2 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
BLOCK 1: ELEMENTARY GROUP THEORY 1 UNIT : Fundamentals of Groups
Page No.

BLOCK 1.1A ( BLOCK I: Elementary Group Theory)

Fundamentals of Groups OBJECTIVES
Unit-1 1-15 UNIT-1: Fundamentals of Groups
Group Homomorphism UNIT-2: Group Homomorphism After studying this unit you will be able to:
Unit-2 16-25
Isomorphism and Automorphism Theorems UNIT-3: Isomorphism and Automorphism Theorems • define the binary operation and algebraic structures with examples;
Unit-3 26-43
Permutation groups UNIT-4: Permutation groups. • explain the concepts of group and their elementary properties;
Unit-4 44-57
• define the abelin group and their properties with an example;
BLOCK 1.1 B ( BLOCK II: Advance Group Theory)
• understanding fundamental properties of subgroups;
Class equation of finite groups 58-68
Unit-5
• distinguish between an order of a group and order of an element with exam-
Applications of Class equations 69-79 ples;
Unit-6

Unit-7 Sylow’s Theorems 80-92 • explain the concepts of cyclic group, normal subgroups, quotient group and
their propeties.
Applications of Sylow’s Theorem 93-103
Unit-8
• expalin the fundamnetal of permutation groups.

INTRODUCTION
BLOCK 1.1C (BLOCK III: Elementary Ring Theory)
The core of a first course in abstract algebra deals with groups, rings, and fields.
Fundamentals of Rings 104-113
Unit-9 The structure of a group is one of the simplest and important mathematical struc-
Ring Homomorphism and Isomorphism tures. They have found wide application in physical sciences and biological sci-
Unit-10 114-124 ences, especially in the study of crystal structure, configuration molecules and
Special Types of Ideals structures of human genes. In this block, we shall study the basic definitions and
Unit-11 125-135
terminologies along with their properties.
The Field of Quotients 136-145
Unit-12
PRELIMINARIES
BLOCK 1.1D ( BLOCK IV: Advance Ring Theory)
Euclidean rings Definition 1.1. Let S be a nonempty set. Then S × S ={(a, b) : a ∈ S, b ∈ S}. If
Unit-13 146-155
Classical Theorems on Euclidean rings the function f : S × S → S, then f is said to be binary operation on S. Thus
Unit-14 156-163
a binary operation on S is a function that assign each ordered pairs of elements
Polynomial rings 164-175
Unit-15
of S.
Unit-16 Polynomial over the rational field 176-185
The symbols +, ·, o, ∗, etc., are used to denote binary operations on a set. Thus

+ will be a binary operation on S if and only if a + b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S and a + b

iv
1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS
is unique. Similarly, ∗ will be a binary operation of S if and only if a ∗ b ∈ S for
all a, b ∈ S and a ∗ b is unique. This is said to be closure property of the binary
operation and the set S is said to be closed with respect to the binary operation.
Example 1.1. The addition (+) and multiplication (×) are binary operationson
the set N of natural numbers, for, the sum or product of two natural numbers
are also natural numbers. Therefore, N is closed with respect to addition and
multiplication i.e., a + b ∈ N for all a, b ∈ N and a × b ∈ N for all a, b ∈ N,
respectively.
Note 1.1. The subtraction is not a binary operation on N, for 3 − 8 = −5 ∈
/ N
whereas 3 ∈ N, 8 ∈ N. But subtraction is a binary operation on integer I (i.e.,
a number with no decimal or fractional part from the set of positive and negative
numbers, including zero).
Definition 1.2. A non-empty set G together with one or more binary operations
is called an algebraic structure. Suppose ∗ (or ◦) is a binary operation on given
set S. Then (S, ∗) is an algebraic structure.
Example 1.2. (N, +), (I, +), (I, −), (R, +, ·) are all algebraic structures, where
R is the set of real numbers.
Definition 1.3. A system (G, ∗), where G is a non-empty set and ∗ is a binary
operation on G is called a group, if it satisfies the following axioms:
(i) a ∗ b ∈ G for all a, b ∈ G (Closure Law).
(ii) a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c for all a, b, c ∈ G (Associative Law).
(iii) For each a ∈ G, there exist an elements e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a
(Existence of identity elements of G).
(iv) For each a ∈ G, there exist an elements a−1 ∈ G such that a ∗ a−1 = e =
a−1 ∗ a (Existence of inverese elements of G).
4 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS
Example 1.3. The set of integers I, rationals Q, real numbers R are groups under
addition, where as natural numbers N is not a group under addition. Further, Q
and R are groups under multiplication, where as I is not a group under multipli-
cation.
We now given some elementary properties of groups.
Note 1.2. In view of associativity, given three elements a, b, c in a group G, their
product abc is defined as abc = a(bc) = (ab)c. More generally, for a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈
G, by indiction, the product a1 a2 · · · an is well defined. In particular, for any
a ∈ G, n an integer, we get
(i) an = aa . . . a(n factors), for n > 0;
(ii) a0 = e.
(iii) an = (a−1 )m , if n = −m, m > 0.
Property 1.1. Let G be a group. Then
(i) Identity element of G is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has unique inverse in G.
(iii) For every a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) For every a, b ∈ G, (a · b)−1 = b−1 · a−1 .
Property 1.2. Let G be a group and a, b, c ∈ G. Then
(i) ab = ac implies b = c (Left cancellation law).
(ii) ba = ca implies b = c (Right cancellation law).
Definition 1.4. A group (G, ∗) (or, simply G) is said to be an abelian group
(or, a commutative group) if a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ G. A group is said to be
non-abelian if it is not abelian. Further, a group G is said to be finite or infinite
according as the number of elements in G, called an order of G, and denoted by
o(G), finite or infinite, respectively.
5 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 6
Example 1.4. The set of all m × n matrices with their elements as integers
(rational, real or complex numbers) is an infinite abelian group under addition of
matrices. Further, the set of all n × n non-singular matrices having their elements
as rational (real or complex numbers) is an infinite non-abelian group under matrix
multiplication.
Definition 1.5. The order of an elelment a of a group G is the least positive
integer m such that am = e, where e is an identity of G. We write o(a) = m.
If there does not exist any integer m such that am = e, then an element a is of
infinite order.
Example 1.5. In the multiplicative group G = {1, −1, i, −i} (i.e., forth root
unity), the o(1) = 1(∵ 11 = 1) , o(−1) = 2(∵ (−1)2 = 1), o(i) = 4(∵ (i2 )2 = 4)
and o(−i) = 4(∵ (−i)4 = 4).
Note 1.3. If the group operation is addition (+), then am means ma.
The following laws of exponents hold in a group G.
Property 1.3. Let G be a group. Then
(i) an am = an+m , for a ∈ G and m, n integers.
(ii) (an )m = anm , for a ∈ G and m, n integers.
(iii) (ab)n = an bn , for a, b ∈ G and n integers, provided ab = ba.
Note 1.4. We say that a, b ∈ G commute if ab = ba. The integral powers of an
element in G always commute with each other. For an am = an+m = am+n = am an ,
for any integers m, n.
In view of above properties, we have
Property 1.4. Let G be a group with a, b ∈ G. Then G is abelian, provided;
(i) if every element of G has its own inverse, or equivalently a2 = e.
1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS
2 2 2
(ii) if (ab) = a b .
Note 1.5. Let G be a finite group containing even number of elements. Then
there exists an element a ∈ G, a ̸= e such that a2 = e(i.e., a = a−1 ). Further, odd
number of such elements exist. (This fact follow as a consequence of Lagrange’s
theorem and Sylow theorems, which will be discussed later)
Definition 1.6. A group G is said to be cyclic group generated by a ∈ G if
every element of G is an integral power a. A cyclic group generated by a ∈ G is
denoted by ⟨a⟩. Therefore G = ⟨a⟩ = {an /n ∈ Z}.
Example 1.6.
1. The additive group of integers (Z, +) is a cyclic group generated by 1.
2. The group G = {2n /n ∈ Z} is a cyclic group with 2 as a generator, we know
 −n
1 1
that 2n = , where n ∈ Z. Therefore is also a generator.
2 2
Note 1.6. Every cyclic group is an abelian group. But every abelian group is not
cyclic group.
Definition 1.7. Let G be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G. Then H is
said to be a subgroup of G if and only if H is agroup under the group operation
G. In any group G with an identity e, the set {e} and G are subgroups of G, called
trivial subgroups. The non-trivial subgroups are called proper subgroups.
The following properties of subgroup of a group holds.
Property 1.5. A non-empty subst H is a subgroup of G if and only if
(i) a, b ∈ H ⇒ ab−1 ∈ H (i.e., a, b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H and b−1 = b ).
(ii) H −1 = H and H 2 = H.
Property 1.6. Let H and K be any two subgroups of a group G. Then
7 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS
(i) HK is a subgroup of G if and only if HK = KH.
(ii) (HK)−1 = H −1 K −1 .
Note 1.7.
(i) Every sugbroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
(ii) Every proper subgroup of an infinite cyclic group is infinite.
Definition 1.8. Let H be any subgroup of a group G and a be any element of G.
The the set, Ha = {ha : h ∈ H} is called a right coset of H in G generated by
a and the set aH = {ah : h ∈ H} is called a left coset of H in G generated by a
with respect to multiplicative binary operation.
Similarly, H +a = {h+a : h ∈ H} is a right coset and a+H = {a+h : h ∈ H}
is a left coset of H with respect to additive binary operation.
Note 1.8.
(i) The cosets are also known as residue classes modulo the subroup.
(ii) If e is an identity element of G, then He = H = eH. Hence H itself is a
right as well as left coset. Since ea ∈ Ha, we have a ∈ Ha and therefore
Ha ̸= ∅. Therefore no coset can be empty.
(iii) If a, b are any two elements of a group G and H is a subgroup of G, then
1. Ha = H ⇔ a ∈ H.
2. Ha = Hb ⇔ ab−1 ∈ H and aH = Ha ⇔ a−1 b ∈ H (for multiplicative
binary operation).
3. H + a = H + b ⇔ a − b and a + H = b + H ⇔ b − a ∈ H (for additive
binary operation).
(iv) Any two left (or right) cosets of a subgroup have the same number of ele-
ments.
Definition 1.9. The number of distinct left cosets of a subgroup H of a group G
is equal to the number of distinct right cosets of H in G. The number of distinct
cosets (left or right) of a subgroup H in a group G is called an index of a
subgroup H of a group G and is denoted by [G : H] or IG (H) or simply i(H).
8 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 9
Theorem 1.1. (Lagrange) Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Then the
order of H divides the order of G.
Proof. Since G is a finite group, the number of left cosets of H in G is finite.
Denote the distinct left cosets of H by a1 (H) = H, a2 (H) = H, . . . , ak (H) = H.
Since the group G is the union of all left cosets of H in G. We have G = a1 (H) ∪
a2 (H)∪. . . , ∪ak (H) and the cosets ai (H) are mutually disjoint. Also, since any two
left cosets of H in G have the same cardinality and H itself is a left coset, it follows
that every left coset contains o(H) number of elements. Thus o(G) = k.o(H) and
sothe order of H divides the order of G.
Corollary 1.1. Let G be a finite group and let a ∈ G. The o(a) is a divisor of
o(G). Consequently ao(a) = e, we have ao(G) = e.
Proof. The order of the cyclic subgroup ⟨a⟩ generated by a is equal to o(a) and
so by Lagrange’s theorem, o(a) divides o(G). Since ao(G) = e.
Corollary 1.2. A group G of prime order is cyclic and any non-trivial element
of G is a generator for G.
Proof. Let G be a group of order p, where p is a prime. If a ∈ G, a ̸= e, then o(a)
divides p by above corollory. Since p is prime and a ̸= e and o(G) = p. Hence
G = ⟨a⟩, i.e., G is cyclic.
Definition 1.10. A subgroup N of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if
for every g ∈ G and n ∈ N , gng −1 ∈ N .
From this definition, we can immediately conclude that the subgroup N is a
normal subgroup of a group G if and only if gN g −1 = N ∀ g ∈ G. The normal
subgroup N of a group G is denoted as N △ G.
Note 1.9.
1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 10 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 11 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 12

−1
(i) We have g ∈ G ⇒ g ∈ G. Therefore, N is a normal subgroup of G if and Proof. Let N be a normal subgroup of G. Then Therefore the product of two right cosets is again a right coset. Conversely, sup-
only if g −1 n(g −1 )−1 , i.e., g −1 ng ∈ N ∀ g ∈ G and n ∈ N .
pose N aN b = N ab ∀ a, b ∈ G,
(ii) Note that, the identity subgroup {e} and G itself are normal subgroup of G. gN g −1 = N f orall g ∈ G

(gN g −1 )g = N g f orall g ∈ G (N aN b)(ab)−1 = (N ab)(ab)−1

Lemma 1.1. The normal subgroup N of a group G if and only if gN g −1 = N for

every g ∈ G, where gN g −1 = {gng −1 : g ∈ G, n ∈ N }. gN = N g f orall g ∈ G. (N aN a)b−1 a−1 = N

Proof. Let gN g −1 = N ∀ g ∈ G, where gN g −1 ⊂ N for all g ∈ G. Then by Therefore (n1 an2 b)b−1 a−1 ∈ N .
Therefore, each left coset gN is the right coset N g in G. Conversely, suppose
the definition of normal subgroup, we have N is a normal subgroup of a group G. Since, N aN b = {(n1 a)(n2 b) : n1 a ∈ N a, n2 b ∈ N b}. Hence
that left coset gN is the right coset N g in G. Let g be any element of G then
Conversely, let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. Then
gN = N g ′ for some g ′ ∈ G. Since e ∈ N and ge = g ∈ gN . Therefore g ∈ N g 1
n1 an2 a−1 ∈ N
[∵ N g 1 = gN ], but g ∈ N g 1 ⇒ N g = N g 1 . Hence N g = gN [∴ N g 1 = gN ]. Thus
gN g −1 ⊂ N f orall g ∈ G −→ (1)
an2 a−1 ∈ n−1
1 N = N

gN = N g ∀ g ∈ G an2 a−1 ∈ N [∵ n11 ∈ N ].

and also g ∈ G ⇒ g −1 ∈ G.
gN g −1 = N gg −1 ∀ g ∈ G
Therefore, we have
Therefore N is a normal subgroup of a group G.
gN g −1 = N ∀ g ∈ G.

g −1 N (g −1 )−1 ⊂ N f orall g ∈ G Note 1.10. Let G be a group and N be a normal subgroup of G. We know that
∴ N is a normal subgroup of a group G if and only if gN = N g ∀ g ∈ G.
g −1 N g ⊂ N f orall g ∈ G N a = aN f orall a ∈ G, i.e., the right and left cosets of N determined by any

−1
g(g N g)g −1
⊂ gN g −1
f orall g ∈ G Lemma 1.3. A subgroup N of G is a normal subgroup of G if and only if the a ∈ G are equal. So there is no need to distinguish between left and right cosets of

product of two right cosets of N in G. a normal subgroup N . We shall say that N a is a coset of N . Let G/N denote the
N ⊂ gN g −1 f orall g ∈ G −→ (2).
set of all cosets of N in G.
Proof. Let N be a normal subgroup of G, then N a and N b are two right cosets of
From equations (1) and (2), we have gN g −1 = N f orall g ∈ G.
N in G. We have Theorem 1.2. If G is a group and N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then the

Lemma 1.2. The subgroup N is a normal subgroup of a group G if and only if set G/N = {N a/a ∈ G} of cosets is a group under the multiplication of cosets.

every left coset of N in G is a right coset of N in G. (N a)(N b) = N (aN )b

Proof. Let G be a group and N be a normal subgroup of a group G. If G/N =
= N (N a)b [∵ N a = aN ∀ a ∈ G]
{N a/a ∈ G}, then N aN b = N ab.
= N N ab Here, the closure property is obvious as a, b ∈ G implies ab ∈ G and hence
(N a)(N b) = N ab [∵ N is a subgroup of G ⇒ N N = N ] N ab ∈ G/N .
1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 13 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 14 1. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUPS 15

(N a)(N bN c) = N a(N bc) = N a(bc) = N (ab)c = N abN c = (N aN b)N c. So, factor group along with basic properties and examples. Also, the significance of 4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
Lagrange’s theorem and its converese are revealed.
associative property holds. 5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
KEYWORDS putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
For the identity element e ∈ G, we have N e or N in G/N satisfying N aN e =
Algebraic structures, Group, Abelian group, Cyclic group, Subgroup, Normal sub- 6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
N ae = N a. Similarly, N eN a = N a. Wesley Longman, 2002.
group, Quotient group.
−1
Therefore, there exists N a in G/N , such that
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS & Sons, 2003.
N aN a−1 = N N aa−1 [∵ aN = N a] 1. Show that intersection of two subgroups of G is a subgroup of a group G. 8. J. A. Gallian: Contemporary Abstract algebra, 9th Edition, Narosa Pub-
lishing House. 2008.
= N e, the identity of G/N. 2. Show that a subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

3. Let H and K are two subgroup of a group G. Then show that HK is a

subgroup of G if and only if HK = KH.
Therefore N a−1 is the inverse of N a. Hence G/N is a group.
4. Let H and K are two finite subgroup of a group G. Then show that
Definition 1.11. If G is a group and N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then
o(H)o(K)
the set G/N of all cosets of N in G is a subgroup with respect to multiplication of o(HK) = .
o(H ∩ K)
cosets. It is called the Quotient group or Factor group of G by N .
5. Explain the converse of Lagrange’s theorem with suitable example.
The identity element of the quotient group G/N is N .
6. Show that that a subgroup of index 2 in a group G is a normal subgroup of
Note 1.11. a group G.

o(G) 7. Show that intersection of two normal subgroups of G is a subgroup of G.

(i) o(G/N ) = iN (G) = [N : G] = .
o(N )
8. Show that every subgroup of an abelian group is normal. Justify the converse
(ii) Every quotient group of an abelian group is abelian (but the converese is with suitable example.
not true). [Hint: Consider Quaternion group (i.e., the quaternions are a number sys-
(iii) Every quotient group of a cyclic group is cyclic (but the converese is not tem in the form a + bi + cj + dk. The quaternions 1, i, j, k form a non-abelian
true). group of order eight called quaternion group and is denoted by Q8 ). It is
also known as a Hamiltonian quaternions.]

SUMMARY
REFERENCES
Group theory is the study of groups. Groups are sets equipped with an binary
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
composition (like addition, multiplication) that satisfies certain basic axoims. As
the building blocks of abstract algebra, groups are so general and fundamental 2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
that they arise in nearly every branch of mathematics and the sciences. This Publishing House, 2021.
unit occupy a very essential and fundamental aspect of groups, subgroups, cyclic
group, nornmal subgroup (very special class of subgroups), quotient group or 3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
 16 2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 17 2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 18

2 UNIT : Group Homomorphism Types of homomorphism: A homomorphism ϕ : G → G is said to be a/an +

4. Let G = (R , ·) and (R, +). Define ϕ : G → G by ϕ(x) = log10 x, ∀ x ∈ G.

Then ϕ(xy) = log10 xy = log10 x+log10 y = ϕ(x)+ϕ(y), ∀ x, y ∈ G. Therefore

(i) Monomorphism if it is one - one function.
ϕ is a homomorphism. The kernel of homomorphism ϕ is Kφ = {x ∈ G |
OBJECTIVES
(ii) Epimorphism if it is onto function. ϕ(x) = 0} = {x ∈ G | log10 1 = 0} = {1}.
After studying this unit you will be able to:
(iii) Isomorphism if ϕ is both one-one and onto function. Two groups G and 5. Let G = (Z, +) and G = (Z, (+)n ). Define ϕ : G → G by ϕ(a) = r, where r
• identify whether a function between groups is a homomorphism or not; G are said to be “isomorphism”, if there exists an isomorphism ϕ : G → G, is the remainder obtained when a is divided by n.
and is denoted by G ≡ G.
• explain the concepts of kernel and image of any homomorphism; Let a and b be any two integers such that a ≡ r1 (modn) and b ≡ r2 (modn).

(iv) Endomorphism if G = G. Then ϕ(a) = r1 and ϕ(b) = r2 . Therefore, ϕ(a) + ϕ(b) = r3 −→ (1)
• illustrate with examples of kernel and image of any homomorphism;

(v) Automorphism if ϕ is both one-one and onto with G = G. Since a + b ≡ r1 + r2 (modn) ≡ r3 (modn), we have
• describe the different types of homomorphism;
ϕ(a + b) = r3 −→ (2)
Definition 2.2. Let ϕ be a homomorphism of G into G. Then the kernel of ϕ is
• explain the different types of homomorphism with suitable examples.
defined by Kerϕ = Kφ = {x ∈ G : ϕ(x) = e, the identity of G}. From equations (1) and (2), we have ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b). Therefore ϕ is
• state, prove and apply the Fundamental theorem of homomorphism for a homomorphism. The kernel of homomorphism ϕ is Kφ = {a ∈ G : ϕ(a) =
Example 2.1.
groups; 0} = {a ∈ G : a = nk, K ∈ Z} = nZ.
1. Let G be a group and G = G. Define ϕ : G → G by ϕ(x) = e for all x ∈ G.
• extend the concepts of Fundamental theorem of homomorphism for groups Note 2.1. In the above examples, the homomorprism, in (2), (3), (4) are all
Then ϕ(xy) = e = e.e = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) ∀ x ∈ G. Therefore, ϕ is a homomorphism.
in other algebraic structures. isomorphism, the homomorphism, in (1) and (5) are not isomorphism.
The kernel of homomorphism ϕ is Kφ = {x ∈ G | ϕ(x) = e} = G.
Definition 2.3. If ϕ is a homomorphism of G into G, then the image of ϕ is
2. Let G be a group and G = G. Define ϕ : G → G by ϕ(x) = x ∀ x ∈ G. denoted by Im(ϕ) is defined by
INTRODUCTION
Then ϕ(xy) = xy = ϕ(x)ϕ(y), ∀ x, y ∈ G. Therefore, ϕ is a homomorphism.
The group homomorphism deals with functions from one group to another group. Im(ϕ) = {y ∈ G/y = ϕ(x), x ∈ G}
The kernel of homomorphism ϕ is Kφ = {x ∈ G : ϕ(x) = e} = {x ∈ G : x =
The various properties of these functions between the groups, which preserve the = {ϕ(x)/x ∈ G}
e} = {e}.
algebraic structures of their domain groups. These fuctions are called group ho-
3. Let G = (R, +) and G = (R−{0}, ·). Define ϕ : G → G by ϕ(x) = 2x ∀x ∈ G, Property 2.1. Let ϕ be a homomorphism of G into G. Then
momorphisms. The term homomorphism was initiated by Klein in 1893.
then ϕ(x + y) = 2x+y = 2x 2y = ϕ(x)ϕ(y), ∀ x, y ∈ G. Therefore, ϕ is a
Definition 2.1. Homomorphism : Let (G, o) and (G, ∗) be two groups. A (i) ϕ(e) = e, the identity element of G.
homomorphism. The kernel of homomorphism ϕ is Kφ = {x ∈ G : ϕ(x) =
mapping ϕ : G → G is said to be homomorphism if ϕ(aob) = ϕ(a)∗ϕ(b), ∀ a, b ∈
1} = {x ∈ G : 2x = 1} = {0}. (ii) ϕ(x−1 ) = [ϕ(x)]−1 , f or all x ∈ G.
G or simply, ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b), ∀ a, b ∈ G
2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 19
Proof.
(i) For any a ∈ G, we have ϕ(a)e = ϕ(a) = ϕ(ae) = ϕ(a)ϕ(e). Therefore, by
the cancellation law in G, we have ϕ(e) = e.
(ii) For x ∈ G, ϕ(x)[ϕ(x)]−1 = e = ϕ(e) = ϕ(xx) = ϕ(x)ϕ(x). Again, by the
cancellation law in G, we have ϕ(x−1 ) = [ϕ(x)]−1 .
Property 2.2. Let ϕ be a homomorphism of a group G into G. Then Im(ϕ) is a
subgroup of G.
Proof. Let x, y ∈ G and ϕ(x), ϕ(y) ∈ G. Then Im(ϕ) = {ϕ(x) : x ∈ G} = {x ∈
G : x = ϕ(x), x ∈ G}. Similarly, Im(ϕ) = {ϕ(y)/y ∈ G} = {y/y = ϕ(y), y ∈ G}.
−1 −1
Therefore, ϕ(xy ) = e, where e is an identity of G. Therefore ϕ(x).ϕ(y ) = e
implies ϕ(y) = [ϕ(x)]−1 . Therefore an inverse exist. Since ϕ(x), ϕ(y) ∈ G. Hence
−1
ϕ(xy ) = ϕ(x).ϕ(y) ∈ G. Thus Im(ϕ) is a subgroup of G.
Lemma 2.1. Suppose G is a group and N is a normal subgroup of G. Define the
mapping ϕ from G to G/N by ϕ(x) = N x ∀ x ∈ G. then ϕ is a homomorphism
of G onto G/N . In otherwords, let G be a group and N , a normal subgroup of G.
Then G/N is a homomorphic image of G.
Proof. Consider the mapping ϕ : G → G/N , defined by ϕ(x) = N x ∀ x ∈ G. Let
N x ∈ G/N . Then x ∈ G, we have ϕ(x) = N x. Therefore ϕ is onto G/N .
Let x, y ∈ G. Then ϕ(xy) = N xy = N xN y = ϕ(x)ϕ(y). Therefore ϕ is
homomorphism.
Lemma 2.2. If ϕ : G → G is a homomorphism with kernel K, then K is a normal
subgroup of a group G.
Proof. If x, y ∈ K, then ϕ(x) = e, where e is an identity element of G. Therefore
ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) = e.e = e (i.e., xy ∈ K). Also, if x ∈ K, then ϕ(x) = e, and so
ϕ(x−1 ) = [ϕ(x)]−1 = (e)−1 = e. Hence x−1 ∈ K. Therefore K is a subgroup of G.
2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 20 2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 21
−1
To prove the normality of K, we have to show that gkg = e, whenever for a homomorphism ϕ of a group G into a group G with kernel K to be an
ϕ(k) = e and k ∈ K. We consider, isomorphism on G into G is that K = {e}.
Proof. Let ϕ : G → G be a homomorphism with kernel K, and e, e be the identities
ϕ(gkg −1 ) = ϕ(g)ϕ(k)ϕ(g −1 )
of G, G, respectively.
−1
= ϕ(g)e[ϕ(g)] , by the properties of image of homomorphism.
Suppose ϕ is an isomorphism of G into G. Then ϕ is one-one. Let x ∈ K. Then
= ϕ(g)[ϕ(G)]−1
ϕ(x) = e =⇒ ϕ(x) = ϕ(e)[∵ ϕ(e) = e] =⇒ x = e. Thus x ∈ K =⇒ x = e.
ϕ(gkg −1 ) = e. In otherwords, an identity e is the only element of G which belongs to K.
Therefore K = {e}.
−1
This shows that gkg ∈ K and hence K is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely, suppose that K = {e}. Then to prove that ϕ is an isomorphism of
Note 2.2. We call ϕ−1 is the inverse map to ϕ. G into G, i.e., to prove that ϕ is one-one.
If x, y ∈ G, then ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Therefore ϕ(x)[ϕ(y)]−1 = e =⇒ ϕ(x)ϕ(y −1 ) =
Lemma 2.3. If ϕ is a homomorphism of G onto G with kernel K then the set of
e =⇒ ϕ(xy −1 ) = e. Thus xy −1 ∈ K. Also, xy −1 = e because k = {e} =⇒
all inverse images g ∈ G under ϕ in G is given by Kx, where x is any particular
xy −1 y = ey =⇒ x = y. Therefore ϕ is one-one. Hence ϕ is an isomorphism of G
inverse image of g in G.
into G.
Proof. Let g ∈ G and ϕ(g) = g ∈ G with e, e be an identities of G and G,
Prove our next results, we make use of the following note.
respectively. If {ϕ−1 (g)} = {x ∈ G : ϕ(x) = g}, then to prove that {ϕ−1 (g)} = Kx
−1 −1
whenever x ∈ ϕ (g). The result is obvious, when g = e, because {ϕ (e)} = Note 2.3. If a, b are any two element of G and H be any subgroup of G, then
Ke = K. a ∈ Hb =⇒ Ha = Hb and a ∈ bH =⇒ aH = bH.
Suppose g ̸= e and x ∈ ϕ−1 (g). We now verify that ϕ−1 (g) = Kx.
Fundamental Tuheorem of Homomorphism (FTH) for groups:
For, let y ∈ Kx so that y = kx for k ∈ K implies ϕ(k) = e. Then ϕ(y) =
−1
ϕ(kx) = ϕ(k)ϕ(x) = eϕ(x) = eg = g. Therefore, y ∈ ϕ (g). Hence y ∈ Kx Theorem 2.1. Let ϕ be a homomorphism of G onto G with kernel K. Then G/K
implies y ∈ ϕ−1 (g). Thus Kx ⊆ ϕ−1 (g). is isomorphic with G ( i. e., G/K ≈ G).
On the otherhand, if z ∈ ϕ−1 (g), then ϕ(z) = g. Therefore ϕ(z) = g = ϕ(x) or
Proof. Define ψ : G/K → G by ψ(Kg) = ϕ(g), f or all Kg ∈ G/K.
ϕ(z) = ϕ(x) implies ϕ(z)[ϕ(x)]−1 = e (i.e., ϕ(z)[ϕ(x−1 )] = e). Thus ϕ(zx−1 ) = e.
First, let Ka = Kb for some Ka and Kb in G/K. Then a = kb for some k ∈ K.
Therefore zx−1 ∈ K or z ∈ Kx. Also z ∈ ϕ−1 (g) implies z ∈ Kx. Thus ϕ−1 (g) ⊆
Kx. Hence {ϕ−1 (g)} = Kx, where x ∈ ϕ−1 (g). Thus the result follows.
Corollary 2.1. A homomorphism of ϕ : G → G with kernel K is an isomorphism
if and only if kerϕ = {e}. In otherwords, the necessary and sufficient condition
2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 22 2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 23 2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 24

n n
Therefore G/K ≈ G. 1. If ϕ : G → G is a homomorphism, then show that ϕ(x ) = [ϕ(x)] , where n

is an integer.
Note 2.4. In this above theorem, we may take ϕ(G), the homomorphic image of
ϕ(a) = ϕ(kb)
G, for G. That is every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some Z Z
2. Find all the homomorphisms from to .
= ϕ(k)ϕ(b) 4Z 6Z
quotient group of G. In otherwords, if ϕ : G → G is a homomorphism, then
= eϕ(b) {∵ k ∈ K, the kernel of ϕ} 3. Let ϕ : G → G be a homomorphism. Let x ∈ G be such that o(x) = n
G/Kerϕ ≈ Im(ϕ).
= ϕ(b) and o(ϕ(x)) = m. Show taht o(ϕ(x))|o(x) and ϕ is one to one if and only if
Corollary 2.2. If ϕ : G → G is an epimorphism, then G/Kerϕ ≈ G.
ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) m = n.

ψ(Ka) = ψ(Kb) Proof. The proof of the above corollory is on the same lines of FTH.
4. Let ϕ : G → G be a homomorphism. Then show that ϕ(G) = {ϕ(x) : x ∈ G}

is a subgroup of G. Further, show that if H is a normal subgroup of G, then

Therefore ψ is well defined.
SUMMARY ϕ(H) is a normal subgroup of ϕ(G). [Hint: ϕ(G) = Im(ϕ)].
Next, let Ka and Kb be any two elements of G/K. Then we have

A group homomorphism is a map between two groups such that the group oper- 5. Let f, g be homomorphism from G → G. Then show that H = {x ∈ G :
ψ(KaKb) = ψ(Kab)
ation is preserved: for all, where the product on the left-hand side is in and on f (x) = g(x)} is a subgroup of G.
= ϕ(ab)
the right-hand side in. Thus, homomorphisms map the unique identity element
= ϕ(a)ϕ(b) 6. Show that homomorphic image of an ableian group is abelian. Justify the
of one group to the unique identity element of the other group. Similarly, homo-
ψ(KaKb) = ψ(Ka)ψ(Kb) converse with suitable example.
morphisms map the inverse of an element x in one group to the inverse of the

Therefore ψ is a homomorphism.
Let g be any arbitrary element of G, since ϕ is onto, there exists an element
g ∈ G such that ϕ(g) = g. But then ψ(Kg) = ϕ(g) = g, where Kg ∈ G/K.
Therefore ψ is onto. Finally, the kernel of ψ is given by
element ϕ(x). This is why homomorphisms are called structure-preserving maps.
Particularly, the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms, relates the structure
of two objects between which a homomorphism is given, and of the kernel and
image of the homomorphism.
7. Show that homomorphic image of a cyclic group is cyclic. Justify the con-
verse with suitable example.
8. Show that homomorphic image of a finite group is finite. Justify the converse
with suitable example.

Kψ = {Kg ∈ G/K : ψ(Kg) = e, the identity element of G} REFERENCES

KEYWORDS
= {Kg ∈ G/K : ϕ(g) = e}
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
Homomorphism, Types of homomorphisms, Kernel, Image, Fundamental theorem
= {Kg ∈ G/K : g ∈ K}
of homomorphisms. 2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Kψ = {K}.
Publishing House, 2021.
Thus the kernel Kψ contains identity alone. Therefore ψ is one-one. Hence, ASSESSMENT /TERMINAL QUESTIONS
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
2. UNIT : GROUP HOMOMORPHISM 25 26 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS27

4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015. 3 UNIT : Isomorphism and Automorphism The- Isomorphism Theorems:

5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com- orems Theorem 3.1. [First isomorphism theorem] Let ϕ be a homomorphism on

putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005. G onto G with kernel K. Let N be a normal subgroup of G and N = {x ∈ G :
ϕ(x) ∈ N }, Then
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison- OBJECTIVES
(i) G/N ≈ G/N ,
Wesley Longman, 2002. After studying this unit you will be able to:
G/K
(ii) G/N ≈ . (Freshman’s theorem)
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley • define an isomorphism group with examples; G/K

& Sons, 2003. Proof.

• explain automorphism group and their elementary properties;

(i) We know that N is a normal subgroup of G. Define ψ : G → G/N by

8. J. A. Gallian: Contemporary Abstract algebra, 9th Edition, Narosa Pub-
lishing House. 2008.
• define the group of automorphism and inner automorphism along with prop-
ψ(g) = N ϕ(g), f orall g ∈ G. If a = b, where a, b ∈ G, then ϕ(a) = ϕ(b).
erties ;
Therefore N ϕ(a) = N ϕ(b).
• test the given homomorphism is an isomorphism or not;
∴ ψ(a) = ψ(b)
• verify the given homomorphism is an automorphism/inner automorphism or
Therefore ψ is well defined.
not.
Let a and b be any two elements of G. Then
• explain the concepts of Klein 4- group and their propeties;

• determine the elements of group of automorphism and inner automorphisms ψ(ab) =N ϕ(ab)

of Klein 4- group. =N ϕ(a)ϕ(b) since ϕ is a homomorphism

=N ϕ(a)N ϕ(b) since N is normal in G

INTRODUCTION =ψ(a)ψ(b).

An isomorphism is a special type of homomorphism. The Greek roots “homo”

Therefore ψ is a homomorphism.
and morph” together mean “same shape.” There are two situations where homo-
Next, let N g be an arbitrary element of G/N . Then, g ∈ G, since ϕ is
morphisms arise: when one group is a subgroup of another; when one group is a
onto, there exists an element g ∈ G such that ϕ(g) = g. But then we have,
quotient of another. The corresponding homomorphisms are called embeddings
N g = N ϕ(g) = ψ(g).
and quotient maps. The critical difference between an isomorphism and an auto-
morphism is just the range: it’s equal to the domain in the case of automorphisms, Therefore ψ is onto.

and not in the case of isomorphisms.

3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS28 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS29 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS30

Finally, the kernel of ψ is given by Finally, the kernel of θ is given by Consider

Kψ ={g ∈ G : ψ(g) = N } Kθ ={g ∈ G : θ(g) = N/K} n1 m1 n2 m2 =n1 (m1 n2 )m2

={g ∈ G : N ϕ(g) = N } ={g ∈ G : (N/K)Kg = (N/K)} =n1 n2 m1 m2 , [∴ m1 n2 = n2 m1 ]

={g ∈ G : ϕ(g) ∈ N } ={g ∈ G : Kg ∈ N/K} ϕ(n1 m1 n2 m2 ) =ϕ(n1 n2 m1 m2 )

=N. ={g ∈ G : g ∈ N } =(N ∩ M )n1 n2

=N =(n ∩ M )n1 (N ∩ M )n2 , [∴ N ∩ M isnormal]

Therefore, by the fundamental theorem of homomorphism for groups, it
=ϕ(n1 m1 )ϕ(n2 m2 )
follows that G/N ≈ G/N . Therefore, by the fundamental theorem of homomorphism for groups, if
G/K
G/K follows that G/N ≈ . Hence the theorem. Therefore ϕ is a homomorphism.
(ii) Define θ : G → , by θ(g) = (N/K)Kg, f orall g ∈ G. N/K
N/K
Let (N ∩ M )n be any element of N/N ∩ M . Then n ∈ M .
If a, b ∈ G and a = b, then Ka = Kb. Therefore (N/K)Ka = (N/K)Kb =⇒
Therefore ne ∈ N M, [∴ e ∈ M ].
θ(a) = θ(b).
Theorem 3.2. [Second Isomorphism Theorem] If N and M are normal Therefore ϕ(ne) = (N ∩ M )n
Therefor, θ is well defined. subgroups of a group G. Then Therefore ϕ is onto.
Let a and b be any two elements of G. Then Finally, the kernel of ϕ is given by
N M/M ≈ N/N ∩ M.
θ(ab) =(N/K)Kab Kφ ={nm ∈ N M : ϕ(nm) = N ∩ M }
Proof. First, we observe that N M and N ∩ M are normal subgroup of G.
=(N/K)KaKb ={nm ∈ N M : (N ∩ M )n = N ∩ M }
Define ϕ : N M → N/N ∩ M by ϕ(nm) = (N ∩ M )n for all n ∈ N .
=(N/K)Ka(N/K)Kb ={nm ∈ N M : n ∈ N ∩ M }
Let n1 m1 and n2 m2 be any two elements of N M with n1 m1 = n2 m2 .
=θ(a)θ(b) ={nm ∈ N M : n ∈ M }
Then n1 = n2 m2 m−1 −1
1 ∈ n2 M , since m2 m1 ∈ M = M n2 , since M is normal in

G, n1 = mn2 for some m ∈ M . =M

Therefore θ is a homomorphism. Therefore n1 n−1 −1
2 = m ∈ M . But n1 n2 ∈ N , since N ⊆ G.
G/K Therefore, by the fundamental theorem of homomorphism for groups, it follows
Next, let (N/K)Kg be any element of . Then g ∈ G is such that Therefore n1 n−1
2 ∈ N ∩ M.
N/K
θ(g) = (N/K)Kg. ⇒ (N ∩ M )n1 n−1 that, N M/M ≈ N/N ∩ M . Hence the theorem.
2 = (N ∩ M )
o(N ) o(N M )
Therefore θ is onto. ⇒ (N ∩ M )n1 = (N ∩ M )n2 . Note 3.1. o(N M/M ) ≈ o(N/N ∩ M ) or = .
o(N ∩ M ) o(M )
Therefore ϕ(n1 m1 ) = ϕ(n2 m2 ). Definition 3.1. An isomorphism of a group G onto itself is called an Automor-
Therefore ϕ is well defined. phism of G. i.e., T : G → G (onto and one-one) is an automorphism of G if
Next, let n1 m1 and n2 m2 be any two elements of N M . T (ab) = T (a)T (b) [or (ab)T = (aT )(bT )].
3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS31
Example 3.1.
1. Let G be any group. Then the identity transformation I : G → G, defined
by I(x) = x f orall x ∈ G is an automorphism of G.
2. Let G be any group. Then the additive group Z of integer T : Z → Z, defined
by T (x) = −x f orall x ∈ Z, is an automorphism.
Lemma 3.1. A homomorphism T : G → G defined by T (x) = x−1 is an auto-
morphism if and only if G is an abelian.
Proof. Let G be any abelian group. Define T : G → G by T (x) = x−1 f orallx ∈ G.
Then T (x) = T (y) ⇒ x−1 = y −1 ⇒ x = y. Therefore T is one-one function .
For any x ∈ G, there exist x−1 ∈ G such that T (x−1 ) = (x−1 )−1 = x. Therefore
T is onto function.
For any x, y ∈ G, we have T (xy) = (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 = T (y)T (x) = T (x)T (y),
since G is an abelian. Therefore T is an isomorphism of G onto G and hence is
an automorphism.
Conversely, suppose T is an isomorphism. Then T (xy) = (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 =
T (y)T (x) = T (yx). That is, T (xy) = T (yx). Hence xy = yx.
Therefore G is an abelian group.
Lemma 3.2. Let G be a group, H be a subgroup of G and T be an automorphism
of G. Let T (H) = {T (h) : h ∈ H}. Then prove that T (H) is a subgroup of G.
Proof. Let G be a group, H be a subgroup of G and T be an automorphism of
G. For a, b ∈ T (H). we have h1 , h2 ∈ H such that a = T (h1 ); b = T (h2 ). But
T (h1 h−1 −1
2 ) ∈ T (H) ⇒ T (h1 )T (h2 ) ∈ T (H) ⇒ T (h1 )[T (h2 )]
−1
∈ T (H). That is,
ab−1 ∈ T (H). Therefore T (H) is a subgroup of G.
Lemma 3.3. Let G be a group, T be an automorphism of G and N be a normal
subgroup of G. Then prove that T (N ) is an normal subgroup of G.
3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS32 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS33
Proof. Let T be an automorphism and N be a normal subgroup of a group G. If (ii) For T1 , T2 , T3 ∈ A(G), we have [T1 ◦ T2 ] ◦ T3 = T1 ◦ [T2 ◦ T3 ]. Since, the
T (N ) is a subgroup of G. Then x = T (y), where y ∈ G because T is function of resultant composition for mapping is associative. Hence the composition in
G onto G. Also k = T (n), where n ∈ N . We have, A(G) is also associative.
(iii) For any T ∈ A(G), there exists the identity map I ∈ A(G) such that
xkx−1 =T (y)T (n)[T (y)]−1
T ◦ I = T = I ◦ T . Therefore I is the identity of A(G)
=T (y)T (n)[T (y −1 )]
−1
=T (yny ), Since N is normal in G (iv) For any T ∈ A(G), there exists the inverse map T −1 ∈ A(G) such that
T ◦ T 1 = I = T −1 ◦ T . Therefore T −1 is the inverse of A(G). Hence A(G) is
Therefore yny −1 ∈ N . a group.
Consequently, T (yny −1 ) ∈ T (N ). Thus xkx−1 ∈ T (N ). Therefore T (N ) is a
normal in G.
Group of automorphism or automorphism group:
Lemma 3.4. If G is a group, then the set A(G) of all automorphism of G is a
group. Definition 3.2. Let G be a group. Then the set A(G) of all automorphism of G
forms a group under the composition of mapping with identity map I as the identity
Proof. Let A(G) be the collection of all automorphism of a group G. Then A(G) =
and inverse of T as T −1 . This group is called the group of Automorphisms.
{T : T is an automorphism of G}.
For T1 , T2 ∈ A(G), we have (T1 ◦ T2 ) is a bijective map. Inner automorphism:
(i) To verify that it is a homomorphism. Theorem 3.3. Let G be a group, g ∈ G and Tg : G → G be defined by Tg (x) =
g −1 xg f orall x ∈ G. Then Tg is an automorphism of G.
Consider for any x, y ∈ G,
Proof. First, let x, y ∈ G. Then
(T1 ◦ T2 )(xy) =T1 [T2 (xy)]
=T1 [T2 (x)T2 (y)] Tg (xy) =g −1 xyg
=[T1 (T2 (x))][T1 (T2 (y))] =(g −1 xg)(g −1 yg)
=[(T1 ◦ T2 )(x)][(T1 ◦ T2 )(y)] =Tg (x)Tg (y)
Therefore (T1 ◦ T2 ) is a homomorphism and hence (T1 ◦ T2 ) is an automor- Therefore Tg is a homomorphism.
phism. Next, let x, y ∈ G. Then Tg (x) = Tg (y) ⇒ g −1 xg = g −1 yg
Therefore T1 ◦ T2 ∈ A(G), so closure property holds in A(G). By cancellation laws in G, we get x = y. Therefore Tg is one-one.
3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS34 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS35 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS36

Finally, If x ∈ G, then gxg −1 −1 −1 −1

∈ G and Tg (gxg ) = g (gxg )g = x. Therefore Tg Th = Tgh ∈ Inn(G). Hence the closure property holds in Inn(G). G
Lemma 3.5. Inn(G) ≈ , where Inn(G) is the group of inner automor-
Z(G)
Therefore Tg is onto. For Tg , Th and Tr ∈ Inn(G), we have, phisms of G, and Z = Z(G) is the centre of G.
Hence, Tg is an automorphism of G.
(Tg Th )Tr =(Tgh )Tr Proof. Define ϕ : G → Inn(G), by ϕ(g) = Tg f orall g ∈ G. If a, b ∈ G and
Definition 3.3. If G is a group, the mapping Tg : G → G defined by Tg (x) =
a = b, then a−1 = b−1 and a−1 xa = b−1 xb f orall x ∈ G. Therefore Ta (x) =
g −1 xg f orall x ∈ G is an automorphism of G known as inner automorphism. =T(gh)r
Tb (x) f orall x ∈ G =⇒ Ta = Tb =⇒ ϕ(a) = ϕ(b).
=Tg(hr)
Note 3.2. Therefore ϕ is well defined.
=Tg(hr)
1. The group consisting of inner automorphism is called group of inner auto- Next, let a, b ∈ G, then ϕ(ab) = Tab = Ta Tb = ϕ(a)ϕ(b).
=Tg (Thr )
morphism. It is denoted by Inn(G) (or., I(G)) i.e., Inn(G) = {Tg : g ∈ G}. Therefore ϕ is a homomorphism.
=Tg (Th Tr ). Let Tg be any element of Inn(G). Then g ∈ G and ϕ(g) = Tg .
2. Inn(G) ⊂ Aut(G) (or I(G) ⊂ A(G)).
Therefore ϕ is onto.
3. An automorphism which is not inner is called an outer automorphism. Also, So, associative property holds in Inn(G).
The kernel of ϕ is given by,
A(G)
the quotient group is called the group of all outer automorphism of G. For Tg ∈ Inn(G), there exists the identity map Te (or I) in Inn(G) such that
I(G)
Tg Te = Tg = Te Tg . Therefore Te is the identity of Inn(G).
4. A subgroup N of a group G is a normal subgroup if and only if gN g −1 =
For Tg ∈ Inn(G), there exists the inverse map Tg−1 in Inn(G), such that Kφ ={g ∈ G : ϕ(g) = Te , the identity element in Inn(G)}
N f orall g ∈ G. But Tg (N ) = gN g −1 . Therefore N is normal if and only if
Tg Tg−1 = Tgg−1 = Te . Therefore (Tg )−1 = Tg−1 =⇒ Tg−1 is the inverse of Inn(G).
Tg (N ) = N f orall g ∈ G. ={g ∈ G : Tg = Te }
Hence, Inn(G) is a group.
In other words, a subgroup N of a group G is a normal subgroup if and only ={g ∈ G : Tg (x) = Te (x), ∀ x ∈ G}
Theorem 3.5. For any group G, Inn(G) is a normal subgroup of Aut(G).
if it is invariant under all inner automorphism of G. Hence normal subgroups are ={g ∈ G : g −1 xg = x ∀ x ∈ G}

some times called invariant subgroups. Proof. Clearly, Inn(G) is a subgroup of Aut(G), we have Inn(G) ⊂ Aut(G). Let ={g ∈ G : xg = gx ∀ x ∈ G}
Tg be any element of Inn(G) and T be any element of Aut(G). Then for x ∈ G,
Theorem 3.4. If G is a group, then the set Inn(G) of all inner automorphism =z, the centre of G.
of G is aslo a group.
[T Tg T −1 ](x) =T [Tg (T −1 (x))]
Thus, ϕ is a homomorphism of G onto Inn(G) with Kernel Z.
Proof. Let G be a group with Inn(G) = {Tg : g ∈ G}.
=T [Tg (T −1 (x))g −1 ] Therefore, By the Fundamental theorem of homomorphism for groups, we have
For Tg , Th ∈ Inn(G), we have G
=T (g)T (T −1 (x))T (g −1 ) ≈ Inn(G).
Z(G)
(Tg .Th )(x) =T g(Th (x)) =T (g)x(T (g))−1
Lemma 3.6. Let G be a group and ϕ an automorphism of G. If a ∈ G is of order
=Tg (hxh )g−1 −1 =TT (g) (x) f orall x and T (g) ∈ G
o(a) > 0, then o(ϕ(a)) = o(a).
=(gh)x(gh)−1
Therefore T Tg T −1
= TT (g) ∈ Inn(G). Proof. Suppose ϕ : G → G is an automorphism. For a ∈ G, suppose o(a) = n, so
=Tgh (x)
Therefore Inn(G) is a normal subgroup of Aut(G).
3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS37 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS38 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS39

n
that n is the least positive integer satisfying a = e, the identity of G. Then, Put 1 = I, 3 = A, 5 = B and 7 = AB = BA = C, in the composition table other pairs of elements. Therefore T0 , T1 , T2 , · · · , T5 are automorphism. Hence,
and rewrite as follows. Aut(K4 ) = {T0 , T1 , T2 , · · · , T5 }. Further, note that Aut(K4 ) ≈ S3 , where S3
[ϕ(a)]n =ϕ(a)ϕ(a) · · · ϕ(a) is non-abelian group. Therefore Aut(K4 ) is non-abelian, where K4 is abelian .
X8 I A B C
=ϕ(a a · · · a) I I A B C Therefore, automorphism group of an abelian group need not be abelian.
A A I C B We observe that Inner automorphism of an abelian group is an only identity
=ϕ(an )
B B C I A
=ϕ(e). map. For g ∈ G, we have
C C B A I

Therefore [ϕ(a)]n = e. If [ϕ(a)]m = e for some 0 < m < n then [ϕ(a)]m = Tg (x) =gxg −1
n m
[ϕ(a)] . That is, ϕ(a ) = ϕ(a ), a n m n
= a = e f or 0 < m < n, which is a Clearly, K4 = {I, A, B, C} = {I, A, B, AB}. =xgg −1

contradiction to the fact o(a) = n. Therefore [ϕ(a)]n = e and n is the least positive Therefore K4 = ⟨A, B⟩ : A2 = B 2 = I, AB = BA, (i.e., K4 is an abelian =x
integer with this property. Therefore [ϕ(a)] = n. That is, [ϕ(a)] = o(a). group). {I, A} × {I, B} (product of two cyclic groups need not be cyclic). So, K4
=Te (x), ∀ x ∈ G
is product of two cyclic groups of order 2 each but if itself is not cyclic.
Remark 3.1.    
I A B C I A B C Therefore Tg = Te (or I) or Tg is the identity map. Since, K4 is an abelian
T0 = T1 =
1. Every cyclic group is an abelian group, but every abelian group is not cyclic I A B C I B C A
group. Inn(K4 ) = I.
group. The example of the converse part is also called Klein’s 4 - group.
    Example 3.3. Let G be a finite group of order r and ∪r be the group of integers less
I A B C I A B C
2. If ⟨I, A⟩ and ⟨I, B⟩ are cyclic group, then the product of two cyclic group T2 = T3 =
I C A B I A C B than r and relatively prime to r, under modr [i.e., (∪r , ⊗r , 1)]. Then Aut(G) ≈ ∪r .
need not be cyclic, i.e., ⟨I, A⟩ · ⟨I, B⟩ is not cyclic. Solution : Let G be a cyclic group of order r with generator a. Therefore
   
Example 3.2. Write (i) Aut(K4 ), and (ii) Inn(K4 ), where K4 is Klein four I A B C I A B C G = ⟨a⟩ = {a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , ar−1 , ar = e}.
T4 = T5 =
I C B A I B A C
group. Hence, illustrate that the automorphism group of an abelian group need not If T : G → G is a homomorphism, then T (ai ) = [T (a)]i for 0 < i < r, it
be abelian. follows that all maps T are determined if we know T (a).
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Solution : The set K4 = {1, 3, 5, 7} forms a group under multiplication mod8, We verify that T is an sutomorphism of G iff T (a) = at where 0 < t < r and
I I I I I I I
i.e., (K4 , (.mod 8)) is a group called Klein four group. A A B C A C B
(t, r) = 1 (i.e., t is less than r and prime to r or t is relatively prime with r).
The composition table for K4 is given by B B C A C B A For, suppose, if possible the map T is defined by T (a) = at is an automorphism
C C A B B A C d d
for (t, r) = d. Then and .
X8 1 3 5 7 r t
1 1 3 5 7 r t t
3 3 1 7 5 Clearly, all maps are bijective. [T (a)] d = (at ) d = (ar ) d = e [∵ ar = e or 1]
5 5 7 1 3
Test for homomorphism : T3 (AB) = T3 (C) = B, T3 (A).T3 (B) = A.C = B r r
7 7 5 3 1 Therefore O(T (a)) = . Therefore O(a) = , since O(T (a)) = o(a)[∵
(from the table). Therefore T3 (AB) = T3 (A).T3 (B). Similarly, we can verify for d d
T is homomorrphism ⇒ o(T (a)) = o(a)].
3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS40 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS41 3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS42

r
Therefore r = and hence d = 1. Consider
d
Conversely, suppose 0 < s < r and (r, s) = 1, then we verify that the homo- t1 , t2 , η(t1 , t2 ) = Tt1 t2 −→ (1) SUMMARY
morphism S : G → G defined by S(a) = as ( or S(ar ) = as ) or S(ai ) = ais is an
again, consider A group isomorphism is a function between two groups that sets up a one-to-one
automorphism. For ai , aj ∈ G we have,
correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the
i j
Therefore S is homomorphism. For a , a ∈ G we have (Tt1 t2 )(a) =at1 t2 [∵ Tt (a) = at ] given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then
=(at2 )t1 the groups are called isomorphic. An automorphism is an isomorphism from a
S(ai , aj ) =S(ai+j )
=[Tt2 (a)]t1 [∵ at = Tt (a)] group to itself. Also, set of all automorphisms /inner automorphisms forms a
=a(i+j)s
=Tt1 [Tt2 (a)] group.
is js
=a .a
(Tt1 t2 )(a) =(Tt1 Tt2 )(a)
=S(ai )S(aj ) KEYWORDS

But, Tt1 t2 = Tt1 Tt2 −→ (2) Isomorphism, Automorphisms, Group of automorphisms, Inner automorphisms,
Therefore S is homomorphism. Let S(ai ) = S(aj ), then ais = ajs .
By using (2) in (1) , we get Group of Inner automorphisms, Kelin 4-group.
⇒ ais−js = 1ore
⇒ a(i−j)s = 1ore, where 0 < i, j < r
r η(t1 t2 ) = Tt1 t2 = Tt1 Tt2 = η(t1 )η(t2 ) [∵ Tt = η(t)].
⇒ (i − j)s = 0 or ; (i − j)s = 0 or i = j ASSESSMENT /TERMINAL QUESTIONS
(i − j)s
Therefore S(ai ) = S(aj ) ⇒ ai = aj . G ∼ G∼
Therefore η is a homomorphism. 1. For any group G, show that = G and = {e}.
{e} G
∴ S is one-one.
To prove that η is one-one and onto. 2. If N and M are two normal subgroup of a graoup G, then show that N M
Now, to prove S is onto.
i Let η(t1 ) = η(t2 ). Tt1 = Tt2 . Therefore Tt1 (a) = Tt2 (a). and N ∩ M is a normal subgroup of a group G.
Choose an element of a in G, let k be any integer such that
⇒ at1 = at2 ⇒ at1 −t2 = 1 or e
sk ≡ i(modr) for 0 < k < r. i. e., sk = i + qr for an integer q. r 3. Show that any inifinte cyclic group is isomorphic to < Z, + > the group of
t1 − t2 or for some 0 < t1 , t2 < r implies t1 = t2 .
Then, S(ak ) = ask = ai+qr = ai .(ar )q = ai [∵ ar = 1 or e]. i.e., For ai ∈ G t1 − t2 integers.
Therefore η is one-one.
there exixts ak ∈ G such that S(ak ) = ai .
Now, for any Tt ∈ Aut(G) (i.e., 0 < t < r and (r, t)− = 1 there exists t ∈ ∪r 4. Find all automorphism of any cyclic group of order 8.
Therefore S is onto.
such that η(t) = Tt . Therefore η is onto. Hence η is isomorphism. Therefore
Hence, S is an automorphism. 5. Let G be an infinite group. Then show that G has just one non-trivial
∪r ≈ Aut(G).
We denote the automorphism T (a) = at by Tt (a) = at , where (r, t) = 1, for automorphism.
0 < t < 1. So, Aut(G) = {Tt : (t, r) = 1, 0 < t < 1}. Note 3.3. Aut(G) is abelian but it need not be cyclic
6. Show that x → x−1 is an automorphism of a goup if and only if G is ableian.
Define a map η : Ur → Aut(G) by η(t) = Tt .
Example 3.4. ∪φ(8) ≈ K4 where K4 is a klen’s four group. i. e., K4 is not cyclic.
7. Let G be a group of order 4, G = {e, a, b, ab}, a2 = b2 = e, ab = ba.
But Aut(G) ≈ ∪φ(8)
Determine Aut(G).
3. UNIT : ISOMORPHISM AND AUTOMORPHISM THEOREMS43
8. Prove that every finite group having more than two elements has a nontrivial
automorphism.
REFERENCES
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Publishing House, 2021.
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002.
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, 2003.
8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
44
4 UNIT : Permutation groups
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• explain the concepts of permutation group;
• understand the concepts of symmetric group and alternating group with
suitable examples;
• illustrate the examples of symmetric group Sn with n = 3, 4, ...;
• describe the concepts of non-ableian group through the symmetric group S3 ;
• explain the concepts of group of automorphism and inner automorphism in
symmetric group S3 .
• state, prove and apply the Cayley thoerem’s for permutation group;
• extend the concepts of group of permutation groups and compare with group
of symmetric group.
INTRODUCTION
A permutation is a mathematical calculation of the number of ways a particular
set can be arranged, where the order of the arrangement matters. A permutation
group is a group G whose elements are permutations of a given set S and whose
group operation is the composition of permutations in S. The way in which the
elements of a permutation group permute the elements of the set is called its group
action. Group actions have applications in the study of symmetries, combinatorics
and many other branches of mathematics, physics and chemistry.
4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 45
Definition 4.1. A permutation is a ono-one transformation of a finite set into
itself. The number of elements in the finite set is known as the degree of permu-
tation.
Definition 4.2. The group Sn is called the symmetric group or the permuta-
tion group on n symbols. The group Sn is called the symmetric group because for
n = 3, 4, etc., elements of Sn can be interpreted as symmetric group of a triangle,
a square, etc.
Note 4.1.
(i) If S contains n elements, then Sn contains n! elements.
(ii) The group Sn (n ≥ 3) is a non-abelian group.
Definition 4.3. A permutation which replaces n objects cyclically is called a
cyclic permutation of degree n.
Example 4.1.
 
1 2 3 4 5
(1) f =   is a cyclic permutation and this can be written as
2 3 4 5 1
f = (12345).
(2) The number of objects permuted by a cycle is called its length. A cycle of
length two is called a transposition.
Definition 4.4. A permutation in Sn is said to be even permutation if it can
be expressed as a product of an even number of transposition (cycles of length two)
and it is said to be odd permutation if it is expressed as a product of odd number
of transpositions.
Note 4.2. In any permutation group, even permutation × even permutation =
even permutation = odd permutation × odd permutation. Also, even permutation
× odd permutation = odd permutation × even permutation = odd permutation.
4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 46 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 47 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 48

   
Definition 4.5. Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Then the symmetric group S3 = {ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 , δ1 , δ2 , δ3 }, Therefore ρ2 δ1 ̸= δ1 ρ2 . ρ0 ρ 1 ρ 2 δ 1 δ 2 δ 3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3
T ρ1 = , T ρ1 =
ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ2 δ3 δ1 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ3 δ1 δ2
where Hence S3 is a non-abelian group of order 6.
   
  ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3
1 2 3 Note 4.3. T δ1 = , T δ2 =
ρ0 =   = I ⇒ even permutation, ρ0 ρ2 ρ1 δ1 δ3 δ2 ρ0 ρ2 ρ1 δ3 δ2 δ1
1 2 3
(i) The symmetric group S3 is a cyclic group. Also, every proper subgroup of
Similarly,
 we have 
  S3 is cyclic. ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3
1 2 3 T δ3 =  .
ρ1 =   = (1 3 2) = (1 3)(1 2) ⇒ even permutation,
(ii) Every permutation is the product of its cycle. Also, every permutation is ρ0 ρ2 ρ1 δ2 δ1 δ3
3 2 1
product of 2-cycles (We shall refer to 2-cycles as transpositions). Therefore, InnS3 = {Tρ0 , Tρ1 , Tρ2 , Tδ1 , Tδ2 , Tδ3 }. We claim that only the inner
 
1 2 3 (iii) The symmetric Sn has a normal subgroup of index 2, the alternating group automorphisms the only automorphism of S3 .
ρ2 =   = (1 2 3) = (1 2) (1 3) ⇒ even permutation,
2 3 1 An , consisting of all even permutations. Suppose J is the other automorphism of S3 . Then J(ρ0 ) = ρ0 and

  (iv) The composition table (Cayley table) in S3 as follows. J(ρ2 ) = J(ρ1 ρ1 ) = J(ρ1 )J(ρ1 ) −→ (1)
1 2 3
δ1 =   = (2 3) ⇒ odd permutation,
1 3 2 · ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3 Hence, J(ρ2 ) is known, when J(ρ1 ) is known. We can now verify that J(ρ1 ) =
ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3 ρ1 or ρ2 . Because if J(ρ1 ) = δ1 , then J(ρ2 ) = δ1 δ1 = ρ0 , where ρ2 ̸= ρ0 . This
 
1 2 3 ρ1 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0 δ3 δ1 δ2 contradiction the fact that J is one-one and J(ρ0 ) = ρ0 . Hence, J(ρ1 ) ̸= δ1 .
δ2 =   = (1 3) ⇒ odd permutation, and
3 2 1 ρ2 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1 δ2 δ3 δ1
Similarly, J(ρ1 ) ̸= δ2 and δ3 . Thus
δ1 δ1 δ2 δ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2
δ2 δ2 δ3 δ1 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1
 
1 2 3 J(ρ1 ) = ρ1 or ρ2 −→ (2)
δ3 =   = (1 2) ⇒ odd odd permutation. δ3 δ3 δ1 δ2 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0
2 1 3
Further, we verify that J(δ1 ) = δ1 or δ2 or δ3 . For, if J(δ1 ) = ρ1 , then J(ρ0 ) =
Therefore A3 = {ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 } is an alternating group. J(δ1 δ1 ) = J(δ1 )J(δ1 ) = ρ1 ρ1 = ρ2 . This again contradicts the fact that J(ρ0 ) = ρ0
Excercise 4.1. For G = S3 , determine Inn(G) and verify that Inn(G) = Aut(G).
Now, we show that the group S3 is non-abelian. only. Therefore J((δ1 ) ̸= ρ1 .
Consider,    
 Solution : Let S = {1, 2, 3} and S3 = {ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 , δ1 , δ2 , δ3 }. By composition table Similarly we can prove, J((δ1 ) ̸= ρ1 , ρ2 . Hence,
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 for S3 , wehave
ρ2 δ 1 =   =  = δ2 , and 
2 3 1 1 3 2 3 2 1 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3 J((δ1 ) = δ1 orδ2 or δ3 −→ (3).
T ρ0 =  
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
ρ0 ρ0 ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ0 ρ0 ρ2 ρ0 ρ0 δ1 ρ0 ρ0 δ2 ρ0 ρ0 δ3 ρ0
      
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ 1 δ 2 δ 3 If we choose J(ρ1 ) = ρ1 and J((δ1 ) = δ1 . Then
δ1 ρ2 =   =  = δ3 T ρ0 =  
1 3 2 2 3 1 2 1 3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ 1 δ 2 δ 3
4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 49 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 50 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 51

 
−1 −1 −1
ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3 Now, if y ∈ G, then there exists yg ∈ G such that τg (yg ) = yg g = ye = Proof. If G is finite and its contain n-elements then A(S) = Sn (i.e,. Symmetric
J = .
ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ1 δ2 δ3 y. It follows that τg is onto. i.e., τg maps S onto itself. group). Hence by above theorem (Cayley theorem), we get G is isomorphic to
Thus we have proved that for every g ∈ G, τg ∈ A(S). Define : ψ : G → A(S) subgroup of the symmetric group or G is isomorphic to a permutation group.
Since J(δ2 ) = J(ρ1 δ1 ) = J(ρ1 )J(δ1 ) = ρ1 δ1 = δ2 , and
by ψ(g) = τg f orall g ∈ G. Consider
J(δ3 ) = J(δ1 ρ1 ) = J(ρ1 )J(δ1 ) = ρ1 δ1 = δ3 . Theorem 4.2. A : If G is a group, H a subgroup of G and S is the set of all

From (2) and (3) it follows that J maps ρ’s onto ρ’s and δ’s onto δ’s but not right cosets of H in G, then there is a homomorphism θ of G into A(S) and the
τgh (x) = x(gh) [by def inition of Igh ]
ρ’s onto δ’s or δ’s onto ρ’s. kernel of θ is the largest normal subgroup of G which is contained in H.
= (xg)h [by associativity in G]
Therefore J is one among Tρ0 , Tρ1 , Tρ2 , Tδ1 , Tδ2 , Tδ3 . i.e., J ∈ Inn(S3 ) for any Proof. We have S = {Hx : x ∈ G}. For each g ∈ G. Define τ : S → S by
= τh (xg) [by def inition of τh ]
automorphisms J. So, Aut(S3 ) ⊂ Inn(S3 ) −→ (4) τg (Hx) = Hxg, ∀ x ∈ G. Suppose that Hx = Hy. Then xy −1 ∈ H.
= τh (τg (x)) [by def inition of τg ]
But, Inn(S3 ) ⊂ Aut(S3 ) −→ (5). ⇒ xgg −1 y −1 ∈ H
From (4) and (5) , we conclude that Inn(S3 ) = Aut(S3 ). = (τh τg )(x) ∀ x ∈ G
⇒ (xg)(yg −1 ) ∈ H
= (τg )τh (x) ∀ x ∈ G [by associativity in G]
Definition 4.6. If S is the finite set {1, 2, · · · , n}, then the group of all permu- Therefore Hxg = Hyg. i.e., τg (Hx) = τg (Hy)

tations of S is the symmetric group on n letters (i.e., Sn ). An A(S) is called a Therefore τg is well-defined.
Therefore τgh = τg τh .
group of permutation of G. Next, τg (Hx) = τg (Hy).
The above relation tells us that ψ(gh) = τgh = τg τh
⇒ Hxg = Hyg.
Theorem 4.1. (Cayley’s Theorem) Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup Therefore ψ(gh) = ψ(g)ψ(h). i. e., ψ is a homomorphism. We shall now find
⇒ Hx = Hy.
of A(S) for some appropriate S or Every group is isomorphic to a group of per- the kernel K of ψ.
Therefore τg is one-one.
mutations A(G) or Every group is isomorphic to a sub-group of a transformation By definition of K if g0 ∈ K, ψ(g0 ) = τg0 is the identity map on S, so that for
Let Hx be any element of S. Then there exists Hxg −1 is such that
group. x ∈ G in particular for e ∈ G, we have τg0 (e) = e −→ (1)
τg (Hxg −1 ) = Hxg −1 g = Hx.
On the other hand, τg0 (e) = eg0 = g0 −→ (2)
Proof. Let G be any group. Then A(S) is the group of all permutations of G Therefore τg is onto.
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get g0 = e.
i.e., S = {x/x ∈ G}. Define for g ∈ G, τg : G → G (i.e., τg : S → S) by Let τg , τh be any two elements of A(S). Then
Hence K = {e}.
τg (x) = xg f orall x ∈ G. For any x, y ∈ G, we have
(We know that a homomorphism ϕ : G onto G with Kernel K is an isomorphism
τg τh (Hx) = τg [τh (Hx)] [by the def inition of τg ]
of G onto G if and only if, K = {e}).
τg (x) = τg (y) = τg [Hxh]
Thus, we have prove that ψ is an isomorphism of G into A(S).
xg = yg [by cancellation law in G] = Hx(hg)

x = y. Note 4.4. The above theorem, put S = G, then A(G) is also called a group of = Hx(gh) [associativityiG]
permutations.
= τgh (Hx)
Therefore τg is one - one.
Corollary 4.1. Any finite group is isomorphic to subgroup of a symmetric group.
Therefore τg τh = τgh .
4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 52 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 53 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 54

Now, define θ : G → A(S) by θ(g) = τg , ∀ g ∈ G clearly, θ is well-defined. Let (iv) Let G be a finite group and H be a subgroup of G. Then o(H) | o(G), which ∴ o(G) > i(H)!
g, h ∈ G. Then θ(gh) = τg τh = θ(g)θ(h). is known as Lagrange’s theorem. Therefore o(G) ∤ i(H)!
Therefore θ is a homomorphism.
Theorem 4.3. B If G is a finite group, and H ̸= G is a subgroup of G such By the Theorem B, G cannot be simple.
The Kernel of θ is given by,
that o(G) ∤ i(H)!, then H must contain a non-trivial normal subgroup of G. In Therefore G has a non-trivial normal subgroup which contained in H. Since
particular, G cannot be simple. o(H) = 9 and is divisible by the order of that normal subgroup, the normal
Kθ = {g ∈ G/θ(g) = τe , the identity in A(S)
Proof. Let S = {Hg/g ∈ G}. Then, there is a homomorphism θ : G → A(S) and subgroup is of order 3 or 9.
= {g ∈ G/τg = τe }

= {g ∈ G/τg (Hx) = τe (Hx), f orall x ∈ G} the Kθ is the largest normal subgroup of G which is contained in H. (i. e., by
2. Let G be a group of order 99 and H be a subgroup of G of order 11. Then
theorem A)
= {g ∈ G/Hxg = Hx, f orall x ∈ G} i(H) = 9
First, let o(G) > i(H)!, then, the homomorphism θ cannot be an isomorphism.
∴ i(H)! = 9! (∵ 99 = 11 × 3 × 3)
Let g be any element of Kθ . Then Hxg = Hx, f orall x ∈ G For, if it were then θ(G) would be a subgroup of A(S) and by Lagrange’s theorem,
we have o(θ(G))/o(A(S)) i.e., o(θ(G))/i(H)!. Therefore o(G) ∤ i(H)!
Therefore Hg = Heg = He = H.
∴ Hg = H, f orall g ∈ H. If θ is an isomorphism, then o(θ(G)) = o(G). Thus, o(G)/i(H)!. This is By, the Theorem B, G is not simple.

Therefore Kθ ⊂ H. impossible, since o(G) > i(H)!. Therefore G has a non trivial normal subgroup N (say) such that N ≤ H.
Finally, let N be any normal subgroup of G and N ⊂ H, let n ∈ N and g ∈ G Now, Since θ is not an isomorphism, we have Kθ ̸= {e}. Thus, H contains a Since o(N )/o(H) = H.
be arbitrary. Then gng −1 ∈ H. non trivial normal subgroup Kθ of H.
Therefore N = H i.e., H itself is a normal subgroup of G.
Therefore Hgng −1 = H =⇒ Hgn = Hg f orall g ∈ G. i.e., n ∈ Kθ . Therefore G is not simple.
Next, let o(G) < i(H)! and o(G) ∤ i(H)! by Lagrange’s theorem, the order of Excercise 4.2. Prove that any non-abelian group of order 6 is isomorphic to
Therefore N ⊂ Kθ . Thus Kθ is the largest normal subgroup of G which is
every subgroup of A(S) divides o(A(S)) = i(H)!. Since, o(G) ∤ i(H)!. Therefore symmetric group S3 .
contained in H.
A(S) does not contain a subgroup of order o(G).
Solution. Let G be a non-abelian group of order 6. Then there exists an element
Note 4.5.
Again, if θ is an isomorphism, then θ(G) would be a subgroup of A(S) and
a ̸= e in G satisfying a2 = e. Thus, H = {e, a} is a subgroup of G. clearly,
o(θ(G)) = o(G). So, θ is not an isomorphism. Therefore Kθ ̸= {e}. Hence, G o(G) 6
(i) If H = {e}, then the above theorem gives the result of Cayley’s theorem. i(G) = = = 3.
contains the non-trivial normal subgroup Kθ of G. o(H) 2
We claim that H is not a normal subgroup of G. For, suppose, if possible,
(ii) A group is called Simple group if it has no non-trivial (proper) normal sub-
Therefore G is not simple. Hence the proof is complete.
H ◁ G. Then for any g ∈ G
groups.
Example 4.2. We have, gag −1 ∈ H. So, gag −1 = e or gag −1 = a. Since gag −1 = e gives
(iii) The number of distinct right(left) cosets of a subgroup H of a group is called a = e. We must have, gag −1 = e i.e., ga = agor f orall g ∈ G.
Applications of Theorem B
the index of the subgroup H in G and is denoted by [G : H] or IG (H) or For b ∈ G, b ∈
/ H. Consider N (b) = {x ∈ G/xb = bx} which is a subgroup of
o(G)
i(H) = or o(H) | o(G). 1. Let G be a group of order 36 and H is a subgroup of G of order 9. Then G. Clearly N (b) ⊃ H.
o(H)
i(H) = 4 ⇒ i(H)! = 4! = 24.
4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 55
However N (b) ̸= H, Since b ∈ N (H) and b ∈
/ H. Thus H is a proper subgroup
of N (b). So, by Lagranges theorem, we have o(H)/o(N (b)) and o(N (b))/o(G).
Therefore, o(N (b))/o(G) ⇒ o(N (b))/6 ⇒ o(N (b)) = 3 or 6, if o(N (b)) = 3, then
o(H)/o(N (b)) ⇒ 2/3, which is not true.
Therefore o(N (b)) = 6 and hence N (b) = G.
Therefore b commutes with all elements of G, Since b is arbitrary element of
G, it follows that every element of G commutes with every other element of G,
making G into an abelian group, contrary to the assumption. Thus H ⋪ G.
Clearly, H has no non-trivial normal subgroups of G is isomorphic to a sub-
group T or under the isomorphism, θ : G → A(S), defined by θ(g) = τg , where
S = {Hx/x ∈ G} and τg (Hx) = Hxg.
Since, o(A(S)) = [i(H)]! = 3! = 6, it follows that T is a subgroup of order 6 in
A(S) which is also of order 6. Hence, T = A(S) = S3 . Therefore G ≈ S3 .
SUMMARY
A permutation group is a finite group G whose elements are permutations of a
given set and whose group operation is composition of permutations in G. The
action of a group on a set captures the algebraic structure of this transformation,
for all the elements of the group. So, the action of a group on a set details precisely
how the set transforms under the symmetry described by the group.
KEYWORDS
Permutation group, Symmetric group, Alternating group, Cayley’s theorem for
permutation group, Dihedral group.
ASSESSMENT /TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Show that the alternating group An of all even permutations of the symmet-
4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 56 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS 57
ric group Sn ; n ≥ 2 is a normal subgroup of Sn . Further show that index of 5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
An in Sn is 2. putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
2. Show that every permutation on a finite set is a product of disjoint cycles. 6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Sn Wesley Longman, 2002.
3. Show that ≈ {+1, −1}.
An
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
4. Show by an example of permutation group that converse of Lagrenge’s the-
& Sons, 2003.
orem may not hold.
8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
5. Show that an order of any permutation f in Sn is equal to the least common
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
multiple of the orders of the disjoint cycles.
6. Show that an odd permutation is of even order.
7. Using Cayley’s theorem, find the permutation group isomorphic with the
dihedral group of order 8, where the dihedral group D8 is a subgroup of
symmetric group S4 . i.e., D8 = {a, a2 , a3 , a4 = e, ab, a2 b, a3 b, b : a4 = e =
b2 , b−1 ab = a−1 , ...}.
8. Show by an example of permutation group that we can find three groups
E ⊆ F ⊆ G such that E is normal in F , F is normal in G, where E is not
normal in G.
REFERENCES
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Publishing House, 2021.
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
 4. UNIT : PERMUTATION GROUPS
BLOCK 2: ADVANCED GROUP THEORY
UNIT-5: Class Equation of Finite Groups
UNIT-6: Applications of Class Equation
UNIT-7: Sylow’s Theorems
UNIT-8: Applications of Sylow’s Theorem
58
5 UNIT : Class Equation of Finite Groups
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• understanding the concepts of conjugate elements;
• explain the concepts of equivalence relations;
• define the concepts of normalizer/centralizer of a group and their properties;
• understanding fundamental properties of conjugacy classes and self-conjugacy
class;
• derive the class equation of finite group;
• expalin the fundamnetal properties of class equation of finite groups.
• by using generator-relater form, verify the class equation of symmetric group
S3 , dihedral group D8 and hamiltonian group Q8 .
INTRODUCTION
The study of conjugacy classes of non-abelian groups is fundamental for the study
of their structure. The term class equation (or class formula, or orbit decompo-
sition formula) refers to a basic type of counting argument that comes about by
decomposing a finite group set as a union of its orbits. This has a number of fun-
damental applications in group theory. In this unit, we deal with the conjugates
of an element and find a useful relation, known as the conjugacy class equation,
between the order of a finite group G and order of its center.
Normalizer of a subgroup of a group:
Definition 5.1. The normalizer of H in a group G is the set of all those ele-
ments of G which commute with H. Symbolically N (H) = {g ∈ G : gHg −1 = H}.
The normalizer of an element N (x) (or centralizer of a group Z = Z(G))
of a group G is the set of all elements of G which commute with every element of
G. N (x) = {x ∈ G : gxg −1 = x ∀g ∈ G} (or, Z(G) = {x ∈ G : xg = gx ∀g ∈ G}).
Excercise 5.1. If H is a subgroup of group G and N (H) = {g ∈ G : gHg −1 = H},
then show that
59 5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 60
(i) N (H) is a subgroup of G
(ii) H is normal in N (H)
(iii) If H is a normal subgroup of the subgroup K in G, then K ⊆ N (H) ( i.e.,
N (H) is the largest subgroup of G in which H is normal).
(iv) H is normal in G if and only if N (H) = G.
Solution. Let H be a subgroup of group G and N (H) = {g ∈ G : gHg −1 =
H}. Then
(i) Let g1 .g2 ∈ N (H) so that g1 Hg1−1 = H and g2 Hg2−1 = H.
∴ g2 Hg2−1 = g1 Hg1−1
i.e., g1−1 g2 Hg2−1 g1 = H
i.e., g1−1 g2 H(g1−1 g2 )−1 = H
∴ g1−1 g2 ∈ N (H) and hence N (H) is a subgroup of G.
(ii) For g ∈ N (H) and h ∈ H, we have
gHg −1 = H, where gHg −1 = {ghg −1 : h ∈ H}
∴ ghg −1 ∈ gHg −1 =⇒ ghg −1 ∈ H for any g ∈ N (H) and h ∈ H
=⇒ H ◁ N (H)
(iii) Let k ∈ K. Since H is a normal subgroup of K, we have
kHk −1 = H =⇒ k ∈ N (H) (by(i))
Thus k ∈ K =⇒ k ∈ N (H).
Hence K ⊆ N (H).
(iv) Let H be normal in G.
If g ∈ G, then gHg −1 = H [∵ H is normal in G].
=⇒ g ∈ N (H). Thus g ∈ G =⇒ g ∈ N (H) (by(iii))
∴ G ⊆ N (H). But N (H) ⊆ G. Therefore, G = N (H).
Conversely, let N (H) = G. Then g ∈ G =⇒ g ∈ N (H) =⇒ gHg −1 = H.
Thus we have gHg −1 = H forall g ∈ G.
Therefore, H is a normal subgroup of G.
Definition 5.2. If a, b ∈ G, then b is said to be a conjugate of a in G if there
exists an element c ∈ G such that b = c−1 ac. When b is conjugate to a, we denote
this relation by b ∼ a. Thus b ∼ a if b = c−1 ac. This relation is also called a
Conjugacy.
Note: If G is abelian, then for any c ∈ G, we have c−1 ac = c−1 ca = a. In other-
words, the conjugate of ′ a′ is ′ a′ itself (also known as self conjugate element).
5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 61 5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 62 5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 63

Lemma 5.1. Conjugacy is an equivalence relation on a group G. Lemma 5.2. N (a) is a subgroup of G. of a and the right coset of N (a). So if G is a finite group, then Ca means the
number of distinct elements in C(a), the number of distinct right coset of N (a) in
Proof. (i) Since e−1 ae = a, e ∈ G, ′ a′ is a conjugate of ′ a′ in G. i.e., a ∼ a. Proof. For x, y ∈ N (a), we have ax = xa and ya = ay. Therefore (xy)a = x(ya) =
o(G)
G. Therefore index of Na in G. Hence o(N (a))
.
∴ The relation is reflexive. x(ay) = (xa)y = (ax)y = a(xy) =⇒ xy ∈ N (a). Further, from ax = xa, we have
o(G)
x−1 a = ax−1 . Therefore x−1 ∈ N (a) and hence N (a) is a subgroup of G.
P
Corollary 5.1. If G is a finite, then o(G) = , where summation runs
(ii) Let a ∼ b. Then there exists an element c ∈ G such that b = c−1 ac a
o(N (a))
−1 over one element a in each conjugate class.
theref orecbc =a Note 5.2.
theref orea = (c−1 )−1 bc−1 for c−1 ∈ G
P
(i) N (a) is not necessarily a normal subgroup of G. Proof. Since o(G) = a Ca , by above theorem we have result.
theref oreb ∼ a
(ii) Since ex = xe ∀x ∈ G, N (e) = G. Note 5.3. The equation in this corolary is often called the class equation.
∴ The relation is symmetric.
(iii) If G is an abelian group, N (a) = G ∀a ∈ G.
Lemma 5.3 (A). a ∈ Z(G) if and only if N (a) = G. If G is finite, then
(iii) Let a ∼ b and b ∼ c. Then there exist x, y ∈ G such that b = x−1 ax and (iv) ∩N (a) = Z(G), the centre of G. a ∈ Z(G) if and only if o(N (a)) = o(G).
c = y −1 by.
o(G)
But then we have, Theorem 5.1. If G is a finite group and a ∈ G, then Ca = . [In other- Proof. First if a ∈ Z(G) then ax = xa ∀x ∈ G [ By definition of Z(G) ].
o(N (a))
c = y −1 by = y −1 x−1 axy = (xy)−1 a(xy), xy ∈ G. words number of elements conjugate to a in G is the index of the normalizer of a ⇔ x ∈ N (a) ∀x ∈ G [ By definition of N (a) ].
∴ The relation is transitive. in G]. Conversely, if N (a) = G then a = xax−1 ∀x ∈ G ⇔ ax = xa ⇔ a ∈ Z(G). Finally
Hence the conjugacy is an equivalence relation. if G is finite, o(N (a)) = o(G)
Proof. Suppose x and y belong to some right coset of Na in G then y ∈ (N (a))x.
−1 Derivation of a class equation:
Definition 5.3. The equivalence classes under the relation b ∼ a if and only if Therefore y = nx, where n ∈ N (a). Since n ∈ N (a), we have a = n an or

b = c−1 ac, c ∈ G, are called a Conjugate classes. na = an. Now y −1 = x−1 n−1 . Therefore Theorem 5.2. For a finite group G,

Definition 5.4. Let ∼ be the conjugacy relation in a group G,defined by a ∼ b iff o(G)
y −1 ay = x−1 n−1 anx [y −1 = x−1 n−1 , y = nx]
X
o(G) = o(Z(G)) +
a = x−1 bx ∀x ∈ G. Then the equivalence class of ′ a′ , denoted by C(a) is called the o(N (a))
N (a)̸=G
= x−1 n−1 nax [∵ n ∈ N (a)]
conjugacy class of an element ′ a′ in G.
= x−1 ax. Proof. The conjugacy relation ∼ is defined in G by a ∼ b if a = x−1 bx ∀ x ∈ G
i.e., C(a) = b ∈ G : b ∼ a = b ∈ G : b = x−1 ax = x−1 ax : x ∈ G.
becomes an equivalence relations. Hence the equivalence class C(a) = {x−1 a :
Note 5.1. Therefore x and y yield the same conjugate of a. x ∈ G}. Which are either identical or disjoint partition of G. i.e., G = ∪a∈G Ca .

(i) o(C(a)) = Ca Next, let x and y ∈ distinct right coset of Na . We claim x−1 ax ̸= y −1 ay. Therefore
For if x−1 ax = y −1 ay, we have (yx−1 )a = a(yx−1 ), (yx−1 ) ∈ N (a). Therefore
(ii) o(G) = o(∪a∈G C(a)), where two conjugacy class C(a) and C(b) are either X X o(G)
yx−1 = n for some n ∈ N (a) =⇒ y = nx ∈ (N (a))x. In other words, xy belongs o(G) = Ca =
P
disjoint or identical (i.e., o(G) = a∈G Ca ). Here, the summation runs o(N (a))
through a set a ∈ G, using only one a from each conjugate class. a∈G a∈G
to same right coset (N (a))x of N (a). This contradicts the fact that they are in X o(G) X o(G)
(iii) If G is a group and a ∈ G, then N (a) = x ∈ G/xa = ax is called the nor- = + −→ (1)
different cosets. Thus, there is a one-one correspondence between the conjugate o(N (a)) o(N (a))
malizer of a in G. N (a)∈G N (a)̸=G
5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 64 5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 65 5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 66

Clearly, a ∈ Z if and only if N (a) = G. If G is finite, a ∈ Z if and only if dihedral group D8 . By class equation of finite group, wehave
o(N (a)) = o(G). Equation (1) in view of above lemma, we have
C[1] ={1−1 11, a−1 1a, (a2 )−1 1a2 , b−1 1b, (ab−1 )1ab, (ba)−1 1ba} C[1] ={1} for 1 ∈ Z(D8 )
X o(G) X o(G) ={1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1} = {1}. C[a] ={a, a2 } = C[a3 ] for a, ae ∈
/ Z(D8 )
o(G) = +
o(G) o(N (a)) C[a2 ] ={a2 } for a2 ∈ Z(D8 )
a∈Z(G) a∈GorN
/ (a)̸=G
Therfore, C[1] = 1. i.e., 1 is self-conjugate and 1 ∈ Z(S3 ). C[b] ={b, a2 b} = C[a2 b] for b, a2 b ∈
/ Z(D8 )
X X o(G)
= 1+ C[ab] ={ab, ba} = C[ba] for ab, ba ∈ / Z(D8 ).
o(N (a))
N (a)=G N (a)̸=G C[a] = {1−1 a1, a−1 aa, (a2 )−1 aa2 , b−1 ab, (ab−1 )a(ab), (ba)−1 a(ba)}
X o(G) ∴ C[a] = {a, a2 }, not a self-conjugate. Therefore, (D8 ) = {1, a2 } are self-conjugacy element (i.e., 1, a2 ∈ Z(D8 ))
=o(∩a∈G N (a)) +
o(N (a)) ∴ C[a2 ] = {a, a2 }, a ∈
/ Z(S3 ). and a2 ∈ / Z(S3 ). and C[a], C[b] and C[ab] are distinct conjugacy classes. Therefore, wehave
N (a)̸=G
X o(G) Similarly, C[b] = {1−1 b1, a−1 ba, (a2 )−1 ba2 , b−1 bb, (ab−1 )b(ab), (ba)−1 b(ba)}
o(G) =o(Z(G)) + . N (a) ={1, a, a2 , a2 a3 }
o(N (a)) = {b, ba, ab} = C[ba].
N (a)̸=G
N (b) ={1, a2 , b, ab}, and
Therefore Z(S3 ) = {1} and C[a], C[b] are the distinct conjugacy classes. So N (ab) ={1, a2 , ab, ba}.
we have to calculate N (a) and N (b).
Note 5.4. If G is abelian, we observe that N (a) = G. Hence {a ∈ G : N (a) ̸=
X o(D8 )
i.e., N (a) = {1, a, a2 }, N (b) = {1, b} (it has to be 2- element). Consider, o(Z(D8 )) + = o(G)
o(N (x))
N (x)̸=G
G} = ϕ, the empty set. Therefore
X o(S3 )
Consider, o(Z(S3 )) + = o(G) (Here x = a, b, ab. i.e., x represents distinct conjugacy classes.) o(Z) +
o(G) o(N (x))
o(D8 ) 8 8 8
X N (x)̸=G
= 0. P
⇒ 2 + + + = 8 = o(D8 ).
o(N (a)) x=a,b,ab
o(N (x)) 4 4 4
N (a)̸=G
(Here x = a, b. i.e., x represents distinct conjugacy classes.) Excercise 5.3. Let G be a group and e ̸= a ∈ G such that o(G) = finite. Suppose
By class equation of finite group G, o(G) = o(Z(G)), where, Z(G) is a subgroup
of G. G = Z(G). Thus G is abelian if and only if G = Z(G). X o(S3 ) G has only two conjugate classes. Then show that G is a finite group of order 2.
⇒ o[{1}] +
x=a,b
o(N (x)) Solution: Let e ̸= b ∈ G. Since G has only 2 conjugate classes, namely e and
Excercise 5.2. Verify the class equation for C(a), b ∈ C(a) ∴ b = g −1 ag for some g ∈ G. Therefore o(b) = o(a) for some
o(S3 ) o(S3 ) g ∈ G. Suppose o(G) = mn, m > 1, n > 1. Then o(am ) = m. Since order of all
(i) Symmetric group S3 , and ⇒1+ + non identity elements in G is same, o(am ) = mn.
o(N (a)) o(N (b))

(ii) Dihedral group D8 . 6 6 ∴ n = mn =⇒ m = 1; a contradiction

⇒1+ + = 6. ∴ o(G) = p = prime.
3 2
Solution.
∴ o(b) = pf oralle ̸= b ∈ G.
(ii) Let ρ0 = 1, ρ1 = a, δ1 = b. Then D8 = {ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 , ρ3 , δ1 , δ2, β1 , β2} becomes
(i) Let ρ0 = 1, ρ1 = a, δ1 = b. Then S3 = {ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 , δ1 , δ2 , δ3 } become S3 =
D8 = {1, a, a2 , a3 , b, ab, a2 b, a3 b}, where a4 = b2 = 1, a2 b = ba. Thus, D8 =
{1, a, a2 , b, ab, ba}, where a3 = b2 = 1, a2 b = ba and ba2 = ab etc. Thus Suppose p ̸= 2. Then a2 ̸= e =⇒ a2 ∈ C(a). Therefore, a2 = g −1 ag for some g ∈
⟨a, b⟩, a4 = b2 = 1, a3 = b = ba, ... etc., is the generator relation form of
S3 = ⟨a, b⟩ : a3 = b2 = 1, a2 b = ba, ba2 = ab, ... etc., is the generator G =⇒ (a2 )2 = (g −1 ag)2 =⇒ = g −1 a2 g =⇒ = g −1 (g −1 ag)g =⇒ = g −2 ag 2 =⇒
2
relation form of symmetric group S3 . By class equation of finite group, a2 = g −2 ag 2 .
wehave In this way, we have a2 = g −p ag p . Since o(g) = o(a) = p =⇒ a2 = eae = a =⇒
p p

2p −1
a = e =⇒ o(a) = p|2p − 1.
By Fermet’s Theorem, p|2p − 2 =⇒ p(2p − 1) − (2p − 2) = 1, which is a
5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 67 5. UNIT : CLASS EQUATION OF FINITE GROUPS 68 69

contradiction. Therefore p = 2 =⇒ o(G) = 2. So o(b) = 2 for all e ̸= b ∈ G =⇒
G is abelian. Hence, every conjugate class in G is of length one. Since G has only
2 classes, order of G is 2.
Note: There exist an infinite groups in which no non-trivial element has finite
order and group has only 2 conjugate classes. Therefore, it is necessary to assume
that there exist e ̸= a ∈ G such that o(a) = finite.
Excercise 5.4. Let H ̸= G be a subgraph of a finite group G. Show that G cannot
1. Show that the centralizer Z(G) is a subgroup of a group G. 6 UNIT : Applications of Class Equation
G
2. If G is a group, Z(G) its center, and if is cyclic, prove that G must
Z(G)
be abelian.
OBJECTIVES
3. List all the conjugate classes in S4 , find the Ca ’s and verify the class equation.
After studying this unit you will be able to:
4. Find the number of conjugates of (1,2) (3,4) in Sn for n ≥ 4.

be expressed as union of conjugates of H. 5. Find the form of all elements commutating with (1,2) (3,4) in Sn for n ≥ 4. • understanding the concepts of prime number in class equation;

o(G) 6. If N is a normal subgroup of G and a ∈ G, show that every conjugate of a

Solution. The number of conjugates of H in G is given by . So • define the concepts of prime group (p-group) with examples;
o(N (H)) in G is also in N .
7. Let x, y ∈ Sn . Then show that x and y are conjugate in Sn if and only if • understanding fundamental properties of p-group;
o(G)
o(∪x−1 Hx) ≤ (o(H) − 1) + 1 they have the same cycle structure.
o(N (H))
• explain the concepts of p-groups by applying class equation of finite groups;
o(G) 8. Verify the class equation for the Hamiltonian quternion Q8 , where Q8 =
≤ (o(H) − 1) + 1 as H ≤ N (H) {±1, ±i, ±j, ±k : i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1, ij = −ji, jk = −jk = i · · · }. [Hint.
o(H) • identify the group of order is abelian or cyclic by applying class equation of
o(G) C[1] = {1} and C[−1] = {−1}. Therefore 1, −1 ∈ Z(Q8 ), C[−1] = {−1}.
= o(G) − +1 Also, C[i] = {i, −i} = C[−i], C[j] = {j, −j} = C[−j] and C[k] = {k, −k} = finite groups;
o(H)
C[−k]. Further, N (i) = {±1, ±i}, N (j) = {±1, ±j} and N (k) = {±1, ±k}.
o(G) 8 8 8
≤ o(G) − 2 + 1 as ≥2 Finally, wehave o(Q8 ) = 2 + + + = 8]. • solve problems by applying class equation of finite groups.
o(H) 4 4 4
= o(G) − 1 < o(G)
REFERENCES
Thus, the group G cannot be written as union of conjugates of H. INTRODUCTION
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas The conjugacy class of a group forms an equivalence relation which permits the
Publishing House, 2021. partitioning of a finite group G in the conjugacy classes of every elements of the
SUMMARY 3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009. finite group. One of the applications of the class equation is to verify whether the
Finite groups are the modulo multiplication groups, point groups, cyclic groups, 4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015. given group with prime power order is abelian or not / cyclic or not.
dihedral groups, symmetric groups, alternating groups, and so on. The equivalence 5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com- The structure of p-groups :
classes determined by this relation are referred to as the conjugacy classes of G. putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
A group G is the disjoint union of its conjugacy classes. Moreover the conjugacy
Definition 6.1. A finite group G is said to be p group for some prime p if every
class of the identity element of G contains no other element of G. 6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002. element of G has order a power of p. In such a case, G itself is a group of prime
KEYWORDS
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley power order.
Conjugate elements, Normalizer, Centralizer, Equivalence relation, Conjugacy & Sons, 2003.
class, Self-conjugacy class, Class equation of finite group. Note 6.1.
8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS (i) o(p) = 1 = p0 .
6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 70 6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 71 6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 72

(ii) Every group of prime order, cyclic, abelian p group. Since each term of the sum, in the left hand side is divisible by p, it follows Let now H be a non-trivial subgroup of G i.e. H ̸= e, G. Since G is abelian,
pn
that, p | pn −
P
na <n na . Hence, p | o(Z(G)), where o(Z(G)) > 0 as e ∈ Z(G) H is normal in G. If p|o(H), then, by induction hypothesis as o(H) < o(G), H
(iii) The group (Z4 , 04 ) (Integer modulo 4) of order 4, cyclic and abelian 2 group p
i.e., o(Z(G)) is a positive integer divisible by a prime p. is abalian. There exist x ∈ H such that o(x) = p, x ∈ H =⇒ x ∈ G, result is
(4 = 22 ).
Therefore o(Z(G)) > 1, i.e., there must be an element other than e in Z(G). again true.
 
(iv) The Klein-4 group K4 is a cyclic, abelian 2 group. Thus Z(G) ̸= {e}. G
Let p ∤ o(H). Since o(G) = o(G/H).o(H) and p|o(G), we find p|o H
 
G
Corollary 6.1. If o(G) = p2 , where p is a prime number, then G is abelian (or, But p ∤ o(H), hence we have p|o(G/H). Also o H < o(G) as H ̸= e and G is
(v) The dihedral group D8 of order 8 is an acyclic and non-abelian two group
G G
3 Every group of order p2 is always an abelian group ). abelian means H
is abelian. So, by induction hypothesis H
has an element Hy of
because (8 = 2 ).
order p, we have (Hy)p = H =⇒ Hy p = H =⇒ y p = H =⇒ (y p )t = e, where
Proof. Since, the centre Z(G) of G is a subgroup of G, by Lagranges theorem
(vi) The hamiltonian quaternion Q8 is acyclic and non-abelian. t = o(H). Also, this implies (y t )p = e =⇒ o(y t )|p =⇒ o(y t ) = 1 or p.
o(Z(G)) | o(G). But o(G) = p2 . Therefore o(Z(G)) | p2 .
If y t = e (i.e.o(y t ) = 1), then Hy t = He = H
(vii) The symmetric group S3 is the smallest non-abelian group not a p-group Thus o(Z(G)) = 1 or p or p2 .
(because it contains elements of order 2 and 3). From the above theorem, it follows that o(Z(G)) > 1.
=⇒ (Hy)t = H
Therefore, o(Z(G)) = p or p2 .
We observe that a group of order 22 is abelian but a group of 23 need not be =⇒ o(Hy)|t
Now, if o(Z(G)) = p, then there exists an element a ∈ G such that a ∈
/ Z(G),
abelian. However both D8 and Q8 , though non-abelian have a non-trivial centre. =⇒ p|t = o(H), a contradiction.
then N (a) in G satisfies Z ⊂ N (a) ⊂ G, since a ∈ N (a) and a ∈
/ Z(G). Then we
Note that S3 has a trivial centre.
have o(N (a)) > o(Z(G)) = p.
Therefore, o(y t ) = p, y t ∈ G. So result is true in this case.
Theorem 6.1. If o(G) = pn , where p is a prime number, then Z(G) ̸= {e} (or. Again, by Lagranges theorem o(N (a)) | [o(G) = p2 ].
By induction, result is true for all abelian graups.
Every p group has a non-trivial centre). Therefore, we must have, p2 = o(N (a)) = o(G).
Let now G be any group. We again use induction on o(G). The result is vacuously
Therefore, a ∈ Z(G), because a ∈ Z(G) if and only if N (a) = G. This is a
Proof. From the class equation of finite group, we have true for o(G) = 1. Assume result is true for all groups with order less then o(G).
contradiction.
If o(T ) < o(G) and p|o(T ) then by induction hypothesis, there exist x ∈ T such
X O(G) Therefore o(Z(G)) ̸= p. So we must have o(Z(G)) = p2 = o(G) ⇒ Z(G) = G.
o(G) = o(Z(G)) + −→ (1). that o(x) = p. So, result is true in this case.
O(N (a))
N (a)̸=G Therefore G is abelian.
Assume p ∤ o(T ) for all o(T ) < o(G), Consider class equation of G.
Clearly, N (a) is a proper subgroup [N (a) ̸= G] of G under the condition Theorem 6.2 (Cauchy’s theorem). Let G be a finite group and suppose p is a
N (a) ̸= G. So, by Lagrange’s theorem, we have o(N (a)) | o(G). Therefore
X o(G)
prime such that p|o(G), then there exist x ∈ G such that o(x) = p. o(G) = o(Z(G)) + .
o(N (G))
o(N (a)) = pna (say) where na < n. a∈Z(G)

pn Proof. We first prove the result when G is abelian. We prove if by induction on

Therefore from (1) we have, pn = o(Z(G)) +
P
na <n Now a ∈ Z(G) =⇒ N (a) < o(G), we have
pna n = o(G). Result is vacuously true when n = 1. Assume it to be true for all groups
o(G) o(G) P o(G)
X pn having order less than o(G). If G has no non-trivial subgroup, then G is cyclic p ∤ o(N (a)) =⇒ p| o(N (a))
(as o(G) = o(N (a))
.o(N (a)).Therefore p| o(N (a))
.
n a∈Z(G)
/
⇒p − = o(Z(G)).
n <n
pna group of prime order. Since p|o(G), o(G) = p, G = ⟨x⟩ such that o(x) = o(G) = p. Since p|o(G), we have p|o(G) −
P o(G)
= o(Z(G)).
a o(N (a))
a∈Z(G)
/
So result follows.
6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 73 6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 74 6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 75

But p ∤ o(T ) forall o(T ) < o(G) and Z(G) = (G) =⇒ G is abelian. Solution: Let g = g1 , g2 , ..., gn be distinct elements of a group G such that Solution. Let X = C(a), a ̸= x. We show that T (X) = C(T a).
But result is true for abelian groups. Hence, by induction, result is true for all gi−1 xgi = y. Let S = {g = g1 , g2 , ...gn }.
groups. We show that S = N (x)g. Let y ∈ T (X) =⇒ y = T x, x ∈ X = C(a)

Suppose s ∈ S then s = gi for some i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n. = T (g −1 ag), g ∈ G

Theorem 6.3. Let G be a finite group. Then G is a p-group if and only if
n
If s = g1 = g, then s = g = eg ∈ N (x)g. = T (g)−1 T (a)T (g) ∈ C(T (a))
o(G) = p .
If s ̸= g1 then s = gi , i ̸= 1 and g −1 xg = gi−1 xgi ∴ T (X) ⊆ C(T a)
Proof. Suppose G is a p-group. Let q be a prime dividing o(G). By Cauchy’s =⇒ gi g −1 x = xgi g −1
r
Again z ∈ C(T a) =⇒ z = h−1 T (a)h, h ∈ G
theorem there exists x ∈ G such that o(x) = q. But o(x) = p as G is a p- =⇒ gi g −1 ∈ N (x)
group. Therefore q = pr =⇒ q = p. So, p is the only prime dividing o(G). (T h1 )−1 T aT h
=⇒ gi ∈ N (x)
n n
Thus o(G) = p . Conversely, let o(G) = p . let x ∈ G. Then o(x)|o(G) = p n (as T is onto =⇒ h = T h1 , h1 ∈ G)
=⇒ s ∈ N (x)g or that S ⊆ N (x)g.
=⇒ o(x) = pr . Therefore, every element of G has order which is some power of Again z ∈ N (x)g =⇒ z = hg, h ∈ N (x) T h−1
1 T aT h

p. So, G is a p-group. =⇒ z −1 xz = g −1 h−1 xhg T (h−1 ah)

−1 −1
Note 6.2. =⇒ z xz = g xg as xh = hx ∈ T (C(a)) = T (X)
=⇒ z −1 xg = y T (X) = C(T a).
(i) Any finite p-group has non-trivial centre.
=⇒ z = g1 for some i

(ii) A p-group may or may not be abelian. =⇒ z ∈ S Hence T (X) is a conjugate class of a group G. The following theorem helps us to
=⇒ N (x)g ⊆ S determine the order of conjugate class of an element.
Excercise 6.1. Suppose a ∈ G has only two conjugates in G then show that N (a)
Hence S = N (x)g, and thus o(S) = o(N (x)g) = o(N (x)). Excercise 6.4. Show that an abelian group of order pq (i.e., o(G) = pq) is cyclic,
is normal subgroup of G.
−1 Note 6.3. As ggi−1 x = xggi−1 for all i = 1, ..., n ggi−1 ∈ N (x) for all i. Therefore where p and q are distinct prime numbers.
Solution: Let a, g ag be two conjugates of a in a group G. We show
G = N (a) ∪ N (a)g. N (x)g = N (x)gi for all i. Solution. By Cauchy’s theorem, there exist a, b ∈ G such that o(a) = p, o(b) = q.

Let x ∈ G. Consider x−1 ax = a or g −1 ag. Also, as (p, q) = 1, ab = ba, we have o(ab) = 0(a).o(b) = pq. i.e., G has an element
Excercise 6.3. Suppose X is a conjugate class of non- trivial element of a group
If x−1 ax = a, then xa = ax =⇒ x ∈ N (a). ab of order equal to o(G). Hence G is cyclic.
G. Let T ∈ Aut(G). Show that T (X) = {T (x)|x ∈ X} is a conjugate class of
−1 −1 −1 −1
If x ax = g ag, then xg a = axg . Note 6.4. In view of above problems, abelian groups of order 6, 10, 15 etc., are
elements of G.
This implies that xg −1 ∈ N (a). Therefore x ∈ N (a)g. all cyclic.
Hence G = N (a) ∪ N (a)g and thus index of N (a) in G is 2, showing thereby that Note 6.5. If o(Z(G)) = p, then o G


= o(G)
= p2
= p, a prime. This
Z(G) o(Z(G)) p
N (a) is normal subgraph of a group G. implies G
is cyclic. Therefore G is abelian.
Z(G)

Excercise 6.2. Let G be a finite group and x, y be conjugate elements of G. Show Excercise 6.5. Let G be a non-abelian group of order p3 . Determine o(Z(G))
that the number of distinct elements g ∈ G such that g −1 xg = y is o(N (x)). and k = number of conjugate classes of G.
6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 76 6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 77 6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 78

n
Solution: Since G is non-abalian, there exist a ∈ G, such that Z(G) ⊂ N (a) ⊂ G Excercise 6.7. Let G be a group of order p . Then show that o(Z(G)) > 1, where 3. For any primes p and q, show that any group of order pq is not simple. where
(by a group of order p2 is ableian, where p is prime). p is a prime, n is a positive integer and Z(G) is a centralizer of G. a simple group is a nontrivial group whose only normal subgroups are the
Now o(Z(G))|o(G) = p3 =⇒ o(Z(G)) = 1, p, p2 or p3 trivial group and the group itself.
Solution. If G = Z(G), o(Z(G)) = o(G) > 1. If G ̸= Z(G), then there exist
Similarly, o(N (a)) = 1, p, p2 or p3 .
some a ∈ G such that a ∈
/ Z(G). Then N (a) ⊂ G [as a ∈
/ Z(G) =⇒ at ̸= ta for 4. Show that an abelian group of order 15 is cyclic.
o(Z(G)) ̸= 1 =⇒ o(Z(G)) ̸= p3 as Z(G) ̸= G
some t ∈ G, that is t ∈
/ N (a), t ∈ G].
so o(Z(G)) = p or p2 . o(G) 5. Show that the symmetric group S3 is the smallest non-abelian group not a
Therefore o(N (a)) = pm , m < n. That is, = pn − m, n − m > 0. =⇒
2
Similarly, o(N (a)) = p or p and as Z(G) ⊂ N (a). n−m
Po(N (a)) p-group.
o(C(a)) = p = multiple of p Therefore a∈Z(G)
/ o(C(a))= multiple of p = kp,
We find o(Z(G)) = p and o(N (A)) = p2 .
(say). By class equation of G, we have pn = o(G) = o(Z(G)) + a∈Z(G) 6. If G is a finite non-abelian p-group, then show that p2 | o(Aut(G)).
P
/ o(C(a)).
Now, let k be the total number of conjugate clesses. Since G = ∪a∈G C(a).
This implies that o(Z(G)) = pn − kp = p(pn−1 − k) =⇒ p | o(Z(G)). Therefore
o(G) =
P
o(C(a)) =
P P
+ +a ∈/ Z(G)o(C(a)) 7. Let G be a finite group with the property that if H, K are two subgroups
a∈G a∈Z(G) o(Z(G)) > 1.
3
P of G then either H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H. Show that G is cyclic p-group.
i.e., p = o(Z(G)) + o(C(a))
a∈Z(G)
/ SUMMARY
As number of conjugate classes when a ∈ Z(G) is o(Z(G)) = p 8. Let G be a finite cyclic p-group. Show that if H, K be any two subgroups
The class equation implies a nontrivial finite p-group has a nontrivial center, or
[a ∈ Z(G) ⇔ C(a) = {a}, i.e., o(C(a)) = 1] of G then either H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H.
more generally that a nontrivial normal subgroup of a nontrivial finite p-group G
So remaining classes are k − p, each will have given by
o(G) p3 contains a nontrivial element of the center of G. (i.e., there are infinite groups REFERENCES
o(C(a)) = o(N (a))
= p2
=p
3 2 where every element has p-power order and the center is trivial, so the finiteness
Hence p = p + (k − p)p =⇒ k = p + p − 1. 1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
assumption on the group is important.) This has standard further consequences
Excercise 6.6. If index of Z(G) in a group G is n then show that any conjugate for finite p-groups, although they are no longer direct consequences of the class 2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
class has at most n-elements. equation. Publishing House, 2021.

o(G) o(G)
Solution. We have n = and o(C(a)) = . 3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
o(Z(G)) o(N (a))
Since Z(G) ⊆ N (a) always o(Z(G)) | o(N (a)). KEYWORDS
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
This implies o(N (a)) = k.o(Z(G)). Therefore Application of Class equation of finite group, prime group (or p- group), prime
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
o(G) power order, Cauchy’s theorem.
o(C(a)) = putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
o(N (a))
n.o(Z(G)) ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS
= 6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
k.o(Z(G))
n Wesley Longman, 2002.
= . 1. By using p-group, verify wheather group of order 36 is abelian? Justify.
k
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
Thus, maximum value of o(C(G)) is when k = 1, proving the result. 2. Show that every group of order 49 is an abelian group.
& Sons, 2003.
6. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF CLASS EQUATION 79 80 7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 81

8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition, 7 UNIT : Sylow’s Theorems α
Theorem 7.1. If p is a prime number and p | o(G). Then G has a subgroup of
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013. order pα .

OBJECTIVES Proof. Since pα | o(G), we have o(G) = pα m for some integer m. Let pr | m and
pr+1 ∤ m. Let M denote the set of all subset of G containing pα element. Then,
After studying this unit you will be able to:
consider

• define the concepts of the Sylow’s theorem;  

pα m
o(M) =  
• understanding the cconjugacy relation of the Sylow subgroups; pα
(pα m)!
• identifying the number of Sylow subgroups; = α
(p m − pα )!pα !
(pα m)(pα m − 1) · · · (pα m − i) · · · (pα m − pα + 1)
• explain the p-sylow subgroups with suitable examples; = .
(pα )(pα − 1) · · · (pα − i) · · · (pα − pα + 1)

• identify the group of order is abelian or cyclic by applying class equation of Note that the power of p which divides (pα − i) is same as that of p which
finite groups; divides (pα − i). Hence these powers of p gets cancelled except the power of p

• solve problems by applying class equation of finite groups. which divides m in the numerator.
Because  
pα m
pr |(pα m) and pr+1 ∤   −→ (1)
INTRODUCTION pα

According to Lagrange’s theorem the order of a subgroup of a finite group divides In M, we define M1 ∼ M2 if there exists an element g ∈ G such that M1 g = M2 .

the order of the group. But if an integer k divides O(G), then G need not have The relation M1 ∼ M2 is an equivalence relation. Since M1 e = M2 , where e is

a subgroup of order k. As an example for this fact we ca see that A4 has no identity element in G, we have M1 ∼ M2 , therefore the relation is reflexive.
4! Let M1 ≈ M2 . Then M1 g = M2 for some g ∈ G. (∵ M1 = M2 g −1 , where
subgroup of order 6 though 6|o(A4 ) (Note : o(A4 ) = = 12).
2
However, we prove, in sylow theorem, that if a number, which is a power of a g −1 ∈ G). We have M2 ∼ M1 . Therefore relation is symmetric. Let M1 ∼ M2

prime, divides the order of the group G, then G has a subgroup of prime power and M2 ∼ M3 . Then M1 g = M2 and M2 g = M3 for some g1 , g2 ∈ G. Therefore

order. M3 = M2 g2 = M1 g1 g2 , where g1 , g2 ∈ G, we have M1 ∼ M3 .

Therefore the relation is Transitive.
Hence the relation ‘M1 ∼ M2 ’ is an equivalence realtion. We denote the
equivalence class M ∈ M by C(M ). i.e., C(M ) = {M 1 ∈ M/M 1 ∼ M }

Sylow’s First Theorem : Let o(C(M )) = CM . This equivalence relation induces a decomposition of M
7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 82 7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 83 7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 84

into disjoint equivalence classes. o(G) (ii) Let x ∼ y. Then y = axb for some a ∈ A, b ∈ B. Therefore a y, b −1 −1
=x
Therefore CM 1 = or CM 1 · o(H) = o(G).
o(H)
, where a−1 ∈ A, b−1 ∈ B. Therefore y ∼ x. Therefore the relation is
P
Therefore we have o(M) = M CM , where the summation runs over the Therefore n · o(H) = o(G) −→ (2) [∵ CM 1 = n].
elements of M and only one M is taken from each equivalence class. Finally, since pr+1 ∤ n and pα+r | pα m = n · o(H), it must be follow that Symmetric.
We claim that there exist atleast one equivalence class C(M ) such that pr+1 ∤ pα | O(H), and so o(H) ≥ pα . −→ (3) (iii) Let x ∼ y and y ∼ z. Then y = axb, z = cyd for some a, c ∈ A and
(CM ). However, if m1 ∈ M1 then for all h ∈ H, m1 h ∈ M1 . Thus, M1 has atleast b, d ∈ B therefore z=cyd=caxbd, where ca ∈ A and ad ∈ B. Therefore
For, if pr+1 ∤ (CM ) for some M , then O(H) elements. But M1 was a subset of G containing pα elements. Thus pα ≥ x ∼ z. Therefore the relation is Transitive.
  o(H). −→ (4)
α Hence, (A, B) relation is an Equivalence relation.
X p m
pr+1 | (CM ) = O(M) =   From (3) and (4) it follows that O(H) = pα .
M pα
Thus, G has a subgroup H of order pα Note 7.2. The equivalence class of x ∈ G is the set AxB = {axb/a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
This contradicts (1), We call the set AxB, a double coset of A, B ∈ G so, G = Ux∈G AxB (i.e., partition
Hence the theorem.
So, let C(MD ) = {M1 , M2 , · · · , Mn } be such an equivalence class in M where G into mutually disjoint equivalence classes)
Corollary 7.1. If pm | o(G), pm+1 ∤ o(G), then the group G has a subgroup of
pr+1 | n. By our definition of equivalence in M , for each i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
order pm . Example 7.2. Let G = S3 = ⟨a, b⟩ : a3 = a2 = 1, a2 b = ba. If A = {1, a, a2 },
We have Mi g = Mj for some g ∈ G and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
B = {1, b} is a subgroup of G, then AxB = {axb/a ∈ A, b ∈ B} where x ∈ G. For
Now, we define H, by H = {g ∈ G/M1 g = M1 }, since M1 e = M1 , where e is Note 7.1.
x = 1; AxB = {1, b, a, ab, a2 , a2 b} = AB = S3 .
identity element in G, e ∈ H.
(i) The above corollary is usually called the Sylow’s First Theorem. For x = a;
Therefore H is non empty. Let a, b be any two elements of H. Then we have
M1 a = M1 and M1 b = M1 . (ii) A subgroup of a group G of order pα , where pm | o(G) but pm+1 ∤ o(G) is
AxB = AaB ={1a1, 1ab, aa1, aab, a2 a1, aa ab}
Therefore M1 ab = M1 b = M1 ⇒ ab ∈ H. Thus the closure law holds in H. called a p-sylow subgroup of G.
={a, ab, a2 , a2 b, a3 , a3 b}
Therefore H is subgroup of G. Next, suppose x and y lie in the same right coset
of H. Then y ∈ Hx (∵ x ∈ Hx). Therefore y = hx, for some h ∈ H. But, then Example 7.1. If o(G) = 54 = 33 · 2, then 33 | o(G) but 34 ∤ O(G). By the Sylows ={a, ab, a2 , ba, 1, b}

M1 y = M1 hx = M1 x (∵ h ∈ H = M1 h = M1 ). i.e., x and y give the same element theorem G has a subgroup H of order 33 . H is called a 3-sylow subgroup of G. =S3 .
in the equivalence class C(M ). Definition 7.1. Let G be a group, A < B subgroup of G. If x, y ∈ G, we define
For x = b;
Suppose x and y lie in the distinct right coset of H. then we claim that x ∼ y if y = axb for some a ∈ A, b ∈ B. or Let G be a finite group with two
M1 x ̸= M1 y. subgroups A and B. Call two elements x, y of G to be (A ⊂ B) related, if y = axb
AxB = Aa2 B ={1a2 1, 1a2 b, aa2 1, aa2 b, a2 a2 1, a2 a2 b}
For, if M1 x = M1 y, we have M1 xy −1 = M1 for some a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
−1 ={a2 , a2 b, a3 , a3 b, a4 , a4 b}
Therefore xy ∈ H ∵ x ∈ Hy. i.e., x and y lie in the same right coset Hy of
We verify that, this relation is an equivalence relation in G. ={a2 , ba, 1, b, a, ab}
H, which is a contradiction.
Thus there is a one-one correspondence between the elements in C(M1 ) and the (i) Since x = exe, where e ∈ A and e ∈ B we have x ∼ x. Therefore the relation =S3 .
right cosets of H in G. is Reflexive.
7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 85 7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 86 7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 87

2
For x = b, AxB = AbB = {b, 1, ab, a, ba, a } = S3 . From (1) and (2), we have have
All the double cosets AxB are just S3 . Like wise BxA = S3 for all x ∈ S3
o(A)o(B)
(∵ A∆S3 ). (what are BxB ? BxB = {x, xb, bx, bxb} =
̸ S3 ) o(AxB) =o(AxBx−1 ) o(AxB) =
o(A ∩ xBx−1 )
−1
BaB = {a, ab, ba, a2 }; Ba2 B = {a2 , ba, ab, a}, B1B = {1, b}; BbB = {1, b} = o(A)o(xBx ) n n
p p
= = m
o(A ∩ xBx−1 ) p
B, BabB = {a, a2 , ab, ba}; BbaB = {a, a2 , ab, ba}. o(A)o(B)
= . =p2n−m .
Therefore S3 = (BaB) ∪ (BbB). (i.e., union of disjoint double cosets) o(A ∩ xBx−1 )

Lemma 7.1. If A and B are finite subgroups of G, then o(H)o(K) Since 2n−m ≥ n+1. Therefore pn+1 | p2n−m . Therefore pn+1 | o(AxB)∀x ∈ G.
(By one of the previous theorem o(HK) = )
o(H ∩ K)
Therefore pn+1 | n+1
P
x o(AxB). Hence p | o(G), by(1). This is a contradiction.
O(A)O(B) Hence, the lemma follows.
O(AxB) = Therefore, we must have A = gBg −1 for some g ∈ G. In other words, A and
O(A ∩ xBx−1 )
Note 7.3. The above lemma is very significant and has a strong consequences B are conjugates to each other.
Proof. First define a function ϕ : AxB → AxBx−1 by ϕ(axb) = axbx−1 ∀ axb ∈ giving the Sylow second theorem.
AxB in ϕ(a1 xb1 ) = ϕ(a2 xb2 ). Note 7.4. The above theorem (Sylow second theorem) can also state that ”any
Sylow’s Second Theorem: two p-sylows subgroups of G (for the some prime p) are conjugate, that is, if A
⇒ a1 xb1 x−1 = a2 xb2 x−1 , ⇒ a1 xb1 = a2 xb2 . Therefore ϕ is one-one.
Next, for any elements a1 xb1 x−1 ∈ A1 xB1 x−1 , there exists axb ∈ AxB such Theorem 7.2. If G is a finite group, p a prime and pn | o(G) but pn+1 ∤ o(G), and B are two p-sylows subgroups of G, then A = xBx−1 for some x ∈ G”.

that, ϕ(axb) = a1 xb1 x−1 . Therefore ϕ is onto.
Therefore, ϕ is a bijective.
Since AxB and AxBx−1 are finite sets. Hence
o(AxB) = o(AxBx−1 ) −→ (1)
Since, B is a subgroup of a group G, so is xBx−1 . Hence
then any two subgroups of G of order pn are conjugate. In other words, any two
p-sylow subgroups are conjugates to each other.
Proof. Let A and B be any two p-sylow subgroup of a group G. Then o(A) =
pn = o(B). We Want to show that A = gBg −1 for every x ∈ G.
Decompose G into double cosets of A and B. i.e., G = ∪x AxB, where, only
one x is taken from each double coset. Then
Corollary 7.2. A p-sylow subgroup of a group G is unique if and only if it is
normal.
Proof. Suppose A is the unique p-sylow subgroup of G. By above theorem, A =
xAx−1 or Ax = xa x ∈ G. Therefore A is normal subgroup of a group G.
Conversely, If A is normal subgroup of a group G, then A = xAx−1 . But xAx−1 =
B for a p-sylow subgroup B of a group G.

X Therefore A = B, i.e., A is the unique p-sylow subgroup of G.

o(AxB) = o(B) −→ (2) o(G) = o(AxB) −→ (1)
x
o(G)
Lemma 7.2. The number of p-sylow subgroups in G equals , where P is
o(N (P ))
Since, A ̸= xbx−1 , for every x ∈ G, A ∩ xBx−1 is a proper subgroup of A. any p-sylow subgroup of G. In Particular, this number is advisor of o(G).

o(A ∩ xbx−1 ) = pm , where m < n [∵ o(A ∩ xBx−1 )/o(A)]. By previous lemma, we Proof. We have N (P ) = {x ∈ G : xP = P x or P = x−1 P x}.
First, let x and y lie in the same right coset of N (P ). Then y = nx, where
n ∈ N (P ).
Therefore nP = P n or n−1 P n = P .
7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 88 7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 89 7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 90

−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 n+1
Also, y = x n . Therefore y py = x n P nx = x P x (∵ n P n = P ). Sylow’s Third Theorem o(G) = o(N (P )) + P α.
o(G) pn+1 · α
Therefore, x and y yield the same conjugate of P . Therefore =1+ . −→ (4)
Theorem 7.3. The number of p-sylow subgroup of G, for a given prime, is con- o(N (P )) O(N (P ))
Next, Let x and y belong to distinct right cosets of N (P ). Then we claim that Since, N (P ) is a subgroup of G, o(N (P ))|o(G). Therefore o(G) | o(N (P )) is
gruent to 1 modulo p.
y −1 P y ̸= x−1 P x. an integer.
−1 −1
For, if y P y = x P x, we have P yx −1 −1
= yx P . Therefore yx −1
∈ N (P ). Proof. Let P be a p-sylow subgroup of G. We decompose G into double coset of Therefore P n+1 α | o(N (P )) is also an integer. Also, Since pn+1 ∤ o(G), P n+1
P
Therefore y ∈ (N (P ))x. P and P . i.e., G = ∪x P xP . Then, o(G) = x o(P xP ), where only one x is taken can not divide o(N (P )).
Therefore y and x lie in the same right coset N (P )x of N (P ), which is a from each double coset. Therefore But then P n+1 α | o(N (P )) must be divisible by p, so we can write (P n+1 · α |
contradiction. Hence y −1 P y ̸= x−1 P x. X X o(N (P )) = kp , where k is an integer equation (4) becomes
O(G) = O(P xP ) + O(P xP ) −→ (1) O(G)
In other words, x and y yield different conjugates of P . Thus there is a one-one Therefore = 1 + kp .
x∈N (P ) x∈N
/ (P ) o(N (P ))
correspondence between the distinct conjugates of P and the distinct right coset In other words, the number of p-sylow subgroups of G is congruent to 1 modulo
of N (P ). Since all P -sylow subgroups of G are conjugates to P , we have Now, if x ∈ N (P ), then xP = P x. p. Hence the theorem.
o(G) Therefore, P xP = P P x = P 2 x = P x.
The number of p-sylow subgroups = .
o(N (P ))
Hence the Lemma follows. Therefore, o(P xP ) = o(P x) = o(P ) = pn (where pn | o(G) but pn+1 | o(G)).
SUMMARY
Hence, in the first summation, we have o(P xP ) = o(P x). Therefore
In the field of finite group theory, the Sylow theorems are a collection of theorems
X X
O(P xP ) = O(P x) = O(N (P )). −→ (2) named after the Norwegian mathematician Peter Ludwig Sylow that give detailed
x∈N (P ) x∈N (P )
information about the number of subgroups of fixed order that a given finite group
(Which is merely the summation over distinct cosets of P in N (P ) and hence contains. In this unit, we discuss Sylow’s three theorems, the ideas developed in
equal to O(N (P ))). these theorems are very useful to known about the nature of a group by knowing
/ N (P ), then P ̸= xP x−1 .
Next, if x ∈ only its order.
Therefore o(P ∩ xpx−1 ) = pm , where m < n, therefore 2n − m ≥ n + 1
KEYWORDS
o(P )o(P ) P −1 .P −1
o(P xP ) = = = P 2n−m .
o(p ∩ xP x−1 ) pm p-sylow subgroups, Sylow’s first thoerem, Sylow’s second thoerem, Sylow’s third
Therefore, P n+1 | o(P xP ), for every x ∈
/ N (P ). Therefore thoerem.

X
P n+1 / o(P xP ). ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS

P n+1 1. State all sylow’s theorem and explain its significance.

Therefore o(P xP )) = P · α f or some α −→ (3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we have 2. Define p-sylow subgroup of a group G with suitable example.
7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 91
3. Discuss the nature of 3-sylow subgroup of a group of order 54.
4. If H is a p-sylow subgroup of a group G and K = N (H), then show that
N (K) = K.
5. If pm | o(G), pm+1 ∤ o(G), then show that the group G has a subgroup of
order pm [Hint. Take α = m and r = 0 in the proof of the Sylow’s first
theorem. ]
6. Show that any two p-sylows subgroups of G (for the some prime p) are
conjugate, that is, if A and B are two p-sylows subgroups of G, then A =
xBx−1 for some x ∈ G [Hint. Solution is anologous to the Sylow’s second
theorem].
7. Show that the number of p-sylow subgroup np of G is of the form np = 1+pk
or np ≡ 1(modp) [Hint. Solution is anologous to the Sylow’s third theorem].
8. Explain the role of Lagrange’s theorem in Sylow’s theorem.
REFERENCES
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Publishing House, 2021.
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002.
7. UNIT : SYLOW’S THEOREMS 92 93
7. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition, 8 UNIT : Applications of Sylow’s Theorem
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
8. J. A. Gallian: Contemporary Abstract algebra, 9th Edition, Narosa Pub- OBJECTIVES
lishing House. 2008.
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• explain the p-sylow subgroups with suitable examples;
• identify the group of order is abelian or not by applying class equation of
finite groups by using sylow’s thoerems;
• identify the group of order is cyclic or not by applying class equation of finite
groups by using sylow’s thoerems;
• solve problems by applying sylow’s thoerems of finite groups.
• understand the nature of group of order in terms of distinct primes.
INTRODUCTION
Sylow theorems are very useful in studying finite nonabelian groups. Here we deal
with the classical results of Sylow theorems and apply them to examples.
APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM
Theorem 8.1. Let G be a group of order pq, where p and q are primes with p < q
and q ≇ 1(modp). Then G is cyclic and abelian.
Proof. Let o(G) = pq. By Sylow first theorem, G has p-sylow subgroup of o(p)
and q-sylow subgroup of o(q). Also np ≡ 1(modp) and np | q, we get np ≡ 1(modp)
and np = 1, q. Therefore, np = 1 and np = q, q ≡ 1(modp) (i.e., 1 and q are 2
possible value of np ).
⇒ np = 1 is possible (∵ given q ≇ 1(modp)).
8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 94 8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 95 8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 96

 
Similarly, nq ≡ 1(modq) and nq /p we get, nq ≡ 1(modq) and nq = 1, p, nq = 1 pq pq Also, np ≡ (modp), np | q and nq ≡ 1(modq), mq | p from, np ≡ (modp), np | q,
we get i.e., o(AB) = = (i.e., o(A) = p, o(B) = q) o(AB) = pq =
o(A ∩ b) 1
and nq = q and p ≡ 1(modq), nq = 1 and q/p − 1. Therefore nq = 1 is possible (∵ o(G), Similarly o(BA) = o(G). we get np ≡ 1(modp), np = 1, q.
p − 1 | q given that p < q. Therefore p − 1 ∤ q which is not possible). Therefore G = AB = BA. Hence G is abelian. Similarlly, we have nq ≡ 1(modq), nq = 1, p.
Hence np = 1 and nq = 1. Finally, to prove that G is cyclic. Since A and B are groups of prime orders Therefore nq = 1 and nq = 1, p [ ∵ p ≡ 1(modq)or q | p − 1 ⇒ p < q, which is
Suppose A and B are the p-sylow and q-sylow subgroups respectively. Since they must be cyclic. not possible].
an unique sylow subgroup is normal, we have A ◁ G and B ◁ G, where o(A) = p Let A = ⟨a⟩, B = ⟨b⟩ so that ap = e and bq = e. Then If np = q, nq = 1. Since np = q > 1, we have np > 1 then p-sylow subgroup is
and o(B) = q. not unique and hence is not normal in G.
We now verify that AB = BA. Let ab ∈ AB. Then ab = bb−1 ab = b(b−1 ab). o(ab) = pq = o(G) −→ (1) Therefore G is non-abelian.
i.e., ab = ba1 ∈ BA where a1 = b−1 ab ∈ A (∵ A ◁ G). Therefore ab = ba1 ∈ BA.
Note 8.2. In view of above theorem, the group of order 6 = 2.3, 10 = 2.5, 21 =
Therefore ab ∈ AB ⇒ ba ∈ BA. Therefore G = ⟨ab⟩ and therefore G is cyclic.
3.7, 55 = 5.7, · · · are non-abelian.
Therefore, [(ab)pq = (ap )q )(bq )p ) = e.e, (ab)p q = e.
AB ⊂ BA −→ (i) Therefore o(ab) = pqo⟨ab⟩ = o(pq) = o(G) [i.e., G = ⟨a, b⟩]. By above theorems, we arrive at

Similarly, we can prove that Example 8.1. Theorem 8.3. Let o(G) = p2 q, where p and q are primes with p < q and q ≇
1(modp), then G is abelian.
1. Every group of order 15 is cyclic.
BA ⊂ AB −→ (ii)
Because o(G) = 15 = 3.5, where 3, 5 are primes with 3 < 5 and 5 ≇ 1(mod3). Note 8.3. In view of above theorem, the group of order 45 = 32 .5, 175 = 52 .7, .

. from (i) and (ii) we have AB = BA . . are abelian.

2. (i) Every group of order 33 = 3.11 (3 < 11, 11 ≇ 1(mod3)) is cyclic and
Now, To Show That G = AB = BA Theorem 8.4. Let o(G) = p2 q 2 , where p and q are primes with p < q and if
abelian.
o(A)o(B)
Consider, o(AB) = p ∤ (q 2 − 1)(i.e.p ∤ q − 1 and p ∤ q + 1), then G is abelian.
o(A ∩ B) (ii) Every group of order 35 = 5.7(5 < 7, 7 ≇ 1(mod5)) is cyclic and abelian
pq or there is no non-abelian group of order 33 or 35. Excercise 8.1. Show that every group of order 112 .132 is abelian.
o(AB) = −→ (1)
o(A ∩ B)
Note 8.1. The result fails for group of order 21 therefore o(G) = 21 = 3.7 where Solution. o(G) = 112 .132 . Therefore G has 11 sylow subgroups of order 112
But (A ∩ B) ⊂ A and (A ∩ B) ⊂ B
3 and 7 are primes with 3 < 7 but 7 ≡ 1(mod3). and 13 sylow subgroup of order 132 , where n11 ≡ 1(mod11), n11 ∤ 132 and n13 ≡
So, Lagrange’s theorem
1(mod13), n13 | 112 .
Theorem 8.2. Let o(G) = pq, where p and q are primes with p < q and q ≡
o(A ∩ B) o(A ∩ B) Therefore n11 = 1 and n13 = 1.
and 1(modp). Then G is non-abelian.
o(A) o(B)
Thus G has unique 11-sylow subgroup A and unique 13-sylow subgroup B.
o(A ∩ B) o(A ∩ B) Proof. Since o(G) = pq, it follows that G has p-sylow subgroup of order p and Clearly, these subgroups are normal subgroups. Then we can prove that G =
⇒ and , where (p, q) = 1, by virtue of p < q and q ≇
p q
1(modp). Therefore o(A∩B) = 1 and hence A∩B = {e}. By Sylow’s first theorem, q-sylow subgroup of order q. AB = BA. Hence G becomes abelian.
8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 97 8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 98 8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 99

pn pn p2n
Excercise 8.2. Let G be group of order 231. Show that 11-sylow subgroup of G Again, any two groups of order p have only identity in common and thus the Let x ∈ P ∩ N ⇒ x ∈ P, x ∈ N ⇒ x = e, x = θ(y) = y ⇒y =e⇒
o(y) = pr , r ≤ n. As pn+1 ∤ o(G), we have y p = e, r ≤ n ⇒ y p = (y p )p
r n r n−r
is contained in the centre of G. number of elements of order p in Sp is (1 + kp)(p − 1). Also any element of order =e⇒
p in Sp is a cycle of length p and the number of cycles of length p in Sp is (p − 1)! x = e ⇒ P ∩ N = {e}.
Solution. o(G) = 231 = 3 × 7 × 11
So (1 + kp)(p − 1) = (p − 1)!. Also, G ∼
=N ⇒
o(G)
= o(N ) ⇒ o(G) = o(P ).o(N ). But o(P N ) = o(P )o(N ) ⇒
P o(P )
The number of sylow 11-subgroups of G is 1 + 11k and (1 + 11k)|21. Clearly
Therefore, (p − 1)! ≡ −1(modp). o(G) = o(P N ) ⇒ P N = G. This proves (ii).
these k = 0.
Let z ∈ Z(P ), z ̸= e. Let g ∈ G. Since G = P N, g = xy, x ∈ P, y ∈ N .
So, Sylow 11-subgroup H of G is normal in G. Excercise 8.4. Let p be a prime dividing o(G) and (ab)p = ap bp for all a, b ∈ G.
′ ′ ′
Also P is normal in G, N is normal in G, P ∩ N = {e} ⇒ x′ y ′ = y ′ x′ for all
The number of Sylow 7-subgroups of G is 1 + 7k and (1 + 7k )|33. So, k = 0. Show that
x′ ∈ P, y ′ ∈ N . Now zg = z(xy) = (zx)y = (xz)y as z ∈ Z(P ) = x(zy) = x(yz) as
Thus, Sylow 7-subgroups of G is normal in G. (i) Sylow p- subgroup P is normal in G.
z ∈ P, y ∈ N = (xy)z = gz for all g ∈ G. Therefore z ∈ Z(G). Hence Z(G) ̸= {e},
o(H) = 11, o(K) = 7
(ii) there exist a normal subgroup N of G such that P ∩ N = {e} and G = P N . which proves (iii).
G G G
Now o( K ) = 33 = 3 × 11 and 3 ∤ (11 − 1), thus K
is cyclic and so K
is abelian.
′ ′ ′ (iii) G has non-trivial centre. Theorem 8.5. Let o(G) = 30. Show that
But G is smallest subgroup of G such that G/G is abelian (G denotes the
commutator subgroup of G). Solution. Let pn |o(G) and pn+1 ∤ o(G). Let H = {x ∈ G \ xp = e}. Then H ̸= φ
n
(i) either Sylow 3-subgroup or Sylow 5-subgroup is normal in G.
∴ G′ ⊆ K ⇒ o(G′ ) = 1 or 7. as ep = e ⇒ e ∈ H.
n

If o(G′ ) = 1, then G′ = {e} ⇒ x−1 y −1 xy = e ⇒ xy = yx for all x, y ∈ G ⇒ G (ii) G has a normal subgroup of order 15.
Let x, y ∈ H ⇒ (xy −1 )p = xp (y −1 )p = e.e = e. Therefore ⇒ xy −1 ∈ H.
n n n

is abelian ⇒ G = Z(G) ⇒ H ⊆ Z(G). Hence H ≤ G. (iii) both Sylow 3-subgroup and Sylow 5-subgroup are normal in G.
Let o(G′ ) = 7 ⇒ G′ = K. Clearly, H ∩K = {e} as o(H ∩K) divides o(H) = 11 Let q be a prime dividing o(H). Then x ∈ H such that o(x) = q. But
Proof. (i) o(G) = 30 = 2 × 3 × 5. The number of Sylow 3-subgroup is 1 + 3k
and o(K) = 7. x ∈ H ⇒ o(x) | pn ⇒ q | pn ⇒ q = p. Therefore, H is Sylow p-subgroup of G.
and (1 + 3k)|10 =⇒ k = 0 or 3.
Let x ∈ H, y ∈ G. Then x−1 y −1 xy ∈ G′ = K. Also, x−1 y −1 xy = x−1 (y −1 xy) ∈ n
Then o(P ) = p . Let x ∈ P ⇒ x pn
=e
If k = 0, then Sylow 3-subgroup is normal.
H as H is normal in G. ⇒ x ∈ H ⇒ P ⊆ H ⇒ o(P ) | o(H) ⇒ pn | pm ⇒ n ≤ m ∴ m = n
Let k ̸= 0, then k = 3. This gives 10 Sylow 3-subgroups Hi each of order 3
∴ x−1 y −1 xy ∈ H ∩ K = {e} ⇒ xy = yx for all y ∈ G, x ∈ H So, o(H) = pn = o(P ) ⇒ H = P.
and so we have 20 elements of order 3. [Notice (f ori ̸= j) o(Hi ∩Hj )|O(Hi ) =
⇒ H ⊆ Z(G). Thus H is the only Sylow p-subgroup of G and so is normal in G.
3 =⇒ o(Hi ∩ Hj ) = 1 only and so these 20 elements are different. Each
This proves (i)
Excercise 8.3. (Wilson’s Theorem) Using Sylow’s theorems show that (p − 1)! ≡ Hi has one element e of order 1 and other two of order 3. a ∈ Hi =⇒
pn
Define θ : G → G such that θ(x) = x . Then θ is a homomorphism.
−1(modp) for any prime p. o(a)|o(Hi ) = 3 =⇒ o(a) = 1, 3 ].
⇒ G ∼
= Im(G) is normal in G [θ(G) = Im(G)].
Kerθ
The number of Sylow 5-subgroups is 1 + 5k ′ and (1 + 5k ′ )|6 which implies
Solution. Consider Sp , then order of Sp is p(p − 1)(p − 2)...2.1. The number of Since x ∈ Kerθ ⇔ θ(x) = e. ⇔ xp = e ⇔ x ∈ H = P .
n

k ′ = 0 or 1.
sylow p-subgroups of order p is Sp are of the form 1 + kp, where k is a non -ve Therefore P = Kerθ.
If k ′ = 0. Then Sylow 5-subgroup is normal.
integer. Since each Sylow p-subgroup is of order p, we get (p − 1) elements of order Let N = Im(G) which is normal inG.
Let k ′ ̸= 0. Then k ′ = 1. This gives 6 Sylow 5 subgroups each of order 5
p. ( As θ(x) ∈ N, g ∈ G ⇒ g −1 θ(x)g = g −1 xp g = (g −1 xg)p = θ(g −1 xg) ∈ N ).
n n

and we get 24 elements of order 5. But we have already counted 20 elements

8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 100
of order 3. Thus we have more than 44 elements in G, a contradiction. So,
either k = 0 or k ′ = 0.
That is either Sylow 3-subgroup or Sylow 5-subgoup is normal in G, which
proves (i).
(ii) Let H be a Sylow 3-subgroup of order 3 and K be a Sylow 5-subgroup of
order 5.
by (i), either H is normal in G or K is normal in G.
In any case, HK ≤ G, o(HK) = 15 as o(H ∩ K) divides o(H) = 3 and
o(K) = 5 =⇒ o(H ∩ K = 1). Since index of HK in G is 2, HK is normal
in G. This proves (ii).
(iii) Suppose, H is normal in G, K is not normal in G. By 1 G has 6 Sylow
5-subgroups and so 24 elements of order 5. But o(?K)=15 =⇒ HK is
cyclic =⇒ HK has φ(15) = 8 elements of order 15. Thus G has 24+8=32
elements, A contradiction.
∴ K is normal in G.
If H is not normal in G, they by 1, G has 10 Sylow 3-subgroups and so
20 elements of order 3. From the above HK has 8 elements of order 15
and K has 4 elements of order 5. This gives 20+8+4= 32 elements in G, a
contradiction.
Therefore H is normal in G. So both H and K are normal in G.
This proves (iii).
Excercise 8.5. Find all the Sylow p-subgroups of S4 and show none of them is
normal.
Solution: We have o(S4 ) = 24 = 23 × 3. Thus S4 has Sylow 2-subgroups and
Sylow 3-subgroups. Therefore the number of Sylow 2-subgroups is (1 + 2k), where
(1 + 2k)|3. That is, k = 0 or 1. Therefore, either there is a unique (thus normal)
Sylow 2-subgroup or 3 Sylow 2-subgroups.
8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM
2 3 2 3 4 2 −1 −1
Consider H = {e, a, a , a , b, ab, a b, a b|a = e = b , b ab = a }, where a =
(1234) and b = (13). Then H is a Sylow 2-subgroup of S4 . Again as gag −1 =
/ H, where g = (132). As b, ab, a2 b, a3 b, a2 are all of
(g(1)g(2)g(3)) = (3124) ∈
order 2 and a3 = a−1 = (4321). Therefore H is not normal. We can write
H = {I, (1234), (13)(24), (1432), (14)(23), (24), (12)(34), (13)}.
The other two Sylow 2-subgroups would be (the conjugates)
(12)H(12)−1 = {I, (2134), (23)(14), (2431), (24)(13), (14), (12)(34), (23)}
(23)H(23)−1 = {I, (1324), (12)(34), (1423), (14)(23), (34), (13)(24), (12)}
So S4 has 3 Sylow 2-subgroups which are not normal.
Again number of Sylow 3-subgroups is (1 + 3k)|8. That is,k = 0 or 1. There exist
either a unique (thus normal) Sylow 3-subgroup or 4 Sylow 3-subgroups. It is easily
seen that {I, (123), (132)}, {I, (124), (142)}, {I, (134), (143)}and{I, (234), (243)}
are the four Sylow 3-subgroups (and so they are not normal).
SUMMARY
The Sylow theorems are important tools for analysis of special subgroups of a
finite group G, known as Sylow subgroups. They are especially useful in the
classification of finite simple groups. Also, provide us with a sort of partial converse
to Lagrange’s theorem, by asserting the existence of certain subgroups (called p-
Sylow subgroups) of any group with a given order, and gives some information
about their properties. There is a complete classification of groups with all Sylow-
subgroups being cyclic. Further, a subgroup of a finite group is termed a normal
Sylow subgroup if it satisfies the following equivalent conditions: It is a Sylow
subgroup, and is normal in the whole group. It is a Sylow subgroup, and is
subnormal in the whole group.
101 8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 102
KEYWORDS
p-sylow subgroups, Sylow’s first thoerem, Sylow’s second thoerem, Sylow’s third
thoerem.
ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the number and nature of the 3-Sylow subgroups and 5-Sylow sub-
groups of a group of order 32 · 52 .
2. If G is a group of order 385, show that 11-Sylow subgroup is normal and its
7-Sylow subgroups is in the center of G.
3. Find the possible number of 11-Sylow subgroups, 7-Sylow subgroups and
5-Sylow subgroups in a group of order 52 · 7 · 11.
4. If p, q are primes, p < q and p ∤ (q − 1), show that every group of order pq
is cyclic and abelian.
5. Find all 3-Sylow subgroups of the symmetric group S4 and verify that they
are all conjugate.
6. Show that group of order 52 · 72 is abelian.
7. Show that group of order 132 · 172 is abelian
8. Show that the group of order 36 is not simple.
REFERENCES
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Publishing House, 2021.
8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM 103
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002.
7. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
8. J. A. Gallian: Contemporary Abstract algebra, 9th Edition, Narosa Pub-
lishing House. 2008.
8. UNIT : APPLICATIONS OF SYLOW’S THEOREM
BLOCK 3: ELEMENTARY RING THEORY
UNIT-9: Fundamentals of Rings
UNIT-10: Ring Homomorphism and Isomorphisms
UNIT-11: Special Types of Ideals
UNIT-12: The field of Quotients
104 105
9 UNIT : Fundamentals of Rings
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• define rings and known its elementary properties;
• explain the some special classes of rings along with examples;
• define the Integral domain, division ring and skew division rings(fields);
• describe the importance of subring and ideals;
• explain some fundamental lemma’s of ideals;
• solving some problems of ideals;
• define quotient rings along with its elementary properties.
INTRODUCTION
The theory of rings grew out of study of two particular classes of rings, polynomial
rings in n variables over the real or complex number and in integers of an algebraic
number field. It was David Hilbert (1862-1943) who first introduce the term Ring.
The theory of commutative ring was given by Emmy Noether (1882-1935) in her
monomental paper “Ideal theory in rings” in 1921.
Note 9.1. The set Z of all integers under the operation of addition (+) is a
commutative group and under multiplication (×) is a semi group, all though it
is not a group. Further, the two operations are connected by distributive law,
namely for all a, b, c ∈ Z, we have a.b + a.c = a.(b + c) and (b + c).a = b.a + c.a.
System such as Z, +, · are of frequent occurence and are of general importance. In
generalisation of this basic notion leads to the concepts of system called a rings.
Definition 9.1. Let R be a non-empty set with two binary operation + and ·.
Then the triple R, +, ·) is said to be a ring if it satisfies the following axioms
9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 106
(i) (R, +) is an abelian group
⇒ For any a, b, c ∈ R, whenever a + b ∈ R (Closure law)
⇒ For any a, b, c ∈ R, whenever a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (Associative law)
⇒ For a ∈ R, there exist an element 0 in R such that a = a + 0 = 0 + a,
where ‘0’ is called the zero element of of R (Identity law)
⇒ Q ∈ R, there exist−a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a, where
‘ − a′ is called the negative element of ‘a′ (Inverse law)
⇒ For any a, b ∈ R, we have a + b = b + a (Commutative law)
(ii) (R, ·) is a semi-group
⇒ For any a, b, c ∈ R we have a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c (Associative)
(iii) Distributive property in R
⇒ For any a, b, c ∈ R we have
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c (Left)
(a + b) · c = a · c + b · c (Right)
Example 9.1. The number systems such as an integer Z, rationals Q, reals R
and complex C are rings under the usual addition and multiplication.
Example 9.2. The set 2Z of all even number under addition and multiplication.
Example 9.3. The set kZ of multiples of integer k with respect to addition and
multiplication.
Example 9.4. Z = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under addition and multiplication.
Example 9.5. R(n) of all (n × n) matrices with reals under matrix addition and
matrix multiplication.
Commutative Ring (Ring with an identity) :
Definition 9.2. The commutative ring is a ring in which the multiplication is
commutative. The study of commutative rings is called commutative algebra.
9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 107
Note 9.2. By examples (1) to (3), we have multiplication is commutative. How-
ever, the rings of matrix is not a commutative ring. Since every ring is an abelian
group under +, it will have an identity for +. This we call zero. A ring need not
have an identity for ×. The (2Z, +, ×) is one such example. When a ring has a
identity for multiplication, we call it as a ring with identity or a ring with unit
element. For each of the ring in examples (1) and (3), integer 1 is an identity.
For the ring of matrices, the unit matrix of n rows happens to be the identity.
Some special classes of Rings:
Definition 9.3. If R is a commutative ring then a ̸= 0 ∈ R is said to be a zero
divisor if there exists a, b ∈ R and b ̸= 0 and ab = 0. A commutative ring is an
integral domain if it has no zero divisors.
Example 9.6. The strucute (J, +, ×) of all integers is an integral domain. For
nm = 0 where m, n ∈ Z holds if and only if atleast one of m or n is zero.
Example 9.7. The strucute (2Z, +, ×) of all even integers is an integral domain
under the operation + and ×.
√ (iv) A field is an integral domain for
Example 9.8. The real number of the form m + n 3, where m, n are integers
form an Integral domain.
Definition 9.4. A ring is said to be a division ring if its non zero elements
form a group under multiplication.
Example 9.9. The ring H of all real quaternions is a division ring. Where the
2 2 2
set of real quaternions H = {a0 + ia1 + ja2 + ka3 : ai ∈ R}; i = j = k =
ijk = −1 (Note that ij = −ji, ik = −ki, jk = −kj, so multiplication in H is not
commutative).
Example 9.10. The ring ⟨Q, +, ·⟩ of rationals is a division ring.
Example 9.11. The ring ⟨R, +, ·⟩ of real are division rings.
9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 108
Moreover in these cases multiplication follows commutative law. Therefore,
these are called a commutative division ring.
Definition 9.5. A field is a commutative ring with identity (1 ̸= 0) in which
every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
Example 9.12. The rings Q, R, C are fields.
Definition 9.6. A skew field is a division ring whose ring product is specifically
not commutative
Example 9.13. If a, b are elements of a field with ab = 0 then if a ̸= 0 it has
an inverse a−1 and so multiplying both sides by this gives b = 0. For this reason,
division rings are called a skew fields.
Note 9.3.
(i) The set of all complex numbers under + and × form a field.
(ii) The ring of quaternions is a division ring not a field.
(iii) Division ring has no zero divisors.
1. It is a commutative ring;
2. Being a division ring, it has no zero divisors.
(v) A finite integral domain is a field.
Definition 9.7. A subring S of a ring R is a subset of R which is a ring under
the same operations as R. A non-empty subset S of R is a subring if a, b ∈ S =⇒
a − b, ab ∈ S. So S is closed under subtraction and multiplication.
Example 9.14.
1. The structure (2Z, +, ×) is a subring of (Z, +, ×).
2. The structure (Z, +, ×) is a subring of (Q, +, ×).
9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 109
3. The Gaussian integers Z[i] = {a + ib : a, b ∈ Z} is a subring of (C, +, ×),
where the gaussian integer is a complex number whose real and imaginary
parts are both integers.
Note 9.4.
(i) The Gaussian integers Z[i] is an integral domain but not a field.
(ii) Intersection of two subring is a subring but union need not be a subring.
S = 2Z, T = 3Z be a subring of Z.
But S ∪ T = {0, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6 · · · } is not a subring of Z.
[∵ 2, −3 ∈ S ∪ T, 2 − 3 = −1 ∈
/ S ∪ T ].
(iii) The Subring of ring with unity need not be a ring with unity. For instance
(2Z, +, ×).
Definition 9.8. A non-empty subset U of a ring R is said to be an ideal of R if
(i) For any a, b ∈ U, a − b ∈ U
(ii) For any a ∈ U =⇒ ar ∈ U and ra ∈ U
If only ar ∈ U , then U is a right ideal and if only ra ∈ U then U is a left ideal. If
U is both left and right ideal of a ring R, then U is called two sided ideal of R or
simply an ideal of R.
Note 9.5.
(i) In any ring R, {0} and R are ideals of a ring R. These are called improper
ideals of R. [Here {0} → null ideal or zero ideal,R → unit ideal]. These
ideals are also known as trivial ideals.
(ii) A ring R is simple if it has no proper ideals.
(iii) If U is an ideal of a ring R and 1 ∈ U then U = R.
[∵ U ⊂ R is obvious. Further, if r ∈ R, 1 ∈ U and r.1 ∈ U then r ∈ U ∀r ∈ R.
Therefore R ⊂ U =⇒ U = R].
(iv) For a ∈ R, let Ra = {xa : x ∈ R} then Ra is a left ideal of R. In otherwords,
if R is a ring and a ∈ R, let r(a) = {x ∈ R : ax = 0}. Then r(a) is a right
ideal of R.
9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 110
(v) Fields do not have ideals other than trivial ideals, that is if F is a field, then
{0} and F are the only ideals of F .
[∵ let S be an ideal of F and S be a zero ideal (S ̸= {0}), then there exist
a ∈ S, where a ̸= 0, a ∈ F . Since F is a field, a−1 ∈ F ⇒ a−1 a ∈ S, 1 ∈ S.
Hence S = F .]
(vi) Multiplication of ideals of a ring are ideals but union of ideals need not be
an ideal.
(vii) If U is an ideal of ring R and S is a subring of R containing U , then U is an
ideal of S also.
Lemma 9.1. Let R be a commutative ring with unity whose ideals are {0} and R
itself. Then R is a field.
−1
Proof. Let a ̸= 0, be an element of R. We verify that a ∈ R. Consider Ra =
{ra : r ∈ R}. Also, we verify that Ra is an ideal of R. For x = r1 a and y = r2 a
in Ra, we have x − y = (r1 − r2 )a where r1 − r2 ∈ R. Therefore x − y ∈ Ra.
Simillarly, for any r ∈ R and x = r1 a ∈ Ra, we have rx = r(r1 a) = (rr1 )a
where rr1 ∈ R. Therefore rx ∈ Ra.
Since R is a commutative ring, we have xr = rx ∈ Ra. Therefore Ra is an
ideal of R.
Since {0} and R are the only ideals of Ra, it follows that Ra = {0}, Ra = R.
Now 1 ∈ R ⇒ 1.a ∈ Ra. Therefore a ∈ Ra, where a = 0. We have, Ra ̸= 0.
Hence Ra = R. Again 1 ∈ R ⇒ 1 ∈ Ra and 1 = ba for some b ∈ R. Therefore
ab = ba = 1 ⇒ b = a−1 ∈ R.
Thus R is a commutative ring with unity in which all non-zero elements are
units in R. Hence R is a field.
Lemma 9.2. Let R be a ring with unity (real not be commutative) in which {0}
and R are the only two left ideals. Then R is a division ring (Skew field).
Proof. Let a ̸= 0 be any element of R. We verify that a−1 ∈ R. Consider
Ra = {ra : r ∈ R}.
9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 111
Now we verify that Ra is an ideal of R. Let x = r1 a and y = r2 a ∈ Ra. Then
x − y = (r1 − r2 )a ∈ Ra. Therefore x − y ∈ Ra.
Consider r ∈ R and x ∈ Ra such that x = r1 a. Then rx = r(r1 a) = (rr1 )a ∈
Ra as (r1 r2 ∈ R).
Since {0} and R are the only left ideals, we have Ra = {0} or Ra = R. Now
1 ∈ R ⇒ 1 · a = a ∈ R and Ra ̸= {0}. Hence Ra = R. Again 1 ∈ R ⇒ 1 ∈ Ra
1 = ba for some b ∈ R. We see that b ̸= 0. Hence b has left inverse b−1 = a.
Consider b(ab) = (ba)b = 1(b) = b. Therefore b−1 [b(ab)] = b−1 [b] ⇒ ab = 1.
We have ab = ba = 1 [∵ b−1 b = bb−1 = 1 and a = b−1 ].
Thus R is a non commutative ring with unity in which all non-zero elements
are units in R. Hence R is a division ring.
Note 9.6. For a ∈ R, let aR = {ax : x ∈ R}. Then aR is a right ideal of R.
Excercise 9.1. Let U be a left ideal of a ring R, and λ(U ) = {x ∈ R : xu = 0},
then prove that λ(u) is an ideal of R.
Solution : Let λ(U ) = {x ∈ R : xu = 0 ∀ u ∈ U } ⊂ R. Since 0µ = 0∀ µ ∈ U
we see that 0 ∈ λ(U ). Therefore λ(U ) ̸= ϕ. For x, y ∈ λ(U ), we have xu = 0 and
yu = 0 ∀ x, y ∈ R, µ ∈ U . Therefore xu − yu ∈ λ(U ) = 0 ⇒ (x − y)u = 0 ∀ u ∈ U .
Hence (x − y) ∈ λ(U ).
Let x ∈ λ(U ) so that xu = 0 ∀ u ∈ U and r ∈ R be any element. Since
r(xu) = 0. Hence r(xu) = r · 0 = 0 ∀ u ∈ U ⇒ rx ∈ λ(U ). Further, by virtue of
the fact that U is a left ideal of R, we have ru ∈ U for all u ∈ U, r ∈ R. Now for
any x ∈ λ(U ), we have x(ru) = 0 ∀ u ∈ U . Therefore (xr)u = 0 ∀ u ∈ U . Hence
xr ∈ λ(U ). Therefore λ(U ) is an ideal of R.
Excercise 9.2. Let U is an ideal of R and a set [R : U ] = {x ∈ R : rx ∈ U ∀ r ∈
R}. Then prove that [R : U ] is an ideal of R containing U .
Solution. Clearly R = 0 ∈ U ∀ r ∈ R where r ∈ [R : U ]. It is the zero element
of R. Therefore 0 ∈ [R : U ] and [R : U ] be non-empty [R : U ] + ϕ.
Let x1 , x2 ∈ [R : U ] such that rx1 ∈ U and rx2 ∈ U ∀ r ∈ R. Then rx1 − rx2 =
r(x1 − x2 ) ∈ U ∀ r ∈ R. Therefore x1 − x2 ∈ [R : U ]. Further, x1 [R : U ] and
S ∈ R.
We need only prove that Sx1 and x1 S ∈ [R : U ].
9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 112 9. UNIT : FUNDAMENTALS OF RINGS 113 114

Sx1 ∈ U ∀ S ∈ R implies r(Sx1 ) ∈ U ∀ r ∈ R ⇒ Sx1 ∈ [R : U ]. Also 2

3. If every x ∈ R satisfies x = x, prove that R must be commutative. 10 UNIT: Ring Homomorphism and Isomorphisms
r(x1 S) = (rx1 )S ∈ U ⇒ r(x1 S) ∈ U ∀ r ∈ R ⇒ x1 S ∈ [R : U ]. Therefore [R : U ]
is an ideal of R. 4. If a, b are any elements of a ring R, prove that
Let u ∈ U , Clearly ru ∈ U ∀ r ∈ R such that U be an ideal. Therefore (i) −(−a) = a,
u ∈ [R : U ] ∀ u ∈ U ⇒ U ⊂ [R : U ]. OBJECTIVES
(ii) −(a + b) = −a − b,
R
Definition 9.9. Let R be a ring and U be an ideal of R. Then the set U
= {U+r : (iii) −(a − b) = −a + b. After studying this unit, you should be able to:
r ∈ R} becomes a ring under the operation + and × given by U+r + U+s = U+r+s 5. Show that S is an ideal of S + T , where S is any ideal of R and T is any
R • define, and give examples of, different kinds of ring homomorphisms;
and U+r × U+s = U+rs for rs ∈ R. The zero of is U+0 U and the nefative U+r subring of R.
U
R 6. Let U and V be ideals of ring R. Show that U + V is an ideal of R. • obtain the kernel and image of any ring homomorphism;
is U−1 . Therefore the ring is a quotient ring.
U
In otherwords, a quotient ring (also known as factor ring, difference ring or 7. Show that the ring of real quaternions is a division ring. • prove, and apply, some basic properties of a ring homomorphism;
residue class ring) is a ring that is the quotient of a ring and one of its ideals. 8. Give an example to show that the left ideal need not be right ideal and right
ideal need not be left ideal. • state, prove and apply the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism for
Note 9.7. rings;
REFERENCES
R
(i) is commutative if R is commutative [∵ U+r U+s = U+rs = U+sr = U+s U+r ]. 1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008. • define, and give examples of, ring isomorphisms.
U
R R 2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
(ii) is a ring with unity U+1 if is a ring with 1 as unity [∵ U+r U+1 = INTRODUCTION
U U Publishing House, 2021.
U+r·1 = U+r ].
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009. Analogous to the notion of a group homomorphism and isomorphism, we have

SUMMARY
Ring theory studies the structure of rings, their representations, or, in different
language, modules, special classes of rings as well as an array of properties that
proved to be of interest both within the theory itself and for its applications such as
extension of Group Theory, the study of geometric objects, topology and wide ar-
eas with in the mathematics, computer science, mathematical/theoretical physics
and in many area of allied sciences.
KEYWORDS
Ring, commutative ring, integral domain, division ring, field, subring, ideals, quo-
tient ring.
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002.
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, 2003.
8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
studied the ring homomorphism and isomorphism. Therefore, it is essential to
foresee the ring homomorphism and isomorphism to be a map between rings that
conserve the ring structure of its domain. In this case there are two binary oper-
ations involved.
Ring Hommorphism:
Definition 10.1. Let (R, +, ×) and (R1 , +, ×) be two rings. Then ϕ : R → R1 is
said to be a homomorphism if
(i) ϕ(x + y) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y) ∀ x, y ∈ R

ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS (ii) ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x) · ϕ(y) ∀ x, y ∈ R

1. Show that intersection of two sub rings is asubring. But union of two sub
Note 10.1.
rings need not be a sub ring.

2. Let R be a finite integral domian. Then show that R is a field. (i) A homomorphism ϕ is called a/an
10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 115 10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 116 10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 117

√ √ √ √
1. monomorphism, if ϕ is 1-1; 3. Let ϕ : Z 2 → Z 2 by ϕ(a + b 2)a − b 2. Then ϕ is a homomorphism. Lemma 10.1. The homomorphism ϕ : R → R1 is an isomorphism if and only if
√ √ ker(ϕ) = {0}.
2. epimorphism, if ϕ is onto; [Consider x = a + b 2, y = c + d 2.]
1
3. isomorphism, if ϕ is 1-1 and onto (i.e., R ≈ R ). √ √ √ Proof. Let ϕ : R → R1 be an onto homomorphism.
ϕ(x + y) = ϕ(a + b 2 + c + d 2) =ϕ(a + c + 2(b + d))
√ Suppose ϕ is an isomorphism, so that it is one-one also we now verify that
(ii) If ϕ is homomorphism of R onto R1 , then
=(a + c) − (b + d) 2 ker(ϕ) = {0}.
1. ϕ(x) = 0; =ϕ(x) + ϕ(y) Let a ∈ ker(ϕ) be any element, then ϕ(a) = 01 .
√ √
2. ϕ(−x) = −ϕ(x) for every x ∈ R. ϕ(xy) =ϕ((a + b 2)(c + d 2)) Put 0 ∈ ker(ϕ) and ϕ(0) = 01 ⇒ ϕ(a) = ϕ(0)
√ √
=ϕ(ac + ad 2 + bc 2 + bd2) ϕ is one-one, a = 0.
Kernel and Image of Homomorphism √ Therefore ker(ϕ) = {0}.
=ϕ((ac + 2db) + 2(ad + bc))
Definition 10.2. If ϕ : R → R1 is a homomorphism then the kernel of ϕ is √ Conversely, Suppose ker(ϕ) = {0}.
=(ac + 2db) − 2(ad + bc)
K{x ∈ R : ϕ(x) = 0} or kernel of ϕ is the set of all elements a ∈ R such that √ √ We verify that ϕ is an isomorphism.
=(ab 2)(c − d 2)
ϕ(a) = 0, the zero element of R1 . For this we have to verify that ϕ is one-one ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) for some a, b ∈ R.
=ϕ(x) · ϕ(y)].
Therefore ϕ(a) − ϕ(b) = 01 ⇒ ϕ(a − b) = 01
Definition 10.3. Let ϕ : R → R1 be a ring homomorphism. If a ∈ R, then
a − b ∈ ker(ϕ) where ker(ϕ) = {0}
√ √
ϕ(a) ∈ R1 , then ϕ(a) is the image of under ϕ. Therefore, ker(ϕ) = {a + b 2; ϕ(a + b 2) = 0} = {0}. a−b=0⇒a=b

Note 10.2. 4. Let ϕ : Z → Zn , where Zn = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · (n − 1)} be defined by ϕ(a) = r Therefore ϕ is one-one and hence isomorphism.

where a ≡ r(mod n). Then ϕ is a homomorphism. R

(i) If ϕ : R → R1 is a homomorphism with ker(ϕ), then ker(ϕ) is a subgroup of Note 10.3. Suppose R is a ring and U is an ideal of R. Let γ : R → defined
U
Consider, a ≡ r1 (mod n), b ≡ r2 (mod n). R
R under addition. by γ(a) = U+a . Then γ is a homomorphism of R onto .
U
Therefore a + b ≡ (r1 + r2 )(mod n).
(ii) If a ∈ kerϕ and r ∈ R, then both ar and ra are in ker(ϕ). [This is an epimorphism (γ), natural homomorphism].
ϕ(a + b) = (r1 + r2 ) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b).
(iii) kerϕ is an ideal of R, Image ϕ is a subring of R1
Fundamental theorems of Homomorphism of rings:
ker(ϕ) ={a ∈ Z ; ϕ(a) = 0}
Example 10.1.
Theorem 10.1. Let R and R1 be rings and ϕ is a homomorphism of R onto R1
={a ∈ Z ; no where a ≡ r(mod n)}
with kernel U . Then
1. Let ϕ : R → R1 defined by ϕ(a) = 0 for all a ∈ R. Then ϕ is homomorphism. ={a ∈ Z ; a ≡ o(mod n)}
Therefore ker(ϕ) = {a ∈ R : ϕ(a) = 0}. Thus ker(ϕ) = R. R
={a ∈ Z ; a = kn : k ∈ Z} 1. R1 ≈
U
2. Let ϕ : R → R1 by ϕ(x) = x ∀ x ∈ R is a homomorphism. ={kn : k ∈ Z} 2. Moreover there is one to one correspondence between the set of ideals W 1 of
Therefore ker(ϕ) = {x ∈ R : ϕ(x) = 0} = {0}. ∴ ker(ϕ) ={nz}.] R1 and the set of ideals W of R containing U .
10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 118 10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 119 10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 120

R ∼ R1 Consider We have to verify this correspondence is one to one.

3. = 1
W W
Let L be an ideal of R contained in (U (L ⊂ U )) and L1 = {ϕ(x) : x ∈ L} ⊂
Proof. 1. Let ϕ : R → R1 be an epimorphism with U as kernel. Clearly U is η(U+a + U+b ) =η(U+a+b )
R R1
an ideal of R so that the quotient ring is an ideal. =ϕ(a + b)
U
We verify that L1 is an ideal of R1 where ϕ(x) · ϕ(y) ∈ L1
R
Define η : → R1 by η(U1 ) = ϕ(a) =ϕ(a) + ϕ(b)
U x, y ∈ L1 ⇒ x − y ∈ L1 ⇒ ϕ(x) − ϕ(y) ∈ L1
We verify that η is an isomorphism =η(U+a ) + η(U+b )
Similarlly, ϕ(r) ∈ R1 and ϕ(x) ∈ L1 , then r ∈ R and x ∈ L
η(U+a · U+b ) =η(U+a )η(U+b )
(i) η is one-one
rx ∈ L ⇒ ϕ(rx) ∈ L1 ⇒ ϕ(r) · ϕ(x) ∈ L1
R =ϕ(ab)
For U+a · U+b ∈
U Thus L1 is an ideal of R1 .
=ϕ(a)ϕ(b)
Suppose η(U+a ) = η(U+b )
If we define T = {x ∈ R ; ϕ(x) ∈ L1 }
ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)
Therefore η is homomorphism, one-one and onto.
T becomes an ideal of a ring R contained in U as proved in case of ideals of
ϕ(a) − ϕ(b) = 01
Therefore η is an isomorphism, W and W 1 .
1 R∼ 1
ϕ(a − b) = 0
∴ =R
U We can prove that L = T .
Therefore a − b ∈ kerϕ = U
2. Let W 1 ⊂ R1 and W 1 be an ideal R1 . Define W = {x ∈ R : ϕ(x) ∈ W 1 } ⊂ l ∈ L, ϕ(l) ∈ L1 ⇒ L ∈ T ∀ l ∈ L
a−b∈U
R. We verify that w is an ideal of R. Let x, y ∈ W , so that ϕ(x)ϕ(y) ∈ W 1 .
U+a = U+b Therefore L ⊂ T
Therefore ϕ(x) − ϕ(y) ∈ W 1 , ϕ(x − y) ∈ W 1 ⇒ x − y ∈ W
Therefore η is one-one Similarly, l ∈ L, ϕ(t) ∈ L1 ⇒ t ∈ L f or any t.
Further or any r ∈ R and x ∈ W we have, ϕ(r) ∈ R1 and ϕ(x) ∈ W 1
(ii) Onto Therefore T ⊂ L ⇒ T = L
Therefore ϕ(r) · ϕ(x) ∈ W 1
Let b1 = R1 . As ϕ is onto, ∃ an element b ∈ R such that ϕ(b) = b1 . Thus there is one-one correspondence between the set of ideals W 1 of R1
Therefore b1 = ηU+ ϕ(rx) ∈ W 1 ⇒ rx ∈ W and the set of all ideals W of R containing U .
R Also xr ∈ W and hence W is an ideal of R. To claim that U ⊂ W
Thus for any b1 ∈ R1 , there exists an element U+b ∈ satisfying 3. Suppose W is the ideal of R containing U corresponding to ideal W 1 of R1
U
ηU+b = b1 a ∈ U (U is a kernel) ϕ(a) = 01 ∈ W 1 R R1
so that the quotient ring ≊ 1 are defined.
W W
Therefore η is onto. ϕ(a) ∈ W 1 R 1

R Define ψ : R → 1 by ψ(a) = W 1 + ϕ(a) and verify that it is epimorphism.

(iii) Homomorphism For U+a · U+b ∈ W
U Therefore a ∈ U ⇒ a ∈ W for any a. Therefore U ⊂ W (U contained in W )

Thus there is a correspondence between the set of ideals W 1 of R1 and set

of all ideals W of R containing U . (R1 ⊂ R)
10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 121 10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 122 10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 123

Consider Finding ker(ψ),

SUMMARY
R1
ψ(a + b) =W 1 + ϕ(a + b) ker(ψ) ={x ∈ R : ψ(x) ∈ W 1 , the zer of }
W1 Ring theory studies the structure of rings, their representations, or, in different
=W 1 + [ϕ(a) + ϕ(b)] ={x ∈ R : W 1 + ϕ(x) ∈ W 1 }
language, modules, special classes of rings as well as an array of properties that
1 1
=W + ϕ(a) + W + ϕ(b) ={x ∈ R : ϕ(x) ∈ W 1 } proved to be of interest both within the theory itself and for its applications
ψ(a + b) =ψ(a) + ψ(b) ={x ∈ R : x ∈ W } such as extension of Group Theory, the study of geometric objects, topology and
ker(ψ) =W. wide areas with in the mathematics, computer science, mathematical/theoretical
Consider
physics and in many area of allied sciences.
ker(ψ) = W −→ (2).
1
ψ(ab) =W + ϕ(ab)
R R1 KEYWORDS
From (1) and (2), we have ≈ 1.
=W 1 + [ϕ(a)ϕ(b)] W W
This is called an first isomorphism theorem for rings.
=(W 1 + ϕ(a)) + (W 1 + ϕ(b)) Ring homomorphism, ring isomorphism, kernel, image, fundamental theorem of

ψ(ab) =ψ(a)ψ(b). homomorphism for rings.

Therfore ψ is a homomorphism. ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS

R1
Further, for any element W 1 + U (ϕ(b) = b1 ) of , we have b1 ∈ R1 . Since 1. If R is a ring with unity and f : R → R′ is a homomorphism , where R′ is
W1
ϕ is onto for every b1 ∈ R1 , there exist an element b ∈ R such that ϕ(b) = b1 . an integral domain such that ker(f ) ̸= R then show that f (1) is unity og
Then ψ(b) = W 1 + ϕ(b) = W 1 + b1 R′ .
R1
Thus for any W 1 + b1 ∈ ∃ an element b ∈ R such that b1 = ϕ(b) ∈ R1 2. Let f : R → R′ be an onto homomorphism, where R is a ring with unity.
W1
and ψ(b) = W 1 + b1 . Show that f (1) is unity of R′ .
Therefore ψ is onto, which is also epimorphism.
3. Show by an example that we can have a homomorphism f : R → R′ such
Hence by fundamental theorem of homomorphism for rings, we have that f (1) is not unity of R′ , where 1 is unity of R.
1
R R 4. State and prove the fundamental theorem of ring homomorphism.
≈ 1 −→ (1)
ker(ψ) W
5. Let Z be the ring of integers. Show that the only homomorphism from
Z → Z are the identity and zero mapping.

6. Show that the relation of isomorphism in rings is an equivalence relation.

10. UNIT: RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISMS 124
7. Let R = R or Q. Show that the only isomorphism of R onto R is the identity
map.
A+B ∼ B
8. Let A, B be two ideals of a ring R. Show that = .
A A∩B
REFERENCES
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Publishing House, 2021.
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002.
7. D. S. Dummitv and R. M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, 2003.
8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
125
11 UNIT: Special Types of Ideals
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define, and give examples of, different types of ideals;
• uderstanding the concepts of principle ideal and principle ideal ring;
• uderstanding the concepts of prime ideal;
• uderstanding the concepts of maximal ideal;
INTRODUCTION
Ideal is a subring of a mathematical ring with certain absorption properties. The
concept of an ideal was first defined and developed by German mathematician
Richard Dedekind in 1871. In particular, he used ideals to translate ordinary
properties of arithmetic into properties of sets. In this unit, we study the special
types of ideals such as principle ideal, prime ideal and maximal ideals of a ring.
Principle Ideal:
Definition 11.1. An ideal S of a ring R is said to be a principle ideal of a ring
R if there exists an element a ∈ S such that any ideal T of R containing a ∈ S
also the element a is called a general of a and S is said to be generated by a. This
concept is denoted by S = (a) or S = ⟨a⟩
Example 11.1. Every ideal of (Z, +, ·) is of the form nZ, which is generated by
n so every ideal of Z is a principle ideal.
Theorem 11.1. If a is an element of a commutative ring with unity, then S =
{ra : r ∈ R} is the principle ideal of R.
11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 126
Proof. Clearly, S = {ra : r ∈ R} ⊂ R. Let x = r1 a and y = r2 a, where r1 , r2 ∈ R.
Then x − y = (r1 − r2 )a ∈ S as r1 , r2 ∈ S.
Therefore x − y ∈ S.
For r ∈ R and x = r1 a forall r1 ∈ R, we have
rx = rr1 a ⇒ rx ∈ S as rr1 ∈ R. Also xr ∈ S.
Therefore S is an ideal of R.
Given 1 ∈ R ⇒ 1a ∈ S ⇒ a ∈ S.
To verify that S is a principle ideal generated by a.
Choose an idel T of R containing a and show that S ⊂ T . So, ra ∈ S ⇒ r ∈ R
and a ∈ S ⇒ r ∈ R and a ∈ T [ ∵ T is an ideal of R].
Therefore ra ∈ T .
S ⊂ T for any ideal T of R containing a. Therefore S is a principle ideal of R.
Thus S = ⟨a⟩ or S = (a).
Note 11.1. In any commutative ring R with unity the trivials ideals are {0} and
R are principle ideals.
i.e. {0} = (0) ⇒ R = (1)
Principle Ideal Ring:
Definition 11.2. An integral domain R is said to be a principle ideal ring
(PID) if every ideal in R is a principle ideal.
Theorem 11.2. A ring Z of integers is a Principle ideal ring (PIR).
Proof. Interger Z is an integral domain. Let S be any ideal of Z. Then S = {0}
or S ̸= {0}.
If S = {0}, then S is a principle ideal generated by {0}. i. e. S = (0).
Now, suppose S ̸= {0}. Then there are some nonzero elements in S
i. e. a ∈ S and a ̸= 0.
Since S is a subgroup of Z under addition S being an ideal.
We see that −a ∈ S.
11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 127 11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 128 11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 129

That is a, −a ∈ S, where one of a or −a is a positive integer. Therefore P = mµ0 for some m ∈ Z, where µ0 = 1 or µ0 = p. R
tively of . Therefore
M
Therefore S contains some positive integers. If µ0 = 1 then µ0 (1) ⇒ U = Z.
Let s be the smallest positive integer in S. If µ0 p then µ0 = (p) ⇒ U = P . W ={x ∈ R : γ(x) ∈ M }
We now verify that S = (s). Thus P ⊂ U ⊂ Z ⇒ U = P or U = Z. Therefore P is a maximal ideal of Z.
={x ∈ R : M + x ∈ M }
So, choose n ∈ S. Convetrsely, suppose the ideal P = (p) is maximal in Z, we verify that p is a
={x ∈ R : x ∈ M }
For n, s ∈ S, there exist q, r ∈ Z such that n = sq + r, where r = 0 or r < s. prime integer.
W =R ∩ M.
Therefore r = n − sq; n ∈ n ∈ S and sq ∈ S. This implies that r = n − sq ∈ S Let p = ab for a, b ∈ Z. Then we show that a = 1 or b = 1. Let U = (a) be
(∵ S is a ideal). Therefore r ∈ S, where r = 0 or r < s if r ̸= 0 then r ∈ S and any ideal in Z.
Therefore W = M (R ∩ M = M as R ⊂ M )
r < S which is a contrary. Now x ∈ P ⇒ x = mp for some m ∈ Z ⇒ x = m(ab). This implies that R
S = {x ∈ R : γ(x) ∈ }
Therefore r = 0 and hence n = sq for any n ∈ S. x = (mb)a, where mb ∈ Z. Therefore x ∈ P ⇒ x ∈ U for any x. Hence M
R
S = {x ∈ R : M + x ∈ }
Therefore S is a principle idel generated by s. i.e., S = (s). P ⊂ U ⊂ Z ⇒ U = P or U = Z. M
R
Since S is an arbitrary ideal of Z, it follows that all ideals of Z are principle If U = P , then a ∈ U ⇒ a ∈ P . S = {x ∈ R : x ∈ }
M
R
ideals. Therefore Z is a principle ideal ring Therefore a = np for n ∈ Z ⇒ a = n(ab) ⇒ a = anb. Thus nb = 1, where S=
M
n, b ∈ Z ⇒ b = 1. Thus M is the any proper ideal of R.
Corollary 11.1. Every field is a principle ideal ring.
Similarlly, if U = Z, then 1 ∈ Z ⇒ 1 ∈ U . Therefore M is a maximal ideal.
A field F has two ideals of R, i. e. F and {0} which are principle ideals. Therefore U = (a) = {ka : k ∈ Z}. This implies that 1 = ka ⇒ a = 1 or Conversely, suppose M is a maximal ideal of a commutative ring R with unity.
Maximal ideal: R
b = 1. Hence P is a prime number. We verify that is a field.
M
R
Definition 11.3. An ideal M of a ring R is said to be a maximal ideal of R if Because R is a commutative ring with unity, it follows that is also commu-
Theorem 11.4. If R is a commutative ring with unity and M is an ideal of R, M
M ⊂ U ⊂ R for any ideal U of R. This implies that U = M or U = R. R tative ring with unity M + 1.
then M is a maximal ideal of R if is a field. R
M Further, under the natural homomorphism ϕ : R −→ , there is a one-one
Theorem 11.3. An ideal of the ring Z of integers is maximal if and only if it is R M
Proof. Suppose M is a ideal of R, is a field. R
M correspondence between the ideals of and the ideals of R. Because M is a
generated by some prime integer. M
R
We verify that M is a maximal ideal of R. Since is a field, then there are maximal ideal of R. There are only two ideals M, R in R.
M R
Proof. Suppose P is an ideal generated by p that is P = (p). where P is a prime R R But as proved in part I, the ideals M, R are related to M and respectively.
two ideals, M and in . M
integer, which is an ideal in Z. M M R R
But under the natural homomorphism(epimorphism). Hence is a commutative ring with unity with only two ideals M and .
We verify that P is a maximal ideal. Let U be any ideal of Z satisfying R R M M
γ : R −→ , there is a one-one correspondence between and R. R
M M Therefore is a field.
P ⊂ U ⊂ R. Because, Z is a principle ideal ring and all of its ideals are principle R M
Let W and S be the ideals of R corresponding to the ideals M and respec-
ideal. Hence, U is a principle ideal. M Prime Ideal:
Let U = (µ0 ), where µ0 is an integer. Consider p ∈ P ⇒ p ∈ U and since
Definition 11.4. Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal P of R is said to be a
U = (µ0 ). Hence U = {mµ0 : m ∈ Z}.
11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 130 11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 131 11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 132

prime ideal of a ring R if ab ∈ P ⇒ a ∈ P or b ∈ P , where a, b ∈ R. Satisfying M ⊂ (a) + M ⊂ R Example 11.3. R = 2Z = {0, ±2, ±4, . . .} (commutative ring with unity)
Since M is maximal ideal of R, M = (4) = {0, ±4, ±8, ±12, . . .} is an ideal of R. (4) is not prime ideal but a
Example 11.2.
(a) + M ⊂ M ⇒ (a) + M = M or (a) + M = R. maximal ideal of R.
1. In an integral domain R, the zero ideal {0} is a prime ideal. [a, b ∈ P Clearly (a) + M ̸= R [∵ (a) ∈
/ M and a ∈ (a) + M ]
Theorem 11.6. In a prime ideal ring, every non zero prime ideal is maximal.
suppose ab ∈ {0} Hence (a) + M = R
Now 1 ∈ R ⇒ 1 ∈ (a) + M Proof. Let R be a prime ideal ring and M be a prime ideal of R. We verify that
ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b = 0
⇒ 1 = ax + M for some x ∈ R, m ∈ M M is a maximal ideal of R
⇒ a ∈ {0}, b ∈ {0}].
⇒ b = abx + mb where abx ∈ R, mb ∈ M Let U be an ideal of R satisfying M ⊂ U ⊂ R.
2. In the ring (Z, +, ·) the ideal P = (3) is a prime ideal. ⇒ b = abx + mb ∈ M for some abx ∈ M We shall claim that M = U or U = R, because R is a principle ideal ring,
Therefore M is a prime ideal. whose all ideals of R are principle ideals.
Let a, b ∈ 3, then ab = 3k for k ∈ Z
ab Therefore M and U are principle ideals. (∵ R is PIR)
=k Let F = {γ : [0, 1] −→ R ; γ is constant}
3  
1 Let M = (S) and U = (t), now
Define ϕ : F −→ R by ϕ(γ) = γ which is a homomorphism.
⇒ 3|ab 2  S ∈ M ⇒ S ∈ M ⊂ U ⇒ S ⊂ U ⇒ S = tr for r ∈ R

1
⇒ 3|a or 3|b Therefore M = kerϕ = {γ ∈ F ; γ = 0} S = tr ∈ M
2
Show that M is a prime  ideal also, Therefore t ∈ M or r ∈ M
⇒ a = 3k1 , b = 3k2  
1
Therefore γ1 , γ2 ∈ M ⇒ γ1 γ2 =0 Consider t ∈ M ⇒ tx ∈ M for some x ∈ R
⇒ a ∈ {P } or b ∈ {P }     2   
1 1 1 1 Thus tx ∈ U ⇒ tx ∈ M , U ⊂ M where M ⊂ U
⇒ γ1 γ2 = 0 where γ1 γ2 ∈R
3. In Z, the ideal M = (4) is not a prime ideal. 2 2   2 2
U = M −→ (1)
1 1
⇒ γ1 = 0 or γ2 =0
[2, 2 ∈ (4) but 2 ∈
/ (4)]. 2 2 Similarlly, r ∈ M ⇒ r = y ∈ M for some y ∈ R
⇒ γ1 ∈ M or γ2 ∈ M
r = try (s = tr)
4. In Z, the ideal M = (6) is not a prime ideal. Therefore M is a prime ideal.
1 = ty ∈ U for some y
[2, 3 ∈ (6) but 2 ∈
/ (6) or 3 ∈
/ (6)]. Note 11.2. Therefore 1 ∈ U
⇒ U = R −→ (2)
Theorem 11.5. In a commutative ring with unity, a maximal ideal is always a (i) In any a commutative ring with unity, a prime ideal need not be maximal
Thus from (1) and (2), we have
prime ideal. ideal.
M ⊂ U ⊂ R ⇒ U = M or U = R
Proof. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and M be a maximal ideal of R. [∵ In Z ( a commutative ring with unity) P = {0} is a prime ideal but not
Thus M is maximal.
To verify that M is a prime ideal of R. Let shall claim that either a ∈ M or a maximal ideal of Z].
Theorem 11.7. Let R be an integral domain with ideal P , then P is a prime idel
b ∈ M . Suppose a ̸= M , now consider the ideal such that (ii) The resultof above theorem is not true if R does not contain the unity (unit R
if and only if is an integral domain.
(a) + M = {ax + m : x ∈ R, m ∈ M } of R. element). P
11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 133 11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 134 11. UNIT: SPECIAL TYPES OF IDEALS 135

R R 7. Let R be the ring of n × n matrices over reals. Show that R has only two
Proof. Let P be a prime ideal of R. We verify that is an integral domain. Since ∵ If P is a prime ideal of R. ⇒ is an integral domain.
P P
R R ideals {0} and R. Hence show that {0} is maximal ideal od R.
R is a commutative ring, it being an integral domain it follows that is also a ⇒ is a field.
P P
commutative ring. 8. Give an example of a prime ideal, which is not maximal.
⇒ P is a maximal ideal.
For a, b ∈ R consider P+a P+b = P . Thus Pab = P
REFERENCES
Therefore ab ∈ P ⇒ a ∈ P or b ∈ P 3. Every non zero prime ideal of a principle ideal ring is a maximal ideal.

P+a = P or P+b = P . 1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
SUMMARY
R
Therefore has no zero divisor.
P 2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
R A ring in which every ideal is principal is called principal, or a principal ideal ring.
Thus is an integral domain.
P A a prime ideal is a subset of a ring that shares many important properties of a Publishing House, 2021.
R
Conversely, suppose is an integral domain .
P prime number in the ring of integers. The prime ideals for the integers are the 3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
We verify that P is a prime ideal
sets that contain all the multiples of a given prime number, together with the zero
Choose ab ∈ P for some a, b ∈ P . 4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
ideal. A a maximal ideal is an ideal that is maximal (with respect to set inclusion)
Therefore P+ab = P .
amongst all proper ideals. 5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
Hence (P+a )(P+b ) = P .
KEYWORDS putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
Therefore (P+a ) = P or (P+b ) = P . Therefore a ∈ P or b ∈ P ⇒ ab ∈ P ⇒
a ∈ P or b ∈ P . Ideals, principle ideal, principle ideal ring, prime ideal, maximal ideal. 6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Thus P is a prime ideal. Wesley Longman, 2002.
ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Note 11.3. In view of the theorems, we prove that every maximal ideal is a com- 7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
1. Show that all fields are principal ideal rings. & Sons, 2003.
mutative ring with unity is a prime ideal.

2. Investigare whether the rings R = 2Z and I = 4Z are prime ideals.

1. In a commutative ring with unity, maximalideal ⇒ prime ideal 8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,

3. Investigare whether the rings R = 2Z and I = 4Z are maximal ideals. Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
Proof. M is a maximal ideal in a commutative ring with unity.
R R 4. Find all the prime ideals and the maximal ideals of Z16 .
is a field. ⇒ is an integral domain.
M M
R 5. Let R be the ring all real valued continuous functions defined on the closed
⇒ is a prime ideal.
M interval [0, 1]. Let M = {f (x) ∈ R : f ( 13 ) = 0}. Show that M is maximal
(Here instead of M , we can choose a P as maximal ideal to prime ideal).
ideal of R.

2. If R is a finite commutative ring with unity, we prove that every prime ideal 6. Let R = Z[i] = {a + ib : a, b ∈ Z}. Let M = ⟨2 + i⟩. Then show that M is a
of R is a maximal ideal. maximal ideal of R.
 136 12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 137 12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 138

a ac
12 UNIT: The field of Quotients We need to introduce a relation in S in order to consider the fractions and , ′ ′ ′ ′
Then ab = a b and cd = c d. Thus, we have,
b bc
for nay c ∈ R, c ̸= 0, identical.
Define a relation ∼ on S by (a, b) ∼ (c, d) if ad = bc, ∼ is an equaivalence (ad + bc)b′ d′ = adb′ d′ + bcb′ d′
OBJECTIVES
relation: = (ab′ )dd′ + (cd′ )bb′

After studying this unit, you should be able to: Clearly (a, b) ∼ (a, b). If (a, b) ∼ (c, d), then ad = bc which implies da = cb since = (a′ b)dd′ + (c′ d)bb′
R is commutative. = a′ d′ bd + b′ c′ bd
• define imbedding of rings and known its elementary properties;
Hence (c, d) ∼ (a, d).
= (a′ d′ + b′ c′ )bd.
• explain the some special classes of imbedding rings along with examples; Suppose (a, b) ∼ (c, d) and (c, d) ∼ (e, f ).
Then ad = bc and cf = de. Thus, we have, daf = adf = bcf = bde = dbe.
  a′ d′ +b′ c′ 
This implies ad+bc

• explain some fundamental lemma’s of imbedding rings ; bd
= b′ d′
.
Since d ̸= 0 and R is an integral domain, we can cencel d to obtain af = be that
 a   c   a ′   c′ 
Therefore b + d = b′ + d′ and thus addition is well-defined.
• solveing some problems of imbedding rings ; is (a, b) ∼ (e, f ). The operation of multiplication can be similarly varified to be well-defined. Fur-
• discuss the nature of field of quotients of an integral domain. Hence ∼ is an equivalence relation on S. ther,
Let ab denote the equivalence class caontaining (a, b) called the fraction associated
 
INTRODUCTION 1) Addition in F is commutative:
with (a, b).
In this unit, the concept of imbedding the rings has been explained. The definition Let F denote the collection of all fractions. i.e., hai hci h ad + bc i
+ =
and important theorem related to imbedding the rings are presented as follows. b d db
n hai o h cb + da i
F = |a, b ∈ R, b ̸= 0 . =
b h c ibd h a i
= + .
Definition 12.1. A ring R is said to be imbedded into a ring R1 if there is an d b
We define addition and multiplication operations in F to make it into a field:
isomorphism of R into R1 , that is R is imbedded into R1 if R ≈ S where S ⊂ R1 .
2) Addition is associative:
hai hci   h i h i h i
ad + bc a c ac
Further if R and R1 are unit elements 1 and 11 respectively. + = , × = .
b d bd b d bd
1 h a i h c i
[Then we insist that the isomorphism should take 1 onto 1 ]. e h a i h c i h e i
+ + = + +
b d f b d f
a  a′ 
Note that b
= if and only if a′ b = ab′ . Also b ̸= 0, b ̸= 0 implies bd ̸= 0 as
b′
Theorem 12.1. Every integral domain can be imbedded into a field.
R is an integrel domain and so ad−bc
   ac 
bd
, bd ∈ F . 0
is the zero element, for 01 + ab = ab .
     
3) 1
Proof. Let R be an integral doimain. Consider the set Addition is well-defined: h0i h0i
We note that = for any non-zero a in R.
1 a
   ′    ′
Suppose ab = ab′ and dc = dc′ .
S = R × (R − {0}) = {(a, b)|a, b ∈ R, b ̸= 0}.

a
We can look upon the elements of S as fractions where both the numerator a
b
and denomirator b in R, b ̸= 0.
12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 139 12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 140 12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 141

 −a  a h a ih c i h a ih e i h ac i h ae i h ab i
4) b
is the additive inverse of b
: + = + f (ab) =
b d b f bd bf 1
h acbf + bdae i h a ih b i
hai h −a i h −ab + ba i
= =
+ = bdbf 1 1
b b b2 h acf + ade i
h0i
= , = f (a)f (b).
= bdf
b2
h0i h i h i
= . Further, f (a) = f (b) =⇒ a
= b
i.e., a = b.
1 since b ̸= 0. 1 1

h ih i h i Hence f is an embedding of R into the field.

a b 1
a  −a 
Thus − b
= b
. 8) For any a, b ∈ R, both non-zero, we have, b a
= 1
.
Field of Quotients of an integral domain:
h i
Now for any ab ∈ F , we have
5) Multiplicative is associative:
h a ih 1 i hai Definition 12.2. Let D be an integral domain and F = {a, b such that a, b ∈ D ̸=
h a ih c ih e i h ac ih e i = ,
= b 1 b 0} be the set of equivalence class under the equivalence relation given by (a, b) ∼
b d f bd f
h ace i (c, d) if ad = bc, then F becomes a field and this field is called an quotients of
=
h i
1
bdf ans so is the identity element deoted simply by 1.
h a ih ce i 1 field of an integral domain D.
= h i
b df 9) Let x = ab be a non-zero element of F . Then a ̸= 0 (and b ̸= 0). Let
h a ih c ih e i h i Theorem 12.2. If K is any field containg an integral domain D, then K contains
= . y = ab . Then,
b d f a subfield isomorphic to the quotient field F (D).
h a ih b i
6) Multiplication is commutative: xy = Proof. Let D be an integral domain and K be be a field containing D. For any
b a
h ab i a, b ∈ D(b ̸= 0), we have a, b ∈ K.
h a ih c i h ac i =
= ba Hence (ab)−1 ∈ K.
b d bd i h1i
h ca = . Let K 1 = {(ab)−1 ∈ K such that a, b ∈ D(b ̸= 0)} ⊂ K.
= 1
h db
c ih a i We verify that K 1 is a sub field of K.
= . Hence x is a unit in F .
d b For this, it is enough to show that K 1 is a subring of K, containing unity
h i
Thus F is a field. Now define the map f : R → F by f (a) = a
. because other properties of field follows from K. Consider,
7) The distributive law holds in F : 1

Then
h a ih c i h e i h a ih cf + de i (ab)−1 − (cd)−1 =add−1 b−1 − cbb−1 d−1
+ = ha + bi
b d f b df f (a + b) = =(ad − cb)b−1 d−1
h acf + ade i a
= , and hai h b i
bdf = + =ab−1 − cd−1 ∈ K.
1 1
= f (a) + f (b) and,
12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 142 12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 143 12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS 144

−1
Similarly, Therefore ϕ is homomorphism. Excercise 12.1. Show that every element x of F can be expresesd as x = ab , a, b ∈
Let ϕ([a, b]) = ϕ([c, d]). This implies that ab−1 = cd−1 . R, b ̸= 0.
(ab)−1 (cd)−1 =ac(d−1 b−1 ) Therefore ad = bc. Hence (a, b) ∼ (c, d). That is, [a, d] = [c, d].
Solution. We identity the element of R with their image in F , The element a
− =(ac)(bd)−1 ∈ K Therefore ϕ is one to one.
h i
a
being identifed with f (a) =1
. We can then regand R as a subring of F . For
−1 1
−1
=ab cd −1
∈ K. For any ab ∈ K , we have ab ∈ D and b ̸= 0
h i
x = ab ∈ F , we have,
Therefore ab ∈ F and ϕ([a, b]) = ab−1
Further for a ̸= 0 in D, we have aa−1 ∈ K 1 . Therefore ϕ is onto.
hai h a ih 1 i
=
Therefore 1 ∈ K 1 , because K 1 is a subring of K containing unity. b 1 b
In view of the above facts, we have ϕ is an isomorphism of F on to K 1 . h a ih b i−1
=
Therefore K 1 is a subfield of K. This proves that F is the smallest field containing D. 1 1
We verify that K 1 ≈ F where F = {[a, b] : a, b ∈ D, b ̸= 0} is the quotient field = f (a)f (b)−1
Corollary 12.1. The quotient field of a finite integral domain consider with itself.
of D. = ab−1 ,
Note 12.1. If D is a finite integral domain, then it is a field. Infact it is the
Define ϕ : F −→ K 1 by ϕ[a, b] = ab−1 .
smallest field containing D. But quotient field F (D) is the smallest field containing undwer the identification. Thus the elements of f can be expressed as quotients
For [a, b], [c, d] ∈ F , Consider
D(By above theorem). of elemets of R.
ϕ([a, b] + [c, d]) =ϕ([ad + bc, bd]) Corollary 12.2. Any two isomorphic integral domain have isomorphic quotient Excercise 12.2. Show that the field F is the smallest field containing R.
=(ad + bc)(bd)−1 field.
Solution. Let F ′ be any field containing R. Then for any x ∈ F , we have
=ad + bc(d−1 b−1 ) Proof. Let D and D1 be the two isomorphic integral domain under the isomor- x = ab−1 , a, b ∈ R, b ̸= 0. Since R ⊆ F ′ and since F ′ is a field, x = ab−1 ∈ F ′ .
=ab−1 + cd−1 phism D onto D1 [i.e. ϕ : D −→ D1 ]. Thus F ⊆ F ′ .
=ϕ[a, b] + ϕ[c, d] Suppose F and F 1 are the quotient fields of D and D1 respectively.
Therefore, F = {[a, b] : a, b ∈ D} and F = {[ϕ(a), ϕ(b)] : a, b ∈ D}. KEYWORDS
Similarly, By above theorem and corollary, we have F ≈ F 1 .
Imbedding of ring; Field of Quotients of an integral domain.

ϕ([a, b][c, d]) =ϕ([ac, bd])

SUMMARY
=(ac)(bd)−1 ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS

=(ac)(d b ) −1 −1 In this unit, we discuss the conditions under which a ring R cab be embedded in a 1. If [a, b] = [a′ , b′ ] and [c, d] = [c′ , d′ ], then prove that [a, b][c, d] = [a′ , b′ ][c′ , d′ ].
−1 −1 field. Clearly, a necessary condition for this is ring R must be an integral domain.
=(ab )(cd ) 2. Show that the quotient field is the smallest field containing D.
We show that this condition is sufficient also by proving integral domain R can be
=ϕ[a, b]ϕ[c, d]
embedded in a field. The construction of this field is similar to the construction 3. Show that any ring can be embedded into a ring with unity [Hint. Embed-
of the field of rationals Q from the ring of integers Z. ding of a ring into ring of endomorphisms].
12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS
4. Show that any ring R with unity can be embedded into a ring of endomor-
phisms of some additive abelian group.
5. Show that the quotient field of a finite integral domain coinsides with itself.
6. What is the field of quotients of a finite integral domain?
7. What is the quotient field of 2Z, where Z is the ring of integers.
8. Show that an integral domain can be embedded into a field.
REFERENCES
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Publishing House, 2021.
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002.
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, 2003.
8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
145 12. UNIT: THE FIELD OF QUOTIENTS
BLOCK 4: ADVANCED RING THEORY
UNIT-13: Euclidean rings
UNIT-14: Classical Theorems on Eucliden rings
UNIT-15: Polynomial rings
UNIT-16: Polynomial over the Rational field
146 147
13 UNIT : Euclidean rings
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• define euclidean rings and known its elementary properties;
• explain some fundamental properties of euclidean rings;
• explain the some special classes of euclidean rings along with examples;
• understanding the nature of every field is an euclidean ring;
• describe the importance of every euclidean ring is a principle ideal ring ;
• solveing some problems related to euclidean rings.
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we study about divisibility in rings in a generalized form in terms of
euclidean domain. A ring without zero divisors in which an integer norm and an
associated division algorithm (i.e., a Euclidean algorithm) can be defined.
Euclidian Ring:
Definition 13.1. Let R be a commutative ring without zero divisos(Integral do-
main), then R is said to be an Euclidean ring or If there exists a function
D : R −→ Z + satisfying the following condition
(i) d(a · b ≥ d(a) ∀ a, b ∈ R − {0}.
(ii) For any a, b ∈ R − {0}, there exists t, r ∈ R such that a = bt + r where r = 0
or d(r) < d(b).
Example 13.1. The ring (Z, +, ·) is an Euclidean ring.
Solution. Define d : Z −→ Z + by d(a) = |a|. Then for any a, b ∈ Z − {0} we
have |ab| = |a||b| ≥ |a|. That is |ab| ≥ a) ⇒ d(ab) ≥ d(a). For any a, b ∈ Z − {0},
such that t, r ∈ Z. By division algorithm, we have a = bt + r, where r = 0 or
r < |b| or d(r) < d(b). Therefore Z is an Euclidean ring.
13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 148 13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 149 13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 150

Note 13.1. Solution. Let R be a field. It follows that the ring R is a commutative ring Note 13.2. Euclidean ring possesed unity.
without zer divisors.
(i) When we say, in the definition of euclidean domain, that there exist a non Therefore R is an integral domain. Definition 13.2. An element d ∈ R is said to be GCD of a, b ∈ R if
negative integer d(a) for any a ̸= 0, we mean, there exist a function d from Define a function d : R−{0} −→ Z + by d(a) = |a|. Then for any a, b ∈ R−{0},
R − {0} to Z+ ∪ {0}, where Z+ is set of positive integers. This function d is we have (i) d|a and d|b
called euclidean valuation on R. Also, the last condition in the definition |ab| = |a||b| ≥ |a| (∵ |b| = 1).
is called euclidean algorithm. Therefore d(ab) ≥ d(a). That is d(ab)d(a).
(ii) c|a and c|b
For any a, b ∈ R − {0}, there exists t, r ∈ R such that a = bt + r, where r = 0
(ii) We can show that the t and r mentioned in euclidean algorithm condition or r < b.
in the definition of euclidean domain are uniquely determined if and only if Therefore a = bt + r, where d(r) < d(b). This concept is denoted by d = (a, b).
d(a + b) ≤ M ax.{d(a), d(b)}.
Hence the function d satisfies the condition of Euclidean ring.
Let d(a + b) ≤ M ax.{d(a), d(b)}. Suppose a = tb + r = t1 b + r1 . Lemma 13.1. Let R be an Euclidean ring. Then a, b ∈ R have GCD, d moreover
Therefore the field is an Euclidean ring.
Let r1 − r ̸= 0, then b(t − t1 ) = r1 − r ̸= 0, and so t − t1 ̸= 0. Now
d = (a, b), d = λa + µb for λ, µ ∈ R.
Theorem 13.2. Every Euclidean ring is a principle ideal ring.
d(b) ≤ d(b(t − t1 ))
= d(r1 − r) Proof. Let R be an Euclidean ring and S be any ideal of R. We verify that S is Proof. Let A = {ra + sb : r, s ∈ R} ⊂ R. To verify that A is an ideal of R.
≤ M ax.{d(r1 ), d(−r)} given condition an principle ideal ring. Let x = r1 a + s1 b and y = r2 a + s2 b.
= M ax.{d(r1 ), d(−r)} Therefore x − y = (r1 − r2 )a + (s1 − s2 )b
If S = {0}, then S is an principle ideal generated by (0). That is S = (0).
< d(b), which is not possible.
Suppose S ̸= {0}, then there exists non zero elements in S. Let a ∈ S where x − yA as r1 − r2 ∈ R, s1 − s2 ∈ R.

Thus r1 − r = 0 =⇒ b(t − t1 ) = 0 or t − t1 = 0 as b ̸= 0. This implies that a ̸= 0 with least d(a) (i.e. d(a) < d(x) ∀ x ∈ S). Futher, for any u ∈ R, x = r1 a + s1 b, we have ux = u(r1 a + s1 b). This implies
t = t1 and r = r1 . that ux = ur1 a + us1 b. Therefore ux = (ur1 )a + us1 )b.
Conversley, let t, r be uniquely determined and suppose d(a+b) > M ax.{d(a), d(b)} Now we verify that S is a principle ideal generated by a0 .
for some a, b(non zero) in R. Therefore S = a0 . Since ur1 ∈ R, us1 ∈ R.
Now b = 0(a + b) + b = 1.(a + b) − a. Therefore ux ∈ A and also xuıA.
Also d(−a) = d(a) < d(a + b) and d(b) < d(a + b). Thus for b, 1 ∈ R, there Let a ∈ S. Then we have aa0 ∈ S ⇒ aa0 ∈ R − {0}. That is a, a0 are non zero
exist t = 0, r = b or t1 = 1, r1 = −a such that b = t.1+r, b = t1 .1+r1 , where elements of an euclidean ring R. Hence A is an ideal of R.
r ̸= r1 (as a + b ̸= 0), t ̸= t1 , which is a contradction to the uniqueness. But every ideal in A of an euclidean ring R is a principle ideal, we have A = d
Hence d(a + b) ≤ M ax.{d(a), d(b)}. For non zero element a, a0 ∈ R, there exists t, r ∈ R such that a = a0 t + r,
where r = 0 or r < a0 . for d ∈ A.

Theorem 13.1. Z[i] = {a + ib : a.b ∈ Z}, the set of Gaussian integers, is a Therefore a = a0 t + r where r = 0 or d(r) < d(a0 ). Therefore d = λa + µb for some λ, µ ∈ R.
Euclidean ring. Hence r = a − a0 tS. That is r ∈ S and d(r) < d(a0 ), which is contradiction, Now, we verify that d is G ⊂ D, i.e. d = (a, b)

since d(a0 ) is the least in S. Because R is a Euclidean ring, it possess unity 1.

Proof. Define d : Z[i] −→ {0} −→ Z + by d(x) = |x|2 ; x = a + ib. Therefore
Therefore r = 0. But then a = 1.a + 0.b ∈ A, we have b = 0.a + 1.b ∈ A.
d(a + ib) = |a + ib|2 = a2 + b2 .
Hence a = a0 t for any a ∈ S (All elements of S are multiples of a0 ). Therefore a, b ∈ A, where A is an ideal generated by d (A = (d)).
For any x, y ∈ Z[i] − {0}, we have |xy|2 = |x|2 |y|2 ≥ |x|2 . That is |xy|2 ≥ |x|2 .
Therefore S is a principle ideal generated by a0 . That is S = a0 and because Suppose c ∈ R satisfies c|b and c|a then c|µb and c|λa ⇒ c|λa + µb
Therefore d(x, y) ≥ d(x).
S is an arbitrary ideal of R, it follows that all ideals of R are principle ideals. ⇒ c|d, where d = λa + µb.
Example 13.2. Every field is an Euclidean ring. Therefore R is a principle ideal ring. Thus the result follows.
13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 151 13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 152 13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 153

Lemma 13.2. Let R be an Euclidean ring and a, b ∈ R. Then Hence a = (ab)x for some x ∈ R implies that a(1 − bx) = 0. then
√ √ √
(i) d(ab) = d(a) if b is unit in R Here a ̸= 0, since A = (a), we have 1 − bx = 0. a + 2b (a + 2b)(c − 2d)
√ =
c + 2d c2 − 2d2
Hence 1 = bx for some x ∈ R. √
(ii) d(ab) > d(a) if b is non unit in R ac − bd 2(bc − ad)
= 2 +
Therefore b is an unit in R, which is not true. c −√2d2 c2 − 2d2
Proof. (i) By the definition of an euclidean ring = m + 2n say
Thus d(ab) ̸= d(a) implies that d(ab) > d(a), when b is a non unit in R.

d(ab) ≥ d(a) −→ (1) where m and n are rationals.

Now m = [m] + θ where [m] is the greatest integer not greater than m and θ is
Note 13.3. fractional part of m.
1 1
If b is a unit in R, then b−1 exists in R. If 0 ≤ θ ≤ , take p = [m] and if < θ < 1, take p = [m] + 1.
(i) A necessary and sufficient condition for a non zero element a in an Euclidean 2 2
1
Therefore d[(ab)b−1 ] ≥ d(ab), we have ring to be a unit is d(a) = d(1). Thus there exist an integer p, such that |m − p| ≤ .
2
[a ∈ R(a ̸= 0), we have a is a unit in R. Then by (i) of above lemma, we Similarly, we can find an integer q, such that |n − p| ≤ 12 .
d(a) ≥ d(ab) −→ (2) have d(1a) = d(1) ⇒ d(a) = d(1)]. Put m − p = α, n − p = β, we have |α| ≤ 12 , |β| ≤ 12 .
Also we have √
From equations (1) and (2), we hae (ii) Z[i] is the fourth root of unity or the units of Z[i] = ±1, ±i a + 2b √
√ = (p + q) + 2(q + β)
√ √ c + 2d
d(ab) = d(a), when b is a unit in R.
Excercise 13.1. Show that Z[ 2] = {a + 2b : a, b ∈ Z} is an euclidean domain. √
a + 2b √ √
√ =⇒ √ = (p + 2q) + (α + 2β)
(ii) Let A be an ideal of R. Solution:
√ It is easy to see that Z[ √2] is an integral domain. Define a mapping. c + 2d
d : Z[ 2] − {0} −→ Z by d(a + 2b) = |a2 − 2b2 |. Then |a2 − 2b2 | ≥ 1 as √ √ √ √ √
Since R is a principle ideal ring. √ a =⇒ a + 2b = (c + 2d)(p + 2q) + (c + 2d)[(m − p) + 2(n − q)],
a − 2b2 = 0 ⇒ 2 = , which is not possible.
2
b √ √
Therefore Ais a principle ideal. Again, where, of course, (p + √2q) ∈ Z[ √ 2] as p, q √
are integers √
we can
√ thus write a + 2b = (c +√ 2d)(p + √2q) + r, where √ r = (c + 2d)[(m −
√ √ √
Let A = (a) = {xa : x ∈ R. We note that d(xa) ≥ d(a) (By the definition d[(a + 2b)(c + 2d)] = d[(ab + 2bd) + 2(ad + bc)] p) + 2(n − q)] √ and as r = (a + 2b) − (c + 2d)(p + 2q)
we notice r ∈ Z[ 2].
of an euclidean ring). = |(ac + 2bd) − 2(ad + bc)2 |
2
Now if
= |(a2 − 2b2 )(c2 − 2d2 )|
Therefore a is a generator of an ideal if d(a) is the least integer among all √ √
= |a2 − 2b2 ||c2 − 2d2 | r ̸= 0, d(r) = d[(c + 2d){(m − p) + ((n − q) 2}]
elements of the idel. ≥ |a2 − 2b2 | √ √
√ = d[(c + 2d)][d((m − p) + (n − q) 2)].
= d(a + 2b) −→ (1)
We now verify that d(ab) ̸= d(a). √ √ √
i.e., d(a + 2b) ≤ d[(a + 2b)(c + 2d)]. [using equation (1) one may notice here that in proving (1) we do not essentially
Let us assume that b is a non unit in R.
√ √ √ √
Let now a + 2b and c + 2d be two member of Z[ 2] and suppose c + 2d ̸= 0,
Suppose d(ab) = d(a).

Therefore abis also a generator of A. (i.e. (ab) = A)

Therefore a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ ab.
13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 154 13. UNIT : EUCLIDEAN RINGS 155 156

√
require that a, b, c, d are itegers.] 3. Show that R = {a + b −5} : a, b ∈ Z is not a euclidean domain. 14 UNIT : Classical Theorems on Eucliden rings
4. State and prove the division algorithm.
=⇒ d(r) = |c2 − 2d2 ||(m − p)2 − 2(n − q)2 |
≤ |c2 − 2d2 ||(m − p)2 + 2(n − q)2 | 5. Show that every ideal in a euclidean domain is a principal ideal.
OBJECTIVES
1 2
≤ |c2 − 2d2 || + | 6. Show that an euclidean domain is a principal ideal domain (PID).
4 4 √
2 2 After studying this unit you will be able to:
≤ |c − 2d | = d(c + 2d) 7. Show that in a principal ideal domain (PID), every non-zero prime ideal is
maximal. • explain the concepts of prime element in euclidean ring;
√ √ √ √ √
Hence, for a + 2b, c + 2d ∈ Z[ 2] ∃ p + 2q, r ∈ Z[ 2] such that
8. Let R be an euclidean domain and let A be an ideal of R, then there exist
√ √ √ ao ∈ A such that A = {ao x : x ∈ R}. • define the concepts of relatively prime element ;
(a + 2b) = (c + 2d)(p + 2q) + r,
REFERENCES • describe the inique factorization theorem and their significance ;
√ √
where either r = 0 or d(r) < d(c + 2d) showing that Z[ 2] is an Euclidean
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
domain. • explain some fundamental lemmas of fermat’s theorem;
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
SUMMARY Publishing House, 2021. • state and prove the fermat’s theorem .
An Euclidean domain (also called a Euclidean ring) is an integral domain that 3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
can be endowed with a Euclidean function which allows a suitable generalization
of the Euclidean division of the integers. This generalized Euclidean algorithm 4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015. INTRODUCTION
can be put to many of the same uses as Euclid’s original algorithm in the ring
5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
of integers: in any Euclidean domain, one can apply the Euclidean algorithm to In this unit, we study the unique factorization theorem, which states that every
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
compute the greatest common divisor of any two elements.
positive whole number can be expressed as a product of prime numbers in essen-
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
KEYWORDS Wesley Longman, 2002. tially only one way. Also, we study the Fermat’s theorem on sums of squares.
Euclidean domain, Euclidean algorithm, Euclidean valuation, Greatest common 7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
divisor. & Sons, 2003. Prime element in Euclidean ring:
ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS 8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Definition 14.1. In the Euclidean ring , a non unit element p is said to be a
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
1. In a euclidean domain R with valuation d, show that prime element if p = ab for a, b ∈ R. one of a and b is a unit in R.
(i) d(a) = d(−a) for all 0 ̸= a ∈ R.
Example 14.1. In any euclidean ring R, one is a prime element of R. That is
(ii) if a, b are associates, then d(a) = d(b).
1 = 1.1 (1 is a unit).
(iii) if a | b and d(a) = d(b), then a, b are associates.
(iv) if for 0 ̸= a ∈ R, d(a) = 0, then a is unit. Example 14.2. In the ring R of integers, all prime integers are prime element,
(iv) if a | b and a is not an associate of b, then d(a) < d(b) because 13 = 1 × 13 1 is a unit of Z.
(a, b ̸= 0).
Note 14.1. Let R be a euclidean ring. Then any ideal A = a0 is a maximal ideal
2. Show that the ring of every integer in not an euclidean domain.
in R if and only if a0 is a prime element of R.
14. UNIT : CLASSICAL THEOREMS ON EUCLIDEN RINGS 157 14. UNIT : CLASSICAL THEOREMS ON EUCLIDEN RINGS 158 14. UNIT : CLASSICAL THEOREMS ON EUCLIDEN RINGS 159

Definition 14.2. In an Euclidean ring R, the element a and b are said to be Proof. Since P1 |p1 , p2 , p3 , ·, pn and p1 , p2 , · · · , pn = p11 , p12 , · · · , p1m , we have If p ∈ Z ⇒ p ∈ Z[i]
relatively prime element of R is their G ⊂ D is the unity of R. P1 |p11 , p12 , · · · , p1m . We verify that given integer p need not be a prime element of Z[i].
We denote this concept by (a, b) = 1 Therefore P1 |atleast one of (p11 , p12 , · · · , p1m ). Given p|cp and cp = x2 + y 2
⇒ p|x2 + y 2
Note 14.2. So assume P1 |p1 . That is p11 = u1 p1 .
p|(x + iy) or p|x − iy where x + iy, x − iy ∈ Z[i].
Therefore u1 ∈ R is a unit in R(Because by exchanginging u1 with u1 p11 ).
(i) Ler R be an Euclidean ring. Suppose that for a, b, c ∈ R with a|bc and If p is to be a prime element of Euclidean ring Z[i], then
(ab) = 1 then a|c. Hence p1 and p11 are associative. ⇒ p1 p2 , · · · , pn = u1 p1 p12 · · · p1m p|(x + iy) or p|(x − iy)
p2 p3 · · · pn = u1 p12 p13 · · · p1m −→ (1) Suppose p|x + iy and x + iy = p(u + iv) ( ∵ u + iv ∈ Z[i])
(ii) If P is a prime element in an Euclidean ring R and P |ab, ∀ ab ∈ R then
Therefore x = pu and y = pv
P atleast one of a or b. Now, we can repeat the above argument on relation (1), with p2 we have
⇒ p|x and p|y.
p3 · · · pn = u1 u2 p13 · · · p1m
[P † a ⇒ (p, a) = 1 Suppose p|x − iy, where p|x + iy.
Containing the same and if m > n, argument n times
[P |ab and (p, a) = 1 ⇒ P |b] Therefore p2 |x2 + y 2 = p2 |cp = p|c, which is a contradiction.
As (c, p) = 1
(iii) P |a1 a2 · · · an P = u1 u2 · · · un p1n+1 p1n+2 · · · p1m
Therefore p † x + iy.
P|atleast one of (a1 , a2 , · · · , an )
where u1 u2 · · · un are units and p1n+1 , p1n+2 , · · · , p1m are non units. Being a Similarly, we have p † x − iy.

(iv) Let R be an integral domain with unity. (R is a Euclidean ring) prime element. So the product in right hand side (RHS) cannot be 1. There- Therefore p is not a prime element of Z[i] for p|(x + iy)(x − iy) but p † (x + iy)

fore m ≤ n. and p † (x − iy).

Suppose that for a, b ∈ R, both a|b and b|a then a = µb where µ is a unit in
In consequence of this, we have
R Similarly, we can prove n ≤ m [Take a = vb and same applying].
P = (a + ib)(f + ig) such a + ib, f + ig ∈ Z[i] and none of a + ib and f + ig is
(v) Associative element : Let R be an Euclidean ring with two elements a, b ∈ R In the above process, we also see that pi and pj are as associatesand con-
a unit in Z[i]
are said to be associates in R. If b = µa where u is a unit or a = vb where versely.
Note that d(a + ib) ̸= d(1) and d(f + ig) ̸= d(1)
v is a unit. Now from p = (a + ib)(f + ig) where p is a prime integer,
Fermat’s theorem on sums of squares:
Unique Factorisation theorem: Before proving the Fermats theorem, we first prove the following lemmas. we have p = (a − ib)(f − ig)
⇒ p2 = (a2 + b2 )(f 2 + g 2 ) −→ (∗)
Theorem 14.1. Let R be an euclidean ring and a ̸= 0 be a non-element Lemma 14.1. Let p be a prime integer and suppose that for some integer p,
Therefore a2 + b2 |p2 or f 2 + g 2 |p2
unit in R. Suppose that a = p1 , p2 , p3 , · · · , pn = p11 , p21 , · · · , p1m with Pi and relatively prime to p. We can find integers x and y such that x2 + y 2 = cp, then
Therefore a2 + b2 = 1 or p or p2 (Since p is prime)
Pj are the prime elements of R. Then n = m and each Pi (1 ≤ i ≤ n) is an P can be written as the sum of the squares of two integers. (i.e. p = a2 + b2 )
but a2 + b2 ̸= 1 (∵ d(a + ib) ̸= 1)
associate of Pj (1 ≤ j ≤ m).
Proof. We know that, the ring Z of integers is a subring of the Z[i], where Z[i] is a2 + b2 = p or p2
Gaussian integers (Z ⊂ Z[i] )
14. UNIT : CLASSICAL THEOREMS ON EUCLIDEN RINGS 160 14. UNIT : CLASSICAL THEOREMS ON EUCLIDEN RINGS 161 14. UNIT : CLASSICAL THEOREMS ON EUCLIDEN RINGS 162

2 2 2 2 2
If a + b = p then from (∗), we have f + g = 1, which is a contradiction as (−1)(mod p).
d(f + ig) ̸= d(1) ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Proof. Since we only need to use the remainder of x divison by p. We can choose
Therefore a2 + b2 = p for a, b ∈ Z exists by given hypothesis.
x such that 0 ≤ x ≤ p − 1. That is x < p. 1. Define a prime element in euclidean ring with an example.
p p
Lemma 14.2. If p is a prime number of the form 4n + 1, we can solve x2 ≡ We can also assume that |x| < or x ≤ . √
p 2 2 2. Show that Z[ −5] is an integral domain, which is not an unique factorization
−1(mod p). Suppose x > , then choose y = p − x.
2 domain.
Therefore y 2 = p2 + x2 − 2px.
Proof. Let p = 4n + 1 √
2 2 2
y ≡ x (modp) where x ≡ −1(modp). 3. Show that Z[ −3] is not an unique factorization domain.
p − 1 = 4n
p
p−1 Therefore y 2 ≡ −1(modp) with y = p − x < .
Therefore is an even integer. 2 4. In unique factorization domain R, show that non-zero prime ideal (̸= R)
2   By replacing x by y, we have the above condition
p−1 p−1 contains a prime element.
Choose x = 1, 2, 3, · · · , where is even. p
2 2 x2 ≡ −1(modp) with x < .
(p − 1) 2
Therefore x = (−1), (−2), (−3), · · · , p2 5. If p = 4n + 1, where p is a prime number, then show that x2 ≡ −1(mod p).
 2 Therefore x2 + 1 = cp for some integer c with x2 ≤ but cp = x2 + 1

p−1 −(p − 1)
 4
Therefore x2 = 1, 2, 3, · · · , (−1), (−2), (−3), · · · , p2 6. Write a short note on the Wilson’s theorem.
2 2 cp ≤ + 1 < p2 ⇒ cp < p2 ⇒ c < p.
4
But (p − k) ≡ (−k)(mod p)) or (−k) ≡ (p − k)(mod p)
Therefore (c, p) = 1.
7. Explain the significance of the Fermat’s theorem on sums of squares

p−1

−(p − 1)
 Hence, p = a2 + b2 for some integer a and b, due to above lemmas.
x2 = 1, 2, 3, · · · , (−1), (−2), (−3), · · · , (mod p) 8. State and prove the Fermat’s theorem on sums of squares.
2 2
  
p−1 p − (p − 1)
= 1, 2, 3, · · · , (p − 1), (p − 2), (p − 3), · · · , (mod p) REFERENCES
2 2 SUMMARY
  
p−1 2p − p + 1)
= 1, 2, 3, · · · , (p − 1), (p − 2), (p − 3), · · · , (mod p) 1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2 2 An unique factorization domain (UFD) is a ring in which a statement analogous
 
(p − 1) (p + 1) to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic holds. Specifically, a UFD is an integral
= 1, 2, 3, · · · , , · · · (p − 2)(p − 1) (mod p) 2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
2 2
domain in which every non-zero non-unit element can be written as a product of Publishing House, 2021.
x2 =(p − 1)!(mod p)
prime elements, uniquely up to order and units. Important examples of UFDs are
the integers and polynomial rings in one or more variables with coefficients coming 3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
But by Wilson theorem,
from the integers or from a field. 4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015.
(p − 1)! ≡ −1(mod p)
2
x ≡ (−1)(mod p). 5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
KEYWORDS
Fermats theorem for rings: putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
Euclidean function, Euclidean domain, Unique factorization domain, Fermat’s the-
Theorem 14.2. If p is the prime number of the form 4n + 1, then p = a + b 2 2 6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
orem on sums of squares.
for some integer a and b then there exists x (by above lemma) such that x2 ≡ Wesley Longman, 2002.
14. UNIT : CLASSICAL THEOREMS ON EUCLIDEN RINGS 163 164 15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 165

7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley 15 UNIT : Polynomial rings or
& Sons, 2003. f (x).g(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ck xk , (k = m + n)

8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition, OBJECTIVES with 
 Pj a b ,

if j < (m + i)
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013. 

 i=0 i j−i
After studying this unit you will be able to:

c j = am b n , ifj = (M + i)


• explain the concepts of prime element in euclidean ring;


0,

if j > (m + i).

• define the concepts of relatively prime element ; The Ring R[x] is called Polynomial ring and the elements of R[x] are called poly-

• describe the inique factorization theorem and their significance ; nomials.

• explain some fundamental lemmas of fermat’s theorem; Note 15.1.

• state and prove the fermat’s theorem . (i) The Zero element of R[x] is 0 or 0(x) = 0 + 0x + 0x2 + · · · and unity of R[x]
is, 1 or 1(x) = 1 + 0x + 0x2 + · · ·

INTRODUCTION (ii) R can be embedded in R[x] under ϕ : R → R[x] given by ϕ(a) = a + ox +

0x2 + · · ·
A polynomial ring is a ring formed from the set of polynomials in one or more
variables with coefficients in another ring, often a field. (iii) If R is a commutative ring that R[x] is a commutative ring.

Degree of polynomial:
Polynomial Rings:

Definition 15.1. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and x is an indetermi- Definition 15.2. The degree of a polynomial f (x) is the largest integer m the

nate then the set R[x] = {f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn /ai ∈ R} becomes a coefficient am is not zero.

commutative ring with unity under + and . defined as follows. i.e,. f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + am xm is a polynomial of degree ′ m′ if am ̸= 0.

For The degree of f (x) is denoted by deg(f (x)) or deg(f ). Note that degree of 0 -

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + am xm polynomial is undefined but we choose it to be ∞.

g(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bn xn , m > n Lemma 15.1. For f, g ∈ R[x], we have deg(f g) = deg(f ) + deg(g).

Then Proof. Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + am xm , (am ̸= 0)

and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + ... + bn xn , (bn ̸= 0)
f (x) + g(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · + (an + bn )xn + an+1 xn+1 + · · · + am xm . be polynomials of degree m and n respectively.
15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 166 15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 167 15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 168

i.e,. deg(f (x)) = m and deg(g(x)) = n. Proof. Since F is also a field it is a commutative ring with unity 1. i.e,. we assume that the result f (x) = tg(x) + r(x) with r(x) or deg(r(x)), true
t
 = c0 + c1 x + · · · + ct x , (t = m + n)
But f (x).g(x) We verify that every non-zero element in f [x] need not be units. for all polynomial whose degree deg(g(x)) < deg(f (x)).
 Pj m n


 i=0 ai bj−i , if j < (m + i) Let f (x) be a non-zero element of F [x]. Consider f1 (x) = f (x) − am b−1
n g(x)x x .

 Pm−1 Pm−1 i n−r
where cj = am bn , ifj = (M + i) Therefore deg(f (x)) ≥ 0. Therefore f1 (x) = am xm + i=1 ar x i
− [am b−1 n n
n ][bn x x + 1=0 bi x ]x

If deg(f (x)) = 0, thenf (x) ∈ F . Therefore deg(f1 (x)) ≤ m − 1 < m = deg(f (x)) (i.e,. deg(f1 (x)) < deg(f (x))).



0,

if j > (m + i).
Therefore f (x) = a + 0x + 0x2 + · · · = q ∈ F, a ̸= 0 By induction hypothesis, the result is true for f1 .
Therefore cm+n = am bn ̸= 0(am ̸= 0, bn ̸= 0)
Therefore [f (x)]−1 exists in F . Therefore, there exist ti , (x) ∈ F [x] such that ti (x)g(x) + r(x) = f (x), where
i.e,. cm+n is the non-zero coefficient with the term xm+n and all the coefficients
i.e,. f (x) is a unit in F . r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x)).
after cm+n with power of x more than m + n are zero.
Suppose deg(f (x)) > 0, we verify that [f (x)]−1 does not exist in F [x]. But from by previews equation we have,
Therefore deg(f (x).g(x)) = m + n = deg(f (x)) + deg(g(x)).
m−n
Suppose om the contrary [f (x)]−1 = g(x) ∈ F [x], we observe that g(x) ̸= 0(x). f (x) = f1 (x) + am b−1
n g(x)x
Therefore deg(f g) = deg(f ) + deg(g).
m−n
Because in this case g(x) = 0(x); we have, f (x).g(x) = f (x).0. This implies f (x) = t1 (x)g(x) + r(x) + am b−1
n g(x)x
Lemma 15.2. If the ring R ia an integral domain then R[x] ia also an integral that 1 = 0. f (x) = [t1 (x) + am b−1 m−n
n x ]g(x) + r(x)
domain. Therefore deg(g(x)) ≥ 0. i.e,. f (x) = t(x)g(x) + r(x), where t(x) = t1 (x) + am b−1 m−n
∈ F [x].
n x

Proof. Since R is a commutative ring it follows that R[x] is also commutative ring Consider deg(f g) = deg(f ) + deg(g). Thus f (x) = t(x)g(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x)).

, we verify that R[x] has no zero divisors. deg(f g) > 0. Therefore F [x] is an Euclidean ring.

Let f (x) and g(x) be non-zero polynomials of degree m and n, respectively. Therefore deg(1) > 0. (∴ deg(1) = 0)
Theorem 15.3. F [x] is a Principal Ideal ring (PIR).
i.e., f (x) ̸= 0, g(x) ̸= 0 and deg(f (x) = m ≥ 0), deg(g(x)) ≥ 0. [f (x)]−1 does not exists in F [x].
Proof. Since F is a field is clear thatF is a commutative ring without zero divisors.
But deg(f g) = deg(f ) + deg(g). Theorem 15.2. : If F is a field then F [x] is an Euclidean ring.
Therefore F [x] is also a commutative ring without zero divisors. Let S be any
Therefore deg(f g) = m + n ≥ 0.
Proof. : Since F is a field we see that F [x] is an integral domain. ideal of F [x]. If S = 0 then S is a principal ideal generated by ’0’ Polynomial.
Therefore deg(f g) ≥ 0, f (x)g(x) ̸= 0.
Define a function d : (F [x] = 0) → Z + by d(f (x)) = deg(f (x)) i.e,. S = 0.
Therefore R[x] has no zero divisors.
We verify that deg(f g) ≥ d(f ) for f g ∈ F [x] − 0. Suppose on other hand, S ̸= 0. Then there are some non-zero polynomial S.
Therefore R[x] is a commutative ring without zero divisors and having it is an
From deg(f g) = deg(f ) + deg(g), (deg(f ) ≥ 0, deg(g) ≥ 0) we have Let g(x) be a non-zero polynomial in F [x] of least degree.
integral domain.
deg(f g) ≥ deg(f ) (i.e,.d(f g) ≥ d(f )). i.e,. deg(g(x)) < deg(h(x))∀h(x) ∈ S with h(x) ̸= 0.
Corollary 15.1. If F is a field, then F [x] is an integral domain. Now, for any f (x)g(x) ∈ F [x] − 0 we verify that there exist t(x) and r(x) such we now verify that S = g(x).

Proof. Since F is a field if follows that F ia an integral domain. that f (x) = t(x)g(x) + r(x) with r(x) = 0 or d(r(x)) < d(g(x)). Let f (x) be any polynomial in S.

Therefore F [x] is an integral domain [by above Lemma]. If deg(f (x)) < deg(g(x)) then we have f (x) = 0(x)g(x) + f (x). Therefore f (x)g(x) ∈ F [x], where F [x] is a Euclidean ring.
Where m ≥ n, we prove that result by induction on deg(f (x)), Where r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x)).
Theorem 15.1. If F is a field, then F [x] is not a field.
Therefore r(x) = f (x) = t(x)g(x) ∈ S.
15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 169 15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 170 15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 171

If r(x) ̸= 0, then r(x) ∈ S with the condition that deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x)), Therefore [2ψ(x) − xϕ(x)]g(x) = 0 r(x)a(x) = r(x){s1 (x)f (x) + t1 (x)g(x)}
which is not possible. where [2ψ(x) − xϕ(x)]g(x) ∈ Z[x] an In domain (∵ g(x) ̸= 0) r(x)a(x) = [r(x)s1 (x)]f (x) + [r(x)t1 (x)]g(x)
∴ r(x) = 0. [2ψ(x) − xϕ(x)] = 0 where r(x)s1 (x) and r(x)g(x) ∈ F [x]
Hence f (x) − t(x)g(x). Clearly, all coefficients of ϕ(x) are even integers. Therefore r(x)a(x) ∈ S
∴ All elements of S are multiples of g(x). Therefore ϕ(x)2h(x) −→ (2) Therefore S is an ideal of F [x], which is a euclidean ring.
∴ S is an orbitrary ideal of F [x]. for some polynomial h(x) ∈ Z[x] Since every euclidean ring is a principle ideal ring it follows that F [x] is a
Therefore S = (g(x)). By using (2) in (1) we see that principle ideal.
F [x] =⇒ all ideals of F [x] are Principle ideals. 2 = 2h(x)g(x) ⇒ h(x)g(x) = 1 ∈ S Therefore S is a principle ideal.
∴ F [x] is an Principle ideal ring. Therefore 1 ∈ S Let S = (d(x)) for some d(x) ∈ F [x] (∵ d(x) ∈ S we have d(x) = m(x)f (x) +
But we can verify that 1 ∈
/S n(x)g(x) for m(x)n(x) ∈ F [x].
Note 15.2. F [x] is a principle ideal ring, when F is a field, but R[x] is not a
Because 1 ∈ S ⇒ 1 = 2p(x) + xq(x); p, q ∈ Z[x]. Now we verify that d(x) is the GCD of f (x) and g(x).
principle ideal ring over any orbitrary ring.
⇒ 1 = 2{a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn } + x{b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm } Since 1, 0 ∈ S we have,
Example 15.1. Consider Z[x], where Z is not a field. 1 = 2a0 f (x) = 1 · f (x) + 0 · g(x) and g(x) = 0 · f (x) + 1 · g(x) ∈ S
Therefore a0 ∈ Z Therefore f (x) · g(x) ∈ S
Solution : We verify that Z[x] is not a PIR.
∴ S is not a principle ideal. Since all elemente of S in d(x);
Let S = ⟨2, x⟩ = {2p(x) + xq(x)|p(x)q(x) ∈ Z[x]}
Therefore Z[x] is not a Principle ideal ring (PIR). d(x)|f (x) and d(x)|g(x)
For a(x) = 2p1 x + xq1 x and b(x) = 2p2 x + xq2 (x) be elements of S.
Let c(x) be element of F [x] suchthat c(x)|f (x) and c(x)|g(x)
Therefore a(x) − b(x) = 2[p1 (x) − p2 (x)] + x[q1 (x) − q2 (x)]
Euclidean algorithm for polynomials over a field: Now, c(x)|f (x) and c(x)|g(x)
where {p1 (x) − p2 (x)} ∈ Z[x] and {q1 (x) − q2 (x)} ∈ Z[x]
⇒ c(x)|m(x) · f (x) and c(x)|n(x) · g(x)
Therefore a(x) − b(x) ∈ S Theorem 15.4. Let F be a field and f (x), g(x) be any two polynomials in F [x]
⇒ c(x)|[m(x) · f (x) + n(x) · g(x)]
Similarly, we can show that r(x)a(x) and a(x)r(x) ∈ S for some r(x) ∈ Z[x]. not both of which are zero then f (x) and g(x) have a greatest common divissor
c(x)|d(x)
Therefore S is not a principle ideal. GCD d(x) which can be expressed in the form d(x) = m(x)f (x) + n(x) + g(x) for
Therefore d(x) is GCD of f (x) and g(x) or d(x) = (f (x)g(x)).
Suppose S is a principle ideal generated by a polynomial g(x) ∈ Z[x] some polynomials m(x) and n(x) in F [x].
i.e, S(g(x)) Irreducible Polynomial:
Proof. Let S = {s(x)f (x) + t(x)g(x)|s(x)t(x) ∈ F [x]}
Since 2 and x are in S we have
Let a(x) = {s1 (x)f (x) + t1 (x)g(x) and b(x) = {s2 (x)f (x) + t2 (x)g(x) Definition 15.3. A non-zero polynomial p(x) in F [x] is said to itrreducible over
2 = ϕ(x)g(x) −→ (1)
Therefore a(x) − b(x) = [s1 (x) − s2 (x)]f (x) + [t1 (x) − t2 (x)]g(x). F if p(x) = a(x)b(x) for a(x)b(x) ∈ F [x] implies one of x(x) and b(x) is a unit in
and x = ψ(x)g(x) (becauseϕ, ψ ∈ Z[x])
where s1 (x) − s2 (x) and t1 (x) − t2 (x) ∈ F [x] F [x].
Therefore 2x = ϕ(x)g(x) and 2x = 2ψ(x)g(x)
Therefore a(x) − b(x) ∈ S
⇒ 2ψ(x)g(x) = xϕ(x)g(x) Note 15.3. Irreduciblility of a polynomial depends on the fields of reference.
Similarly for any r(x) ∈ F [x], we have
15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 172 15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 173 15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 174

2 2
Example 15.2. p(x) = x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 2 x + 1 ∈ R[x] is
irreducible. [∵ (x2 + 1) = (x + i)(x − i) : x + i, x − i ∈
/ R[x]] over R. But
p(x) = x2 + 1 ∈ C[x] is irreducible over C [(x2 + 1) = (x + i)(x − i)|x ± i ∈ C[x]].
Let U = (q(x)) for some q(x) ∈ F [x]. Since p(x) ∈ A ⊂ U , we have p(x) ∈ U and commutative algebra, and algebraic geometry.
therefore p(x) = h(x)q(x) for some h(x) ∈ F [x].
Therefore h(x) or q(x) is a unit. KEYWORDS

Similarly, p(x) = x2 + 1 ∈ Z2 [x], Z2 = {0, 1}. Suppose h(x) is aunit. Then p(x) = h(x)q(x) =⇒ q(x) = p(x)h−1 (x) ∈ A.
Polonomial rings, degree of polynomial, euclidean algorithm for polynomials, irre-
Therefore q(x) ∈ A and hence U ⊂ A, which leads to U = A.
p(x) =x2 + 1 ducible polynomial.
Similarly, if q(x) is a unit, then q −1 (x) ∈ F [x]. Then q(x)q −1 (x) ∈ U (i.e., 1 ∈ U ).
2
=x + 2x + 1(∵ 2 = 0 in Z2 ) Therefore U = F [x]. Thus A ⊂ U ⊂ F [x] =⇒ U = A or U = F [x].
ASSESSMENT / TERMINAL QUESTIONS
=(x + 1)(x + 1) Therefore A is a maximal ideal of F [x].

p(x) =x2 + 1.
Therefore p(x) = x2 + 1 is irreducible in Z2 .
Note 15.4. If p(x) is irreducible over a field F then p(x) has no roots in F .
Note 15.5. Any polynomial in F [x] can be written as product of finite number
Note 15.6. If the ring R is an integral domain with unity, then the following are
equivalent:
(i) R is a Unique factorization domain.
(ii) Every non-zero, non-unit element of R is a finite product of irreducible elel-
ments and every irreducible element is prime.
(iii) Every non-zero , non-unit element of R is a finite product of prime elments.
Lemma 15.3. The ideal A = (p(x)) in F [x] is a maximal ideal if and only if p(x)
is an irreducible polynomial in F [x].
Proof. Let A = (p(x)), where p(x) is an irreducible polynomial. We verify that A
is a maximal ideal.
Suppose U is any ideal of F [x] satisfy A ⊂ U ⊂ F [x].
Since U is an Euclidean ring F [x], it follows that U is a principal ideal.
Converserly, suppose that A = (p(x)) is a maximal ideal of F [x].
We verify that p(x) is irreducible polynomial in F [x]. Suppose p(x) is reducible,
that is p(x) = q(x)r(x), where both q(x) and r(x) ar non-units.
Choose B = (q(x)). Clearly, p(x) = q(x)r(x) =⇒ p(x) ∈ B. Therefore A ⊂ B ⊂
F [x].
We prove that B ̸= A and B ̸= F [x].
If B = A, then q(x) ∈ B =⇒ q(x) ∈ A, and therefore
q(x) = p(x)g(x) or q(x)r(x) = p(x)g(x)r(x). So, p(x) = p(x)g(x)r(x) which
reduces to [1 − q(x)r(x)]p(x) = 0. hence g(x)r(x) = 1.
Therefore r(x) is a unit in F [x], which is not true.
Similarly, if B = F [x], then 1 ∈ B since 1 ∈ F [x]. Therefore 1 = q(x)t(x) for
some t(x) ∈ F [x]. Thus q(x) is a unit in F [x], which is not true.
Therefore A ⊂ B ⊂ F [x] =⇒ B ̸= A and B ̸= F [x]. Therefore A is not maximal
ideal, which is contradiction. Therefore p(x) is an irreducible polynomial.
SUMMARY
The importance of such polynomial rings relies on the high number of properties
that they have in common with the ring of the integers. Polynomial rings occur
and are often fundamental in many parts of mathematics such as number theory,
1. Explain the significance of polynomial rings.
2. Define an irreducible polynomial with an example.
3. If the ring R ia an integral domain then show that R[x] ia also an integral
domain.
4. Show that x3 + 3x2 + 2 is irreducuble over Z5 .
5. If F is a field then F [x] is an Euclidean ring.
6. Show that F [x] is a Principal Ideal ring.
7. Prove that p(x) = x2 + x + 1 ∈ Z2 [x] is irreducible and hence verify that
A = (p(x)).
8. Verify that p(x) = x3 − 2 ∈ Q[x] is irreducible in Q[x]. Hence deduce that
A = (p(x)), is maximal ideal in Q[x].
REFERENCES
1. I. N. Herstein: Topics in Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
2. Surjeet Singh and Qazi Zameeruddin: Modern Algebra, 8th Edition, Vikas
Publishing House, 2021.
3. N. Jacobson: Basic Algebra-I, 2nd Edition, Dover Publications, 2009.
15. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL RINGS 175 176 16. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL OVER THE RATIONAL FIELD 177

4. M. Artin : Algebra, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2015. 16 UNIT : Polynomial over the Rational field Note 16.1.

5. Darek F. Holt, Bettina Eick and Eamonaa A. O’brien: Handbook of com-
putational group theory, 1st Edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2005.
6. J. B. Fraleigh : A first course in abstract algebra, 7th Edition, Addison-
Wesley Longman, 2002.
7. D. S. Dummitv and R.M. Foote: Abstract Algebra, 2nd Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, 2003.
8. V. K. Khanna and S. K. Bhambri: A course in Abstract algebra, 4th Edition,
Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., 2013.
(i) c(f ) = 1, if f (x) is a primitive polynomial.
OBJECTIVES
(ii) If f (x) ∈ Z[x] is non primitive polynomial then f (x) = c(f )fp (x), where
After studying this unit you will be able to: fp (x) is a primitive polynomial.
• explain the concepts of prime element in euclidean ring; Definition 16.3. A polynomial f (x) in Z[x] is said to be integer monic poly-
nomial, if co-efficient of its highest degree in x is 1. (i.e., leading co-efficient of
• Study the properties of primitive and monic polynomials;
f (x) is 1).
• state and prove the Gauss lemma ; h
Theorem 16.1. The product of two primitive polynomials is a primitive, or if c(f ) =
i
• explain some fundamental properties of primitive polynomials; 1, c(g) = 1, then c(f g) = 1.

• solve the problem related to Eisenstein criteria for irreducibility of a poly- Proof. Let f (x) = a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +...+am xm and g(x) = b0 +b1 x+b2 x2 +...+bn xn
nomial. be primitive polynomial in Z[x].
Then f (x)g(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + ... + ct xt , where, t = m + n and

INTRODUCTION
 j
P
 aj bj−i if j < m + n



i=0

In this unit we choose the polynomials with integer coefficients and determine a cj = am bT
 if j = m + n
criteria for irreducibility of a polynomial. Particularly, Eisenstein’s irreducibility 


0

if j > m + n.
criterion is a method for proving that a polynomial with integer coefficients is
irreducible For j + k < m + n, we have

j+k
Primitive polynomials
X
cj+k = ai bj+k−i
i=0
Definition 16.1. The Polynomial f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an xn ∈ Z[x] is = a0 bj+k + a1 bj−k−1 + ... + aj−1 bk+1 + aj bk + ... + aj+k b0
said to be primitive, if the gcd of the integers a0 , a1 , ...an is 1. = aj bk + (a0 bj+k + ... + aj−1 bk+1 ) + (aj+1 bk−1 + ... + aj+k b0 )

In other words, f (x) is primitive in Z[x], if its co-efficients are relatively primes. + (b0 aj+k + ... + aj+1 bk−1 ).

h
Definition 16.2. The content of a polynomial f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an ∈ Z[x] Therefore, we have aj bk = cj+k − a0 bj+k + ... + aj−1 bk+1 + (b0 aj+k + ... +
i
is the gcd of the co-efficients a0 , a1 , ...an . It is denoted by c(f ). aj+1 bk−1 ) −→ (1)
16. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL OVER THE RATIONAL FIELD 178 16. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL OVER THE RATIONAL FIELD 179 16. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL OVER THE RATIONAL FIELD 180

We now verify that f (x)g(x) is primitive. nals Q. Therefore, Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume that f (x) is primitive, because,
Suppose f (x)g(x) is not primitive. Then c0 , c1 , ...cm+n are all divisible by by taking out the greatest common factor d of its co-efficients the hypothesis of
integer larger then one and hence by some prime integer p. f (x) = g(x)h(x), whereg(x), h(x) ∈ Q[x] theorem is not disturbed, since p ∤ an implies p ∤ d.
  
p0 p1 p2 r0 r 1 r2
i.e., p/cl for l = 0, 1, 2, ..., m + n. = + x + x2 + ... + x + x2 + ... Suppose f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an−1 xn−1 + an xn is reducible over Q. Then by
q0 q1 q2 s0 s1 s2
Therefore p/a0 b0 , p/a1 b1 , ..., p/an bm etc. α(a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ...) γ(b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + ...) Gauss lemma it is reducible over Z.
= . ,
Hence p/a0 , or p/b0 , p/a1 or p/b1 , ...p/an or p/bm . β δ Therefore (f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an−1 xn−1 + an xn ) = (b0 + b1 x + ... + br xr )(c0 +
Since f (x) is primitive it follows that a can not divide all the co-efficients ai c1 x + ... + cs xs ).
where, β = LCM (q0 , q1 , q2 , ...) and δ = LCM (s0 , s1 , s2, ...).
(i = 0, 1, 2, ...n). where bi s and cj s are integers and r > 0, s > 0, n = r + s.
α = gcd(p0 , p1 , p2 , ...), γ = GCD(r0 , r1 , r2 , ...)
Let aj be the first co-efficient of f (x) which is not divisible by p. By comparing the co-efficients of like terms we get,
Therefore f (x) = µλ (a0 + a1 x + ...)(b0 + b1 x + ...), where λ = αγ, µ = βδ.
Therefore p/a0 , a1 , ...aj−1 and p/b0 , b1 , ...bk−1 , which implies that
f (x) = µλ g ∗ (x)h∗ (x), where g ∗ (x), h∗ (x) are primitive in Z[x] −→ (1)
p/(a0 bj+k + a1 bj+k−1 , ..., aj−1 bk ) and p/(b0 aj+k + b1 aj+k−1 , ..., aj+1 bk−1 ). From a0 = b0 c0
µf (x) = λg ∗ (x)h∗ (x)
(1), we see that p/aj bk , and therefore p/aj or p/bk , which is not true. a1 = (b0 c1 + b1 c0 )
c(µf (x)) = λc(g ∗ (x)h∗ (x))
Therefore f (x)g(x) is a primitive polynomial. ...
µc(f ) = λc(g ∗ )c(h∗ ) k
X
Corollary 16.1. If f (x), g(x) ∈ Z[x], then c(f g) = c(f )c(g). ak = (b0 ck + b1 ck−1 + b2 ck−2 + ... + bk c0 ) = bj ck−j .
µ.1 = λ.1
j=0
µ = λ.
Proof. For f (x), g(x) ∈ Z[x], we have f (x) = c(f )fp (x) and g(x) = c(g)gp (x),
Therefore, bk c0 = ak − (b0 ck + b1 ck−1 + b2 ck−2 + ... + bk−1 c1 ) −→ (1)
where fp (x) and gp (x) are primitive. Therefore f (x).g(x) = c(f ).c(g)fp (x)gp (x) From (1), we get f (x) = g ∗ (x)h∗ (x).
Now p/a0 =⇒ p/b0 c0 and therefore p/b0 or p/c0 .
∗ ∗
and c(f g) = c(f )c(g)c(fp (x)gp (x)). Thus f (x) = g(x)h(x) =⇒ f (x) = g (x)h (x), where f (x), g(x) ∈ Q[x] and
We verify that, p can not divide both b0 and c0 . If p/b0 and p/c0 , then p2 /b0 c0 .
Hence c(f g) = c(f )c(g), since fp (x), gp (x) are primitive. g ∗ (x), h∗ (x) ∈ Z[x].
Hence p2 /a0 , which is contradiction to the given condition p2 ∤ a0 .
Gauss lemma: Corollary 16.2. Monic polynomial which is factorized as the polynomia of two We see that p can not divide all the b′ s. Because if all the b′ s were divisible
If a primitive polynomial f (x) can be factorized as a product of two polynomials non-constant polynomials having rational co-efficients is also factorized as the by p, then all the co-efficients of f (x) would be divisible by p. In particular p/an
having rational co-efficients, it can be factorized as the product of two polynomials product of two monic polynomial with integer co-efficients. since an = br cs . This is a contradiction.
having integer co-efficients [or If a primitive polynomial is reducible over Q, then Suppose bk is the first b which is not divisible by p. that is p ∤ bk , where
Proof. Proof follows by the fact that a monic polynomial is primitive.
it is reducible over Z also]. k ≤ r ≤ n. We have, p/ak , p/(b0 ck + ... + bk−1 c1 ).
Eisenstein criteria for irreducibility of a polynomial: Then from (1), we see that p/bk c0 .
Proof. Let f (x) be a primitive polynomial which can be factorized over the ratio-
Therefore p/bk or p/c0 , which is contradiction.
Theorem 16.2. Let f (x) = a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +...+an xn be a polynomial with integer
Therefore f (x) is irreducible over the rationals Q.
co-efficients. Suppose that for some prime p ≥ 2, p/a0 , p/a1 , ..., p/an−1 , p ∤ an and
p2 /a0 . Then f (x) is irreducible over Q. Corollary 16.3. A polynomial f (x) is irreducible over Q if and only if f (x + α)
16. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL OVER THE RATIONAL FIELD 181 16. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL OVER THE RATIONAL FIELD 182 16. UNIT : POLYNOMIAL OVER THE RATIONAL FIELD 183

2 2
is irreducible over Q, where α ∈ Q. Example 16.1. f (x) = 2x − 4x + 6 is irreducible over Q. So, 7 is a prime satisfying 7/7, 7/14, 7/7, 7 ∤ 1 and 7 ∤ 7.

Proof. Suppose f (x) is irreducible over Q so that it has no roots in Q. To verify By Einstein’s criteria, we see that f (x + 2) is irreducible over Q.
Consider f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 6.
that f (x + α) is irreducible over Q. We claim that f (x + α) has no roots in Q. Hence f (x) is also irreducible over Q.
h i
Suppose, if possible, f (x + α) has a root β in Q. Then f (x + k) = 2 (x + k)2 − 2(x + k) + 3 Excercise 16.3. Prove that the cyclotomic polynomials, ϕ(x) = xp−1 + xp−2 + ... +
h i
= 2 x2 + 2xh + k 2 − 2x − 2k + 3 x + 1, where p is a prime is irreducible over Q.
h i
f (x + α) = (x + α − β) h(x + α), where h(β) ̸= 0. Therefore has
h i h i h i h i
f (β − α) + α = (β − α) + α − β h β − α + α = 2 x2 + (2k − 2)x + (k 2 − 2k + 3) Solution. Consider ϕ(x) = x−1
x−1

f (β) = 0.h(β) = (6 − 4k + 2k 2 ) + (4k − 4)x + 2x2 .

(x − 1)p − 1
f (β) = 0. ϕ(x + 1) =
(x + 1) − 1
2 2
Put k = 1, then f (x + 1) = 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2). xp + pxp−1 + p(p−1) p−2
x ... + px + 1 − 1
i.e., β is root f (x) in Q, which is a contradiction. = 2
Therefore f (x + 1) is irreducible implies f (x) is irreducible. x
So f (x + α) has no roots in Q and hence it is irreducible over Q. p(p − 1) p−1
= ϕ(x + 1) = xp−1 + pxp−2 + x ... + p.
Conversly, suppose f (x + α) is irreducible over Q, so that it has no roots in Excercise 16.2. Prove that (i) x3 − 3x − 1 (ii) x3 + x2 + 2x − 1 2
rational Q.
Solution. (i) f (x) = x3 − 3x − 1 Therefore p is a prime satisfying p/p, ...p/ p(p−1) , p/p, p ∤ 1 and p2 ∤ p.
2
To prove f (x) is irreducible over Q, we prove that it has no roots in Q. Suppose
By Eistein criteria, we see that ϕ(x + 1) is irreducible over Q and hence ϕ(x) is
f (x) has root say γ in Q. Then f (x + k) = (x + 3)3 − 3(x + k) − 1 also irreducible over Q.
f (x) = (x − γ)g(x) where g(γ) ̸= 0 = x3 + 3x2 k + 3k 2 x + k 3 − 3x − 3k − 1
h i
f (x + α) = (x + α) − γ) g(x + α) = x3 + 3kx2 + 3(k 2 − 1)x + (k 3 − 3k − 1).
h i h i Example 16.2. 1 + x + x2 + ...v + x2n−1 .
f (γ − α) + α = (γ − α) + α − γ g(γ − α + α)
h i Excercise 16.4. If m and n are relatively primes and if (x − m/n)/(a0 + a1 x +
f (γ − α) + α = 0.g(γ) Put k = 1, then f (x + 1) = x3 + 3x2 + 0x − 3.
h i ... + ar xr ), where a′ s are integer, then m/a0 and n/ar .
f (γ − α) + α = 0. Therefore 3 is a prime 3/(−3), 3/0, 3/3, 3 ∤ 1 and 32 ∤ (−3).
Hence deduce that if arr integer monic polynomial has a factore (x − r), ∈ Q, then
Therefore γ − α is a root of f (x + α), which is contradiction. Therefore f (x) has r is an integer (i.e., r ∈ Z).
(ii) f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2x − 1
no roots in Q.
Solution. Let (a0 + a1 x + ... + ar xr ) = (x − m/n)(b0 = b1 x + ... + br−1 xr−1 ).
Hence it is irreducible over Q.
Therefore a0 = − m b , a1 = b0 −
n 0
m
b , ...ar−1
n 1
= br−2 − m
b ,a
n r−1 r
= br−1 , where
Excercise 16.1. If p is a prime number , prove that the polynomial xn − p is f (x + k) = (x + 3)3 + (x + k)2 − 2(x + k − 1) (m, n) = 1.
irreducible over Q. Now from a0 = − m
= x3 + 3x2 k + 3k 2 x + k 3 + x2 + 2xk + k 2 − 2x − 2k − 1 b , we have na0 = −mb0 and therefore m/na0 . Hence m/a0 ,
n 0

Solution. let f (x) = xn − p = −p + 0.x + 0.x2 + ... + 0.xn−1 + xn , where p is a 3 2 2 3

= x + (3k + 1)x + (3k + 2k − 2)x + (k + k − 2k − 1. 2 since (m, n) = 1.
prime satisfying p/(−p), p/0, p/0, ..., p/0 and p ∤ 1, p2 ∤ (−p). Therefore m/na0 . Hence m/a0 , (since (m, n) = 1).
m
Therefore by Einstein criteria f (x) is irreducible over Q. Put k = 2. Then, f (x + 2) = x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 7. Similarly from ar−1 = br−2 − b ,
n r−1
we get − m b
n r−1
= ar−1 − br−2 ∈ Z.