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CLASS: XII
SECTION: D
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
SESSION: 2024-25
CHAPTER 2: HUMAN REPRODUCTION
S.No. TERM EXPLANATION
1. Gametogenesis The reproductive events in humans include formation of gametes sperms in
males and ovum in females
2. Insemination Transfer of sperms into the female genital tract.
3. Fertilization Fusion of male and female gametes leading to formation of zygote.
4. implantation This is followed by formation and development of blastocyst and its
attachment to the uterine wall.
5. Gestation The period of time between conception and birth. During this time, the baby
grows and develops inside the mother's womb.
6. Parturition Expulsion of the fully formed young one from the mother's uterus after the
gestation period of 280 days in human females.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

a) Primary sex organs i.e. a pair of testes suspended in a scrotum.

b) Secondary sex organs i.e. a pair of ducts each differentiated into rete testis, vasa
efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and the associated glands.

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C) EXTERNAL GENITALIA
• The testes are situated outside
the abdominal cavity in a
pouch called scrotum, which
help in maintaining the low
temperature of testes
necessary for
spermatogenesis.
• Each testes has about 250
testicular lobules and each
lobule contain highly
coiled seminiferous tubules in
which sperms are produced.
Each seminiferous tubules is
lined by two types of
cells, spermatogonia (male
germ cell) and Sertoli cells.
• Leydig cells or interstitial cells present around the seminiferous tubules synthesize
and secrete androgen hormone.
• Ejaculatory duct store and transport the sperm from testes to outside through
urethra which originate from urinary bladder and extend through penis to its external
opening urethral meatus.
• The penis is male external genitalia. The enlarged end of penis is called the glans
penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.

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STRUCTURE OF TESTIS-
• A pair of testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in a sac of skin called the
scrotum. Scrotum keeps the testes at a temperature 2-2.5°C lower than the internal
body temperature, which is necessary for the synthesis of sperms.
• Each testis is oval in shape, measures about 4-5 cm in length and is 2-3 cm in
width.
• The outermost covering of the testis is formed by a dense fibrous membrane called
tunica albuginea.
• Each testis is divided into 250 compartments called testicular lobules.

• Male accessary glands include paired seminal vesicles, prostrate and paired
bulbourethral glands. Secretion of these glands forms the seminal plasma which
contains fructose, calcium and enzymes. The secretion of bulbourethral glands also
helps in lubrication of the penis.
• PROSTATE GLAND(Unpaired) - Surrounds urethra and produces a milky secretion
which forms considerable part of the semen(30%) . Its secretions nourishes and
activates the spermatozoa. Its secretions contains-
1. Citric acid.
2. Lipids
3. Enzymes
4. Calcium, phosphate ions.
• SEMINAL VESICLES (Paired) - These secretes mucus and watery alkaline fluid that
contains fructose which provides energy to the sperms. It forms 60% of the semen.
• BULBOURETHRAL GLAND/ COWPER’S GLAND (paired) – are attached to the urethra
below the prostate gland. They secrete mucus fluid for lubrication of the penis inside
vagina.
• ACCESSORY DUCT SYSTEM-
The seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia through rete testis.
1. Several vasa efferentia open into the epididymis and carry sperms outside the
testis.
2. The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia through the rete testis.
• Epididymis is a long, coiled tube present along the posterior surface of each testis. It
continues as the vas deferens and ascends into the abdomen to loop over the urinary
bladder. Epididymis temporarily stores non-motile and immature sperms.
• The duct from the seminal vesicle and vas deferens together form the ejaculatory
duct. They pass through the prostate gland and join the urethra. They carry
secretions of seminal vesicles and sperms from the testes to the outside through the
urethra.
• Ejaculatory duct store and transport the sperm from the testes to the outside through
the urethra which originates from the urinary bladder and extend through the penis
to its external opening urethral meatus.

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• Urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its
external opening called the urethra meatus. It carries urine from the bladder and
sperms vas deferens through the penis.

CROSS SECTION OF SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES-

• The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in a pouch called scrotum,
which helps in maintaining the low temperature of testes necessary for
spermatogenesis.
• Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules and each lobule contains highly coiled
seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced. Each seminiferous tubule is
lined by two types of cells, spermatogonia ( male germ cell) and Sertoli cells(nurse
cell).
• Leydig cells or interstitial cells present around the seminiferous tubules synthesize
and secrete androgen hormone.

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THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

It consists of :
a) The primary sex organ that is a pair of ovaries.
b) Secondary sex organs- the duct system consisting of a pair of fallopian tube , a uterus , cervix and
vagina.
c) External genitalia.
d) Mammary glands.
• Ovaries are primary female sex organ that produce the female gamete and several steroid hormones.
Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma, which is divided into a
peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.
• Fallopian tube extends from periphery of ovary to the uterus. The part closer to ovary is a funnel
shaped structure called infundibulum having finger like projection called fimbriae.
• Infundibulum leads to ampulla and join with uterus with isthmus. Uterus is pear shaped structure also
called womb.
• Uterus open vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of cervix (cervical canal) along with vagina
forms the birth canal.

• Ovaries are the primary female sex organ that produces the female gamete and several steroid
hormones. Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma, which is
divided into a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.

❖ DUCT SYSTEM
• Fallopian tube extends from the periphery of the ovary to the uterus. The part closer to the ovary is a
funnel-shaped structure called infundibulum with a finger-like projection called fimbriae.
• Infundibulum leads to ampulla and joins with uterus with the isthmus. The uterus is pear-shaped
structure also called womb.
❖ UTERUS is a single, hollow, muscular pea-shaped structure supported by ligament and attached to the
pelvic wall. Uterus is present between the urinary bladder and rectum. It open vagina through a
narrow cervix. The cavity of the cervix (cervical canal) along with the vagina forms the birth canal.
❖ THE WALL OF THE UTERUS HAS THREE LAYERS OF TISSUE:
I. Perimetrium- external membrane.
II. Myometrium – a middle thick layer of smooth muscles which exhibit strong contraction during delivery
of baby.
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III. Endometrium – line the uterine wall and undergo cyclic changes during menstrual cycle.

❖ EXTERNAL GENITELIA(VULVA)
1. Mons pubis – a cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin
and pubic hair.
2. Labia majora- fleshy fold that surrounds the vaginal
opening(boundary of vulva) Homologous to scrotum.
3. Labia manora – paired fold of tissue under labia majora.
4. Clitoris- homologus to glans tissue. Contains erectile
tissue.
5. Hymen – it is a mucous membrane that covers the
vaginal opening either partially or entirely.
• The opening of the vagina is often partially covered by a
membrane called hymen. The tiny finger-like projection
present at the upper junction of two labia manora above
the urethral opening is called clitoris.

ACCESSORY GLAND-
• Mammary glands are paired structures that contain glandular tissues and variable fats.
• Each glandular tissue contains 15-20 mammary lobes containing alveoli that secrete milk.
• Alveoli open into mammary tubules.
• The mammary tubules of each lobe open into the mammary duct.
• Mammary ducts join to form the mammary ampulla. Ampula is connected to the lactiferous duct just
before the nipple through which milk is released.

MAMMARY GLANDS are paired

structures that contain glandular tissues
and variable fats. Each glandular tissue
contains 15-20 mammary lobes containing
alveoli that secrete milk. Mammary ducts
join to form mammary ampulla.

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MAmmary
Alveoli Mammary Mammary ampillae Lactiferous Open in
tubules duct (lactiferous duct nipple
sinuses)

GAMETOGENESIS: The process of formation of male and female gametes in testes and ovary respectively is
called gametogenesis. It is of two types:
1. Spermatogenesis in males
2. Oogenesis in females

GAMETOGENESIS IN HUMAN MALE - SPERMATOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis- in testes immature, male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperm by

spermatogenesis that begin at puberty.
• The spermatogonia present at the inner side of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic
division and increase in number. Each spermatogonium contain 46 chromosomes.
• Spermatogonia forms spermatocyte that undergo meiotic division to reproduce secondary
spermatocytes having 23 chromosomes.
• The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa by the process called spermiogenesis.
• The sperm heads remain embedded in Sertoli cells and are released from seminiferous tubules
by the process of spermiation.
S.no. Leydig cells Sertoli cells
1 Interstitial cells found in small groups and Nurse cells or supporting cells .
round shape. Occur single and elongated.
2 Present in between the seminiferous Present5 between the germinal epithelial
tubules. cells of seminiferous tubules.
3 • Function- Secretes androgens- • Function- nourishment of developing
Testosterone. spermatozoa.
• sperm production or spermatogenesis. • Produce ABP-Androgen Binding Protein
• controlling sexual development • INHIBIN- suppress FSH in negative
• maintaining secondary sexual feedback.
characteristics and behaviors.

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Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

• Spermatogenesis initiated due to increase in secretion of gonadotropin releasing
hormone by hypothalamus.
• Increase in GnRH act on anterior pituitary and stimulate secretion of two
gonadotropins, LH and FSH.
• LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates them to secrete androgens
• FSH acts on Sertoli cells, stimulates secretion of some factors which help in
spermiogenesis.

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STRUCTURE OF SPERM-
• sperm is a microscopic structure composed
of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail.
• The sperm head contain elongated haploid
nucleus, anterior portion of which is
covered by cap like structure acrosome.
• Mitochondria provide energy.
• Tail helps in motility of sperms.
• Human male ejaculates about 200-300
million sperms during a coitus. The seminal
plasma along with the sperms constitutes
the semen. The function of male sex
secondary ducts and glands are maintained
by androgen hormones.

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GAMETOGENESIS IN FEMALES
❖ OOGENESIS : The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis. It
started during embryonic development stage when millions of oogonia (gamete mother
cells) are formed in each fetal ovary.
• The gametes mother cells start division and enter into prophase-I of meiotic division
and get temporally arrested at that stage called primary oocytes.
• Each primary oocyte get surrounded by a layer of granulosa cell than it is called
the primary follicle.
• At puberty, about 60,000- 80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
• Primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells called secondary
follicle that transform into tertiary follicle that contain fluid filled cavity called antrum.
• The tertiary follicles further changes into the mature follicle called Graafian follicle,
which rapture to release secondary oocytes (ovum) from the ovary by the process of
ovulation.

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THE PROCESS OF OOGENESIS CONSISTS OF THREE PHASES-

(a) Multiplication phase: Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a
couple of million gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each foetal ovary. No more
oogonia are formed and added after birth. These cells start division and enter into prophase-I of
the meiotic division. They get
temporarily arrested at this stage
and are called primary oocytes.

(b) Growth phase: Each primary

oocyte then gets surrounded by a
layer of granulosa cells.This
structure is called the primary
follicle. A large number of these
follicles degenerate during the
phase from birth to puberty. At
puberty, only 60,000 to 80,000
primary follicles are left in each
ovary. The primary follicles get
surrounded by more layers of
granulosa cells and a new theca to
form secondary follicles.

(c) Maturation Phase : Secondary

follicle soon transforms into a
tertiary follicle. The primary oocyte
grows inside the tertiary follicle and
completes its first meiotic division
to form a large, haploid, secondary
oocyte and a tiny first polar body.
The tertiary follicle changes into a
mature follicle-the Graafian follicle-
which ruptures to release the
secondary oocyte (ovum) from the
ovary by a process called ovulation.
The maturation phase occurs after
fertilisation when the meiotic
division of the secondary oocyte is
complete. This second meiotic
division results in the formation of a
second polar body and a haploid
ovum (ootid).

In case of fertilization No fertilization

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OOGENESIS AND

SPERMATOGENESIS

S.NO. OOGENESIS SPERMATOGENESIS

1. It occurs in ovaries. It occurs in the testis
2. Oogonia change to primary oocytes. Spermatogonia change to primary spermatocytes.
3. A primary oocyte divides to form one A primary spermatocyte divides to form two
secondary oocyte and one polar body. secondary spermatocyte.
4. A secondary oocyte divides to form one A secondary spermatocyte divides to from two
ootid and one polar body spermatids.
5. Polar bodies are formed. No polar body is formed.
6. An oogonium forms one ovum. A spermatogonium forms four spermatozoa.
7. Ova are much larger often with yolk and it is Sperms are minute and yolkless and motile.
non motile.
8. It is often completed in the female It is generally completed in the testes and thus
reproductive tract or in many animals in mature sperms are released from the testis.
water because oocytes are released from
the ovaries.

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MENSTRUAL CYCLE:
The reproductive cycles in female primates is called menstrual cycle. It start at puberty and is
called menarche.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle consists of following four phases:
(1) Menstrual Phase:
(i) In a 28 days menstrual cycle,the menses takes place on cycle days 3-5.
(ii) The production of LH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is reduced.
(iii) The withdrawal of this hormone causes degeneration of the corpus luteum and, therefore progestrone
production is reduced.
(iv) Production of oestrogen is also reduced in this phase.
(v) The endometrium of uterus breaks down & menstruation begins.
(vi) The cells of endometrium secretions, blood & unfertilised ovum constitutes the menstrual flow.
(2) Follicular Phase:
(i) This phase usually includes cycle days 6-13 or 14 in a 28 days cycle.
(ii) The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland stimulates
the ovarian follicle to secrete oestrogens.
(iii) Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium of the uterine wall.
(iv) The endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication and this is accompanied by an increase
in uterine glands & blood vessels.

(3) Ovulatory Phase:

(i) Both LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14th day).
(ii) Oestrogen concentration in blood increases.
(iii) Rapid secretion of LH induces rupturing of graffian follicle and thereby the release of ovum.
(iv) In fact LH causes ovulation.
(4) Luteal Phase:
(i) Includes cycle days 15 to 28.
(ii) Corpus luteum secretes progestrone.
(iii) Endometrium thickens.
(iv) Uterine glands become secretory.
Hormonal Control of MC
(i) FSH stimulates the ovarian follicles to produce oestrogens.
(ii) LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progestrone.
(iii) Menstrual phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.
(iv) LH causes ovulation
(v) Proliferative phase is caused by the increased production of oestrogens.
(vi) Secretory phase is caused by increased production of progestrone.

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FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION

The process of fusion of sperm with ovum is called fertilization.
• During coitus (copulation) semen is
released into vagina. The motile
sperms swim rapidly to reach the
junction of isthmus and ampulla of
fallopian tube. The ovum also
reaches there and fusion of gametes
takes place in at ampullary-isthmic
junction.
• In this acrosome of sperm
undergoes acrosomal reaction and
releases certain sperm lysins which
dissolve the egg envelopes locally
and make the path for the
penetration of sperm.
• These sperm lysins contain a lysing
enzyme hyaluronidase which
dissolves the hyaluronic acid
polymers in the intercellular spaces which holds the granulosa cells of corona radiata
together; corona penetrating enzyme (that dissolves the corona radiata) and acrosin
(which dissolves the zona pellucida). Then it dissolves the zona pellucida.

Cortical reaction:
➢ Immediately after the entry of a sperm into the egg, the later shows a cortical reaction
to check the entry of more sperms.
➢ In this reaction, the cortical granules present beneath the egg’s plasma membrane
release chemical substance between the ooplasm and the plasma membrane (vitelline
membrane).
➢ These substances raise the vitelline membrane above the egg surface. The elevated
vitelline membrane is called fertilization membrane.
➢ The increased space between the ooplasm and the fertilization membrane and the
chemical present in it effectively check the entry of other sperm.
➢ If polyspermy occurs, that is more than one sperm enter the secondary oocyte, the
resulting cell has too much genetic material to develop normally
➢ The haploid gametes fuse together to form diploid zygote. As the zygote moves towards
the uterus, the mitotic division starts and form cleavage to change into 2, 4,8,16 celled
blastomeres.
➢ The blastomeres with 8 to 16 cells are called morula. Morula divide to change into
blastocysts .The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer
called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner
cell mass.The outer layer of blastocyst is called trophoblast that attach with
endometrium of uterus, called implantation that leads to pregnancy.

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FLOW CHARTS SHOWING THE STEPS OF FERTILISATION

Movement of sperms towards the secondary oocyte.

AF-F Reaction

Adherence of sperm to the ZP3 receptors on zona pellucida, the glycoprotein layer surrounding the
oocyte

Sperm bind to a sperm receptor on the zona & leads to initiation of acrosomal reaction. Eg.
Hyaluronidase, Acrosin (Zona lysin) are released

Acrosin facilitate the penetration of sperm through zona pellucida.

Structural changes in ZP through cortical reaction & discharge of cortical granules in perivitelline
space form fertilization membrane.

In the event of fertilization , complete sperm enters inside the ovum

Completion of meiosis-II of secondary oocyte during phagocytosis to form ovum and simultaneously
it releases 2nd polar body.

Followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy and amphimixis i.e. completion of fertilization .

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PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

The finger-like projections on trophoblast after implantation called is called chronic
villi that along with uterine wall forms functional unit between developing embryo and
maternal body called placenta. Placenta is attached with fetus with an umbilical cord that
transport food and oxygen to embryo.
• Hormones hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), hPL (human placental lactogen)
and relaxin are produced in woman only during pregnancy by placenta.
• After implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer
called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears
between the ectoderm and the endoderm. These three layers give rise to all tissues
(organs) in adults. It is important to note that the inner cell mass contains certain
cells called stem cells which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs
• In human, after one month of pregnancy the embryo’s heart is formed. By the end of
2nd month limbs and digits are formed. By the end of 12 months, major organs and
external genital organs are well developed. The first movement of foetus is observed
in 5 months. By the end of 24 weeks body is covered with fine hair, eye lids and
eyeless are formed. At the end of 9 months fetus is fully developed.

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PARTURITION AND LACTATION

Parturition-the process of delivery of fully developed foetus is called parturition.
• Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed fetus and placenta inducing mild uterine
contractions called Foetal ejection reflex.
• It triggers the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary.
• The mammary glands of female, start producing milk, to the end of pregnancy by the process
of lactation.
• The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum, which contain several
antibodies.

Lactation-
1. Secretion & release of milk from mammary gland
2. Helps mother in feeding the new born
3. Milk secretion/ production – prolactin, hPL
4. Milk ejection- oxytocin
• Female mammary glands undergo differentiation during pregnancy & starts producing milk towards
end of pregnancy
• Prolactin from maternal anterior pituitary increases from 5th week of pregnancy until birth of fetus
(10-20 times the normal non-pregnant levels)

Milk ejection reflex –

When baby suckles mother’s nipple, sensory impulses from nipples to mothers spinal cord

then to mothers Hypothalamus,

mothers posterior pituitary release oxytocin

oxytocin carried through blood to breast

cause contraction of myoepithelial cells
expel milk

When baby is not suckling milk-

Milk has ‘ Inhibitory Peptide’

Inhibits milk production

• Colostrum is viscous, yellow colored milk produced during initial few days of lactation
• contains IgA antibodies (provides passive immunity to new born, essential to develop resistance for
new born) same proteins & lactose as milk, almost no fat
• Breast feeding during initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for bringing up a
healthy baby.

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