filtrant must be liquid while the skeleton is a solid and should have
minimal reactions with the skeleton [343]. One option is an organic
infiltrant such as epoxy or cyanacrolate can be used that cures after
infiltration [344]. These infiltrants are mostly widely applied to in-
crease strength in starch-based materials used primarily for appearance
models.
Metal infiltrants must have a lower melting point than the printed
skeleton [267]. One of the earliest BJ material systems utilized a 420 SS
powder that was infiltrated with bronze [1]. This material continues to
be a widely used material system by ExOne. The final part is a bronze/
steel composite that is not readily accepted in many engineering ap-
plications. However, infiltration methods have also been developed
which can achieve homogeneous final compositions.
Transient Liquid-Phase Infiltration (TLI) is a strategy which can
produce a uniform final composition (see Fig. 9). The infiltrant used in
TLI is normally composed of the base powder material plus a melting
point depressant. After the infiltration, the melting point depressant
diffuses through the structure and solidifies isothermally [345]. With
thoughtful selection of the powder and infiltrant composition, standard
alloys can be achieved using this method [346].
Upon melting the infiltrant, the capillary force drives the filling li-
quid through runners toward the part. Experience is needed to design
locations to deliver the liquid evenly and infiltrating the entire green
part homogenously [347]. Once the liquid infiltrant is introduced into
the skeleton, two competing mechanisms start; migration of the liquid
into the skeleton and diffusion of the infiltrant into the powder. The
mutual solubility, infiltration time and temperature determine the
winner. In case the solubility is high the liquid diffuses inside the
grains, solidifies and subsequently blocks the liquid routes. This dis-
rupts interconnectivity of the structure and voids are cut off from the
pores network. This phenomenon is known as freeze-off and limits the
infiltration distance and inhibits homogeneous infiltration [283,346].
6. Materials
6.1. Ceramics
Ceramics are generally processed in powder form due to the
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
difficulty of machining them. In traditional methods, ceramic particles
are blended with a binding liquid/wax and the resultant material is
formed into the desired shape followed by a firing process to gain re-
quired strengthen. In one of the first attempts to process ceramics via
pressing, MgO doped alumina attained ˜ 99.2% final density after firing
[348]. Due to capability of BJ to process powdered material, significant
work has been done on its application to ceramics. Methods have also
been demonstrated to fabricate metal and metal/ceramic composites by
reducing metal oxide powders. Williams utilized metal-oxide powder
system containing iron oxide, nickel oxide, cobalt oxide and mo-
lybdenum which was reduced in post processing to produce Maraging
steel with ˜60% theoretical density [131].
Metal/ceramic composites have also been produced through partial
reduction of a single component during heat treatment. For instance in
one study, researchers used binder jet system to process the micron and
submicron powders to fabricate complex metal cutting inserts from WC-
cobalt oxide - IPA slurry and polyethylenimine as binder [129]. The
cobalt oxide was reduced to cobalt during sintering. The part under-
went hot isostatic pressing (HIP) after sintering and reached 14.2 g/cc
which is comparable with 14.5 g/cc obtained by conventionally pro-
cessed parts [129].
Alumina has been processed in both dry and wet states. Recent re-
search showed that if the powder size is sufficiently large to form de-
fect-free layers from alumina powder in a dry state, the proper print
parameters could achieve a fired density of ˜96% of the true density and
approximately 10% shrinkage in vertical direction [91]. The same
sintered density was achieved for slurry deposited alumina but the
samples underwent significant shrinkage in all three directions compare
to the dry processed parts [349]. Due to the small size of ceramic
powders required for full densification by sintering, most methods for
creating dense ceramic parts have relied on slurry processing or sin-
tering aids that reduce part properties below that of traditionally pro-
cessed engineering ceramics. We encourage readers to refer to [350] for
summary of the researches that have been performed by binder jetting
on the ceramics.
6.2. Metals
A large percentage of current industrial BJ production is in metal
components. Much of this work focuses on traditional powder me-
tallurgy alloys such as stainless steels. While bronze-infiltrated stainless
steel is used, most industrial applications demand standard alloys with
high density. Even though these levels have been achieved in a variety
of materials, it is an ongoing challenge to reduce defects and assure
geometric accuracy. The highest density achieved for steel powders
with gas atmosphere sintering was 92%–95% due to trapping of re-
sidual gas [351]. Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) is a common practice to
further densify the powder-based components to over 99% density
[342].
Many of the techniques used in the powder metallurgy industry may
be helpful in improving the properties such as subtle changes in the
alloy compositions within the alloy specifications. Recent work showed
that adding 0.5% boron additive to 420 steel was found extensively
helpful to attain the final densities near full density - 99.6% - in vacuum
sintering condition [265]. Samples of 316SS were sintered to over
99.5% density in a vacuum with the addition of small amounts of sin-
tering aids [267]. In another work, nanoparticles (˜7–10 nm) were
shown to enhance the quality of 410 stainless steel. BJ parts from 316 L
powder were infiltrated with stainless steel nanoparticles which re-
sulted in further densification [352]. However, nanoparticle in-
corporation can also stabilize the skeleton. Iron nanoparticles were used
to reduce the creep deflections 95% and shrinkage by 60% [353]. Other
notable metals produced by binder jetting include, but not limited to
Inconel [354], cobalt-chromium (Co-Cr) alloy [355] and Copper [10].
The requirement of having minimal impurities in copper compo-
nents in electronic applications necessitates high purity copper. Yun
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
et al. conducted a study on binder jetting of copper and assessed the
impact of reducing gas and powder size distribution on the final density
of the parts. They concluded that 15 μm powder can be still processed
and reach ˜ 85% of theoretical density and 3% of impurity once sintered
in hydrogen gas. However, many strategies for part density increase
reduce the powder flowability [10].
BJ is very promising in processing materials that traditionally are
difficult to machine like Inconel and Cobalt-chrome alloys. Nandwana
et al. recently have BJ-printed parts of Inconel 718 with 99.9% of
theoretical density [340] whereas powder injection molding resulted in
97% as the greatest reported density [356]. Once HIPed, the BJ- made
Cobalt chrome (Co-Cr) prints can achieve nearly twice the wear re-
sistance compared to the cast parts thanks to the favorable micro-
structure of the part [357].
6.3. Biomaterials
The advancement of BJ for medical applications is closely tied to
novel powder-binder systems that can be processed by this technique
and are biocompatible in the recipient’s body. An early work demon-
strated printing of Poly L-Lactide (PLLA) and selectively treating the
surfaces to control cell growth/adhesion [358]. Some other important
examples of typical biomaterial powders are calcium phosphates
[359,360], calcium silicate [361], and Hydroxyapatite (HA) [362].
Biocompatibility constraints imposes a critical restriction on binder
residue in the print and limits the binder choices to substances like pure
water, chloroform, some water-polymer solutions and acid-based bin-
ders [362]. The major part of the researches addresses tailoring
powder-binder system to improve robustness of the green bodies (to
minimize the damage during depowering) as well as investigating
mechanical and clinical properties of the final products. The lack of
research in processing of natural biomaterials (such as pearl powder
and bone granules) which have superb bio-recognition could be po-
tential topics to investigate [363].
6.4. Polymers
Limited work has been done with BJ of polymers. Part of the
challenge is that polymers are rarely fabricated from a powder and so
limited formulations are available. However, polymers were used in
early work for drug delivery devices and scaffold fabrication. Polymers
such as polyglycolic acid (PGA), polylactic acid (PLA), poly-
craprolactone (PCL) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) have been printed.
They can be bound by printing of an appropriate solvent [364]. Alter-
natively, high density polyethylene was printed with an aqueous binder
by adding maltodextrin and polyvinyl achohol (PVA) as binding agents.
Subsequent thermal processing significantly increased the material
properties [162,365]. A similar process applied to Polymethyl matha-
crylate (PMMA) achieved translucence when infiltrated with a heat-
cured resin [366]. Voxeljet commercialized a PMMA material system
using wax or epoxy infiltrants to remove porosity [367]. However, BJ
may be most useful where the porous nature of the printed part may be
appropriate as in the fabrication of bioscaffolds. Another recent work
utilized cellulose-based powders with a water/alcohol-based ink to
create low calorie 3D printed food [368,369]. Future work in food
applications could take advantage of BJ to spatially vary composition
for control of food texture and flavor.
BJ is also very similar to the high speed sintering (HSS) process
developed by Hopkinson [370] and the multijet fusion process com-
mercialized by HP [371]. In these processes, polymer powders are
spread and printed with a radiation absorber so that when a heat lamp
is passed over the surface, only the printed powders bond together.
While this relies on polymer powders and inkjet printing, it differs from
BJ in that the process produces the final properties directly from the
machine rather than a green part.
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
Fig. 10. Alumina-doped silica gradient-index (GRIN) lens produced by slurry-based three-dimensional printing [127].
6.5. Local composition control
Local composition control (LCC) is another attractive point of BJ
that allows creation of a component with tailored properties. This can
be done by supplying different materials through different nozzles, each
onto the specified place [372]. Other approaches to composition con-
trol such as sequential deposition of powder deposition method are
discussed in reference [373]. The stepped gradient was indicated as a
concern which could be addressed by using a special synchronized
distributor [373]. Tailoring index of refraction, electrical conductivity,
magnetic properties, hardness, etc. could be benefit from LCC [372].
The most used application of LCC is color printing for appearance. Just
like inkjet printing on paper, multiple colors can be combined to pro-
duce full spectrum of color [374–376] as seen in Fig. 11(d).
One interesting example of LLC is the gradient index (GRIN) lenses
fabricated by slurry-based BJ as shown in Fig. 10 [127]. Wang et al.
heat treated Aluminum nitrate to decompose to alumina. The resultant
material was ink jetted as dopant with different concentrations into
silica powder bed. Then the alumina-doped silica layers were sintered
at 1650 ℃ for 30 min to optical transparency. The composition gra-
dients created a lens from a geometrically flat sample. The benefits of
the as-described process over the conventional methods [377,378] was
not only the shortened process time from > 100 h to 70 h but also im-
proved compositional flexibility and increased index profile di-
mensionality [127].
Local composition control method was also useful to fabricate bi-
metallic strips where two sheets with different compositions are
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
attached to each other and deflect dissimilarly against the heat. In an
effort NiO and Fe2O3 slurries were printed on Fe-30Ni base powders
and reduced to Ni and Fe respectively after sintering [379]. With the
aid of HIP, the density increased to as high as 93% theoretical density to
enhance the bimetallic bars functionality [379]. In addition to func-
tionally graded materials, many novel material systems such as NdFeB
based magnets [380], solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) [128] or even cus-
tomized food fabrication [368,381], etc. have been explored in the lab.
The quantity of binder in materials that are not sintered or infiltrated
gypsum powder and a calcium phosphate bone substitute was shown to
alter the mechanical strength [175,176].
An alternative approach to controlling composition is to create
hybrid manufacturing process. Sheydaeian and Toyserkani have de-
monstrated the integration of extrusion process to deposit a second
material between layers of the binder jetting process [382,383]. In one
application, a polymer was deposited in the powderbed periodically to
tune mechanical properties through creation of additional porosity
[382]. Alternatively, they have utilized this concept to create a com-
posite structure. This was done by depositing a particle-loaded resin
that forms reinforcing whisker structures during post-processing to
significantly strengthen the structure [382,383].
7. Challenges in production using BJ
In the early stages of process development, the focus is naturally on
expanding capabilities and pushing the limits of the technology to ex-
pand the range of feasible applications. These concerns have been the
Fig. 11. Examples of the different material
processed by BJ printing suited for various
applications (a) A mold was manufactured by
BJ and used to cast the part shown [420]. (b) a
parabolic antenna printed in 316 SS and in-
filtrated with copper [296] (c) A fine featured
part printed and sintered to full density shows
fine feature capabilities [11]. (d) Starch-based
part with color printing illustrates the ability to
spatially vary material properties [421]. (e)
Slurry BJ-made alumina tooth wheels [422].
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
primary focus of academic studies of BJ as researchers expand the range
of materials and improve the properties of the materials. However,
improving average properties, increasing geometric accuracy and re-
ducing property variation is critical to transitioning these processes
from prototyping to manufacturing applications.
Relatively little has been published on variation in BJ process and
much of what has been published is based on the gypsum-based pow-
ders distributed by Z-Corp (now 3D Systems) [177,384–386]. This
material system is widely used, but its application is largely confined to
appearance prototyping where mechanical property (and even geo-
metric accuracy) requirements are limited. These studies are frequently
based on design of experiments methods [177,178,386,387]. These
studies provide a foundation, but many results are not generalizable to
other material systems/machines because there is insufficient under-
standing of the process physics. The impact of changes in the machines,
binder, powders, and other process variables cannot be predicted.
In order for BJ to be a manufacturing process of end use parts,
process control and quality assurance need to be advanced significantly.
Most of the prior studies utilize very simple geometries [388], but
different feature types may be impacted differently by changes in the
process variables [389]. Some studies have investigated specific geo-
metric features [174], but more general solutions are needed. This
section will review quality issues and opportunities for improvement.
7.1. Sources of process variation and defects
The initial powder bed forms the foundation for the green part.
Generally, the powder bed density determines the green density and
thus the densification of the final part. Powder bed density variations
within a layer or between layers will cause variation in properties and
can also lead to porosity and/or distortion during post-processing.
Experiments and simulations have shown that fine powders can sepa-
rate during handling and spreading—even from one side of a powder
bed to the other [390]. These issues may be more severe for multi-
modal powders. Layer to layer registration can be lost by shifting of the
part under the shear forces applied while spreading a new layer. Ad-
ditionally, the weight of accumulating powder layers can compress the
lower layers to alter the z-dimensions of the part [391].
The printing process generally operates very reliably with excellent
reproduction of the targeted geometry and dimensions as long as the
binder saturation is below a critical threshold. The gypsum-based ma-
terial system from 3D Systems showed geometric errors on the order of
0.5 mm [392], but dimensional accuracy of green parts in metal-based
systems is typically much better. Most systems use large arrays of jets
which can be subject to positioning errors if the droplets exit at an angle
and to saturation errors if the droplet volume shifts. This can create
local surface roughness or weak points. Offsetting jet positions from
layer to layer minimizes these errors and avoids creating weak point
due to a missing jet. However, printing velocity has been shown to
affect the accuracy of the parts during printing [241]. During printing,
the droplets can join together to form large balls of binder on the
powder surface in a defect called ‘balling’ [240]. This is most common
where binder/powder wetting is poor and binder dispensing rate is
high. Most printing errors are resolved by equipment manufacturers
through adjustments to the binder or printing parameters.
Post processing errors are generally much larger than the printing
errors. While infiltration shrinkage is usually modest (< 3%), but
slumping and erosion can be issues [353,393]. Parts that are densified
by sintering shrink 10–20% dimensionally. Frequently, the shrinkage is
anisotropic. Slumping and shrinkage can be reduced by addition of
nanoparticles [353,394]. Erosion is determined by infiltration tem-
perature and composition of the skeleton and infiltrant [393,395].
While green parts are easily compensated for average shrinkages, the
variation causes errors. Small variations in shrinkage rates, temperature
or composition can often have large impacts on the final geometry and
properties.
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
Thermal gradients through the part during sintering must also be
minimized to maintain uniform sintering and avoid part distortion.
Slow temperature ramping is required because the effective thermal
conductivity is small during the initial stages of sintering. At sintering
temperatures, the parts are also susceptible to deformation and creep
due to gravity during sintering [269,332]. Distortion is commonly
controlled by packing parts in a bed of supportive non-reactive powder
and/or placing them on refractory supports that may be customized to
the part geometry. Internal cavities can be supported by printed sup-
ports. The support shrinkage will then match that of the part. The
support and part are separated by a refractory barrier to allow se-
paration after sintering. One route to mitigate distortion in some ma-
terial systems is to utilize reactive binder where the binder nanocrys-
tallites form interparticle bridges in the early stages of sintering for
greater high temperature strength [396,397].
In powder injection molding, significant effort has been expended to
develop consistent processing to minimize variation [398–401]. This
approach has allowed for high accuracy in powder injection molding
processes where shrinkage levels are comparable to BJ [402]. Powder
injection molded parts may still need to be adjusted iteratively to reach
target dimension. This is tenable for large volumes but a costly ap-
proach for low volume production by AM methods.
Predictive modeling of part distortion would enhance first part ac-
curacy. Many studies of powder injection molding are relevant to BJ
and work on other processes such as material jetting may also be
helpful [406]. There is some good initial work on simulation sintering
part deformations [403–405], though some models are still empirical
[405].
7.2. Keys to process improvement
Many process advancements have been achieved by experimenta-
tion and simple model approximations. Dramatic increases in process
quality will be aided by improved modeling and controls. Models based
on fundamental material properties are needed to that results can be
generalized to different powders, machines, and materials. This in turn
will require much more deformation and sintering property data for
more materials. These models would also benefit from improved pro-
cess monitoring tools that can measure key part parameters such as
powderbed density that would be required simulation inputs.
A large number of parameters can impact the dimensional accuracy
and/or final properties of a fabricated part. These include layer thick-
ness, printing saturation, drying power level, drying time, spreading
speed, powder size, and powder size distribution [267,407]. Ad-
ditionally, the times, temperatures, and rates used in binder curing,
debinding, and sintering play key roles [265,267]. These parameters
have been studied most extensively because they are controlled directly
in many current BJ machines and post-processing furnaces.
However, the physics models are based on different parameters such
as powder bed density, pore size distribution and binder viscosity. The
connections between model parameters and the machine parameters
are poorly understood. For example, sintering shrinkage depends on
initial density but how is initial density impacted by the spreading
speed and layer thickness? Until the relationships between the process
parameters and the parameters of the physical models are better un-
derstood, it will be difficult to transfer knowledge from one material
system or machine to another.
New methods of simulation and experimentations are needed to
advance understanding of the process dynamics. Current methods of
studying BJ require tedious experimentation. The parts are examined
after printing and/or post-processing to try to relate process parameters
to part outcomes [408]. This requires significant time that slows the
learning process relative to in situ characterization methods. Recent
efforts to simulate droplet/powder impacts are promising [172], but
much is needed to make these simulations representative of real in-
teractions between powder and fluids. High speed x-ray imaging
M. Ziaee and N.B. Crane
promises to provide new insight into these key interactions [409].
Other data analysis techniques such as improved modeling of the spa-
tial relationships between pores may also yield new insights [410].
8. Applications
BJ is a versatile technique, and to date, it has been adapted to
process different powdery materials for a variety of applications such as
casting, medicine and electronics to name a few (see Fig. 11).
BJ has been utilized extensively for the printing of casting molds
and cores. Several reviews of AM in rapid sand casting have been
published recently [411,412]. The porosity of BJ parts is useful as
molds and cores typically require porosity for gas transport and suffi-
cient weakness to be removed from the final part [27]. Molds have been
printed in both sand and ceramic although sand molds are more widely
practiced [413] (Fig. 11 (a)). By printing the mold, the geometric
limitations and lead time required to fabricate a pattern are dramati-
cally reduced while the properties of the final parts are identical to
traditional manufacturing methods [414,415]. In some cases, better
results were achieved with BJ molds than traditional sand molds [416].
This was attributed to the use of higher quality materials in the BJ
molds. BJ-printing of molds also allows for the incorporation of sensing
to monitor the molding process [415,417].
BJ molds are commonly used for quickly generating prototype parts
with material properties that are representative of a final production
part produced by traditional methods. However, the mold fabrication
time is much slower than for traditional methods—limiting the range of
applications for full production to those cases that require the geo-
metric freedom offered by BJ [411]. The versatility of BJ enables de-
signing the molds that improve the cooling process [418]. Shangguan
et al. demonstrated a significant saved time in using BJ-made rib-re-
inforced molds instead of a dense traditional mold for casting Alu-
minum alloy 356 [419]. The researchers of casting field have benefited
from BJ technique to create complex molds wherein the sensors are
placed for data acquisition to closely investigate thermodynamics and
physics of the casting process [415]. In industrial level, of the binder
jetting application in casting field the two main players are Voxeljet and
ExOne.
In higher volumes, mass production with BJ is expensive relative to
traditional methods. However, it does provide strong advantages for
low volumes and intermediate. The porous green parts from BJ are
readily adapted for production of no-bake core and molds for use in
standard investment and sand casting applications [413,415] at lower
cost rather the printing metal itself [423]. The geometric freedom of BJ
can allow for lower cost fabrication of prototypes as well as enabling
unique geometries that would be difficult to pattern by traditional
methods like sand molds. Prior researches have been focused on im-
proving the mold quality. Examples are curing heat treatment effect on
permeability and compressive strength of the mold [424], the resultant
cast roughness [425], gas generation off the mold and improving di-
mensional tolerance [426].
Conformal tooling inserts fabrication was demonstrated for a tex-
tured surface with hardenable stainless steel powder and a bronze alloy
(90 Wt% copper, 10 Wt% tin) infiltrant [427]. The investigation
showed predictable shrinkage within ± 0.25%. Furthermore, 15% en-
hancement in production rate and 9% decrease in part distortion were
reported due to improved cooling [427]. Fabrication of porous parts is
an emerging topic in BJ field. Temporarily bonding the base powders
[29,428], adding fugitive space holders [29] are the recent examined
fashions to increase void fraction within the parts. Such studies provide
a promising route for producing filter components, electrodes, acous-
tics, lightweight structures, etc. [44,428,429].
As technology improves for sintering metal parts to density there is
growing interest in fabrication of small parts using the technology
[430] as illustrated in Fig. 11. This could become an alternative to
powder injection molding in small part quantities if the shrinkage and
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Additive Manufacturing 28 (2019) 781–801
distorting during sintering can be controlled adequately to generate
accurate final parts. Similarly the BJ systems have been scaled up to
build large parts via processing metal powder or building the large
molds for casting [6].
There has been a growing interest in utilizing BJ in medical field
including denture framework [431], surgical implants [432] and
pharmaceutics [21]. BJ enables tuning the drug release rate by in-
corporating features in drug delivery device that control the drug re-
lease rate. This has been commercialized for several applications
[433,434]. Further, since the BJ-made green bodies readily disintegrate
they are well-suited for rapid drug release., For example Fu et al.
showed that 98.5% of the drug was released within 2 min after the
device wetting and disintegration which is promising for rapid release
drugs [435]. In a study performed in MIT, the resorbable polyesters i.e.
polyethylene oxide and polycaprolactone were used as the base mate-
rial to investigate the drug release and showed promising results in
controlling the drug release rate [364]. Applications to bone scaffolds
with calcium phosphate ceramics are reviewed in [21]. BJ might be
well suited to creating composite scaffolds such as described in [436].
While most electronics require multiple materials which is difficult
in BJ, there have been several applications [437,438]. For example,
Rojas-Nastrucci et al. showed that the geometric freedom of BJ could
enable fabrication of a variety of RF electronic components including
antennas, filters, and feed horns [437]. Mesh features were in-
corporated to reduce the weight of the systems. While the copper-in-
filtrated steel skeletons limited performance, copper plating could be
used to improve performance. Additionally, Bariam Titanate, which is a
key material for capacitors and piezoelectric devices applications, has
been processed with BJ and has shown promising piezoelectric prop-
erties. However, improving the density and obtaining small grain size
after sintering still await further research [14].
9. Summary
After over 25 years of emerging Binder Jetting, the method has been
demonstrated for a wide range of materials and has been implemented
in a variety of commercial applications. BJ enjoys the inherent ad-
vantages an additive manufacturing approach and is adaptable to most
powdered materials makes it a potential solution where conventional
methods fail. There is a growing body of knowledge to guide process
and material development. As the knowledge base has increased, the
range of feasible industrial applications continues to increase. With this
stronger knowledge base and the expiration of early patents, the future
will likely see increased competition from machine manufacturers and
pushes into new application spaces.
Despite these advances, there are still many aspects of the process
that are poorly understood such as the dynamic interactions between
the binder droplets and the powder. There is also a great need for
continued progress in the handling and spreading of fine powders.
Perhaps the greatest opportunity for advancing BJ is in improving the
post processing. Despite much work there are still relatively few ma-
terial systems that can be post-processed to achieve full density. The
growth of BJ depends on the development of processes that reliably
produce high properties in more materials or the identification of more
application areas like casting molds and filters that benefit from the
inherent porosity in the green BJ state. As the process application space
grows, the future will likely see greater attention by specialists that will
yield significant advancements in the process capabilities.
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