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GEO 411
LECTURE NOTES
LAKA, I. S
INTRODUCTION
In describing our world we want to know what is where and where is what and how? To this end
we employ maps, usually as hardcopies for descriptions. Hardcopy maps are representation of
spatial or geographic information as a series of thematic layers of information for an area of
interest. They include map elements laid out and organized on a page. The map frame provides
the geographic view of information while other elements—for example, a symbol legend, scale
bar, north arrow, descriptive text, and a map title—around the map collar help you to understand,
read, and interpret the map's contents. Invariably, a hard copy map is -
static,
 difficult to update,
 storage problem,
 liable to torn, fade, shrink
 human difficulty to interpret the relationship between features with static data shown on
the map

Figure 1: Hard Copy Map

On the other hand A GIS utilizes a layer-based geographic information model for characterizing
and describing our world, it uses set of intelligent, interactive maps to visualize and work with
geographic information (data), such that it makes maps to:
 be dynamic
 displays map information interactively
 build the spatial relationship between features
 analyze to answer real-world problem

INTEGRATES

Figure 2: GIS INTEGRATES DATA

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GIS is able to overcome some of the disadvantages of traditional map management and analysis.

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of traditional maps compared with GIS

TRADITIONAL MAPS
Data are static
Fixed projection,
Quantitative analyses often tedious
Difficult to combine multiple map sheets
Overlays are restricted to a few layers
Updates require re-drafting
Difficult to copy and share between many users
Lower overhead costs
Paper maps usable in present form
Few Changes in technology
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Data easy to update
scale, coordinate system
can convert to new, scale, scale or
coordinate system
many manipulation options for analyzing maps
Easy to combine multiple map layers
Can overlay as many maps as contained in
database
Tools allow for map updates without re-
drafting
Multiple, simultaneous user access available
higher overhead costs
must convert map data to a digital
environment
Technology changes rapidly

We have established the fact that GIS is a multi-faceted, computerized set of techniques for
WHAT IS GIS?
GIS is the acronym which refers to three integrated parts:-
Geographic: Of the real world, Spatial realities; the geography. 80% of data collected by
government is related to some location in space.
Information: Data and information, their meaning and use, attributes.
Systems: The computer technology and supported infrastructure. A seamless operation
linking the information to the geography – which requires hardware, networks, software,
data, and operational procedures

Conceptually, a GIS can be envisioned as a stacked set of map layers, where each layer is aligned
or registered to all other layers. Typically, each layer will contain a unique geographic theme or
data type. These themes might include, for example, topography, soils, land-use, cadastral (land
ownership) information, or infrastructure such as roads, pipelines, power lines, or sewer
networks. Figure 3 shows an image of GIS where a mutual sharing of geography, allows all layers
in the GIS to be combined or overlaid in any user-specified combination.

Figure 3: Image of GIS

GIS is an immensely powerful computer mapping system. More and more people in Nigeria and
around the globe would like to plug into geographic, social, economic, political, and
environmental information to answer practical questions in their lives.
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To explore geo-referenced digital information, electronic tools that are designed for
acquiring, presenting, and interacting with information that links location with measured values
are needed. One such tool is called a Geographic Information System, better known as GIS. It is a
tool for managing information of any kind according to where it is located.
Examples of business that use GIS to impact life on a daily basis include:
1. Businesses can use GIS to track customer locations, optimize delivery routes, or decide
where to site future businesses using GIS
2. Scientists use GIS to manage sensitive wildlife habitats or track animal movements in an
ecosystem
3. Health care specialists track the spread of infectious disease with GIS.
Other areas of applications of GIS technology to proffer solutions for sustainable development are
in:
Telecommunications
Utilities
Agriculture
Defense
Oil
Health care
Transportation
Mining
Environmental management,
Water/wastewater
Many other industries as well as local, state, and federal government agencies
Any GIS definition must have two distinct characteristics which differentiates it from other
information systems. These are:
 A set of computer based system for managing geographic data
 Its ability to solve spatial problems.
Thus a GIS can be defined as:
A system of hardware, software and procedures designed to support the capture, management,
manipulation, analysis, modeling and display of spatially referenced data for solving complex
planning and management problems (Rhind 1989).
A computer system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying geographically
referenced information; that is, data identified according to location (USGS 2005).
Burrough (1986) defined it as a “powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will and
displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purpose “.
Good Child (1985) defined GIS as a system which uses a spatial database to provide answers to
quarries of geographical nature. It is defined as a computerized system that deals with the
collection, storage, management of data, retrieval, conversion, analysis, modeling and display of
spatial data.
Chorley (1987) “A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing
and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth. This is normally considered to
involve a spatially referenced computer database and appropriate applications software”

From the above a brief description of GIS is that it is a computerized system that deals with data in
terms of the following:
 Collection: Gathering data from many sources.
 Storage: Efficient digital storage.
 Management of data: Administering and keeping track of data including integration of
various data sets into a common database.
 Retrieval: Easy and efficient selection and viewing of data in a variety of ways.
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 Conversion: Converting data from one form to another i.e. conversion from one
geometrical projection to another, rescaling and other computer tricks to making the data
more useful and changing one map file to match another.
 Analysis: Manipulating data to produce insight and new information.
 Modeling: Simplifying the data or the world and its processes to understand how things
work.
 Display: Presenting data in various ways for easy understanding e.g. as maps or reports
A GIS is therefore a decision-making tool, it deals with decisions that have to do with utilization of
space; how we organize things in space. Its strength is in ability to bring in data from different
sources, integrate them in different ways in order to solve particular spatial problem.

APPROACHES TO DEFINING GIS

Many people have attempted to define GIS from different approaches thereby placing emphases
on other aspects of GIS rather than its true power of having the ability to integrate information
and to help in make decisions, but all include the essential features of spatial references and data
analysis.
Basic areas of emphasis/approaches are:
1. CONCEPT APPROACH (system based or functional): This defines GIS as a computer assisted
system for the capture, storage, analysis, retrieval and display of spatial data. This
definition sees GIS as a process one goes through in any GIS system. This definition tends
to see GIS as an omnibus system of data processing. it is also based on the functions that
a GIS performs. Since each of these functions is performed on the geographic data
associated with the GIS, the definition may also be called "data-centered. "It therefore is
difficult to distinguish GIS from other automated systems (not ideal).
2. APPLICATION APPROACH: Land information System is a type of GIS that manages and
analyzes data related to land ownership (e.g., tax parcels, urban infrastructure, and
property assessment).This definition emphasis the type of information that GIS handles in
this case land; other emphases include: natural resources inventory, land use and forestry
etc. The weaknesses of this approach are:
a) It does not give us a definition of GIS, it only give us what GIS can be applied to.
b) It overlooks one very important point of GIS, i.e. GIS is independent of both scale and
subject matter; it can be applied at any scale micro and macro scales and can be applied to
any subject matter that has a locational reference.
3. TOOL BOX APPROACH: William Huxhold's (1991) Introduction to Urban Geographic
Information Systems, New York: Oxford University Press. Asserted that". . . The purpose of
a traditional GIS is first and foremost spatial analysis. Therefore, capabilities may have
limited data capture and cartographic output”. This sees GIS as using several
procedures/algorithms. Examples of these are software that enable data input, the one
that draw for graphical presentation and series of analytical algorithms.
4. DATABASE APPROACH: This approach is very common and popular. Jeffrey Star and John
Estes, in Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, 1990): the GIS is defined as an information system that is designed to work with data
referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database
system with specific capabilities for spatially-reference data, as well [as] a set of operations
for working with data . . . In a sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher-order map." it
emphasizes GIS as a Database management system (DBMS). The DBMS is a critical
component of GIS without which GIS cannot operate, it however is a part and a part
cannot constitute a whole.
5. The GENERIC COMPONENTS APPROACH: Another way to understand GIS is to examine the
generic "components" that the system must contain. In order to accurately be called a GIS,
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a system must contain all of these elements - data, computer hardware, software, and
users. Note that the acquisition of a software package or a set of computer hardware does
not mean that the user has a "GIS." Similarly, merely computerizing a set of mapped data
does not result in a "GIS." An actual GIS includes all of the essential elements of data,
technology, and people who use the system in support of data management and analysis.
You should be aware that there are several technologies that are related to GIS but are not
the same as GIS.

GIS and Related System

Many have confused Computer Cartography CC (Digital/Automated
Cartography) and Computer Aided Design CAD (Drafting) systems with GIS. GIS is
more than mapping although mapping is the basis of GIS. These similar systems do
not share GIS's ability to perform complex analysis. CAD systems, for example, are
sometimes confused with GIS. Not long ago, a major distinction existed between
GIS and CAD, but their differences are beginning to disappear. CAD systems, used
mainly for the precise drafting required by engineers and architects, are capable of
producing maps though not designed for that purpose. However, CAD originally
lacked coordinate systems and did not provide for map projections. Nor were CAD
systems linked to databases, an essential feature of GIS. These features have been
added to recent CAD systems, but geographic information systems still off era
richer array of geographic functions. CC and CAD systems are methods of data
input and display which are part of a GIS subsystem. CAD, system is basically an
electronic drafting device. CC and CAD lack many of the capabilities of GIS,
especially for spatial analysis.
Table 1: Related Systems and GIS
Name ACRONYM USES
Computer assisted CADD Drawing packages used to generate and produce digitally
drawing and drafting compiled drawing, CADD data are often not geographic (mapped).
Some data developed in CADD systems can be incorporated into a
GIS
Automated Mapping/ AM/AF Computerized map generation software that is most utilized for
facility Management infrastructure analysis and management. Similar to LIS
technology.
Database DBMS Software Packages used to manage and analysis attribute data.
Management System Not used specifically for map analysis. Some GIS packages use
DBMS to handle data management tasks.
Computer/automated C/AC Computer software used automatically generates maps. Does not
Cartography include integrated database or data analysis capabilities of GIS.
Image Processing IP Sets of computerized routines used for information extraction
(e.g. pattern recognition and classification) from remotely sensed
images. Output from IP system is often used as input to a GIS.
Land Information LIS Type of GIS that manages and analyzes data related to land
System ownership (e.g. tax parcels, urban infrastructure and property
assessment)
Spatial Decision SDSS A customized routine computer-based information system that
Support System utilizes decision rules and models and incorporates spatial data.
These systems are often built from GIS database, and may employ
a subset of GIS functionality to meet user requirements.

GIS ROLES
Technology: GIS is a system of modern hardware, software, data, peripherals (associated
equipment) and people.
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Methodology: GIS is a set of techniques, procedures, and principles for managing and analyzing
geographic data. It has led to new ways of accomplishing many traditional and innovative tasks,
allowing us to take different approaches to solving problems. It is a method of accomplishing
tasks.
Discipline: because of its wide range of applications and integrated methodologies, GIS is an
academic and professional inter-related discipline, a special branch of integrated field of
study.
Profession: as a new field, there is a demand for GIS specialists thereby making it a new
profession and career.
Business: many new businesses have taken advantage of the rapidly growing commercial aspects
of GIS to offer hardware, software, data, consulting and other marketable aspects. Today, GIS is a
multibillion dollar business and still growing at a very high rate.

Discuss the role of GIS in our today world?

GIS Related Terminologies

Information Technology: This is a computerized tool which supports the activities involving the
creation, storage, manipulation and communication of information together with their related
methods, management and applications. It may be seen as a broad based technology need to
support information systems
Spatial Information: This refers to information which includes a reference to n-dimensional
position in space as one of its attribute. Any information that can be geographically referenced i.e.
describing any information that can be linked to a location.
Geographic Information: Any information which can be related to a location on the earth
particularly information on natural phenomenon, cultural and human resources. It is a special case
of spatial information called geo-spatial information.
Data: These are measurements or observation on something or phenomenon. It is a collection of
fact from which conclusions may be drawn. Data are processed to obtain information about a
place. A unit of data is called a datum.
Data model: This is an abstraction of the real world which incorporates only those properties
thought to be relevant to the application(s) at hand. The model defines specific groups of entities,
their attributes and relationship that exist among them. The data model is independent of a
computer system and its associated data structure.
Data structure: This is a logical arrangement of data as used by a system for data management, a
representation of data module in a computer form. It is otherwise called a data model.
Data bank: a collection of data in a common location, relating to given sets of subjects.
Arrangements do not necessarily need to be intelligent.
Database: this is an organized integrated collection of data stored so as to be capable of use by
relevant applications with the data being accessed by different logical paths.
Database Management System (DBMS): a collection of software for organizing information in a
database.
Raster Data: A method of storing, representing or displaying spatial data in digital form. It consists
of using cell data (not necessarily square) arranged in a regular grid pattern in which each unit
(pixel or cell) within the grid is assigned an identifying value based on its characteristics. A data set
constructed from a matrix of columns and rows with each cell in the matrix being addressable by
its coordinates and linkable to one or more attribute values.
Vector data: One method of storing, representing or displaying spatial data in digital form. It
consists of using coordinate pairs (x, y) to represent locations on the earth. Features can take the
form of single points, lines (arcs) or closed lines (polygons). It is a system of recording features
based on the interaction between arcs and nodes, represented by points, lines, and polygons.
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DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (DSS)

A DSS is a system of processes leading to the selection of a course action amongst
variations (simple or complex). It can also be a computer system that typically encompasses
mathematical models as well as informational databases and a user interface in order to provide
recommended decisions.
STRUCTURE OF A DSS
The DSS can be structured in three major parts
Intelligence- identification of a problem or an opportunity for change
Design – identification of the decision alternatives
Choice – identifying the best alternative and the most feasible.
A GIS is an important DSS because of its power to
1. Integrates and synthesis, store, edit, analyze, share and display graphically referenced
data/information.
2. Translate data to information and intelligence to wisdom.
3. It also can accelerate decision making through its clarity in the presentation of ‘what if’
situations and information as maps, tables and charts (i.e. good visual display).
4. It’s an integrated multidisciplinary science consisting of the following traditional
disciplines:
Geography Cartography Operations Research
Remote Sensing Computer Science
Photogrammetry Mathematics
Surveying Civil Engineering
Statistics Urban Planning etc.
As a project it is usually multidiscipline in nature with players from different fields of
specialization.
WHAT IS A DSS AND WHY IS GIS A DSS tools?
COMPARING TERMS
Data and Information
These are two different words used as synonyms of which they are not. Data is a collection of
facts or figures that pertains to places, people, things, events or concepts. They are represented
by numbers, alphanumeric, characters, symbols or signals. While information are processed or
value added data that have certain perceived values to a user or a community of users. The
process of transformation can include: data restructuring, formatting, conversion, modeling etc.
Knowledge and Intelligence
When we transform data to information we are raising our knowledge base to the level
where we can make appropriate decisions. If we apply or deploy our knowledge to perceived
relationships, formulate principles and introduce personal values and beliefs we develop what is
known as intelligence or wisdom.

System and Information System

A system describes different context of an entity for example the solar system or the immune
system of the body etc. a system generally have four basic characteristics
 They are developed or constructed to achieve certain basic objectives or functions.
 Their continual existence depends on their capability to satisfy the intended objectives
otherwise they are upgraded, replaced or scraped.
 An individual system is composed of many interrelated parts of which each part may in
themselves be operational systems (sub-systems)
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 These parts operate individually and interactively according to certain rules or conduct
such as procedures, laws, contracts, agreements and accepted behaviors.

Based on these general characteristics an information system can be understood with respect to
the above i.e.
GIS helps in a better understanding of the world around us. It enables us develop spatial
intelligence for logical decision making. Therefore, its definition should not be limited to its data
processing capabilities but should include its analytical capabilities for deriving spatial knowledge
and intelligence.

PROCESSES IN GIS
GISs essentially perform five processes or tasks:
• Input
• Manipulation
• Management
• Query and Analysis
• Visualization
Input– GIS has capabilities of synthesizing data, so it gathering data from many sources. Before
geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be converted into a suitable digital format.
Today many types of geographic data already exist in GIS-compatible formats. These data can be
obtained from data suppliers and loaded directly into a GIS. (ESRI, Inc.)

Table 2: Data Input Methods

Method Device
Manual Digitizing Keyboard, Tablet or mouse, Photogrammetry
Automatic Digitizing Scanner
Digital Data Tape, CD Rom, Network

Capturing Data
in GIS

Figure 4: Capturing Data in GIS

Manipulation– Converting data from one form to another; that is, conversion from one geometric
projection to another, re-scaling, etc. to make the data more useful; changing one map file to
match another.
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Management and Storage– This process provides an efficient digital storage and retrieval for
easy, efficient selection and viewing of data in a variety of ways.
Query and Analysis– This process allows for the manipulating of data to produce insight and new
information. Simplifying the data or the world and its processes to understand how things work.
Once you have a functioning GIS containing your geographic information, you can begin to ask
simple questions such as: Who owns the land parcel on the corner? How far is it between two
places? Where is land zoned for industrial use? And, analytical questions such as: Where are all
the sites suitable for building new houses? What is the dominant soil type for oak forest? If I build
a new highway here, how will traffic be affected?
Visualization– deals with putting all processed and manipulated data into a format that
communicates the results. Visualization present data in various ways for easy understanding
informs maps and reports. For many types of geographic operations, the end result is best
visualized as a map or graph. Contrary to the general notion that GIS is all about map making,
Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. GIS provides new
and exciting tools to extend the art and science of cartography. Map displays can be integrated
with reports, three-dimensional views, photographic images, and other output such as
multimedia. In visualization we must consider the following:
a. what message is it that we want to portray,
b. who the audience is,
c. the kind of presentation medium to be used
d. what rules of aesthetics are apply, and
e. what technologies are available for representation.

Table 3: Data Output and Visualization Methods

Method Device
Hardcopy Printer, Plotter, Film writer
Softcopy Computer Screen, Projectors
Digital Data Tape, CD Rom, Network

EVOLUTION OF GIS
The term ‘GIS’ did not come to play until the early 1960s (When the Canadian Geographic
Information System (CGIS) was developed). Between this period and now the technology used to
construct a GIS and the functions of it have undergone considerable change. The history of GIS
development can be grouped into three: the formative years, the years of maturing technology
and the age of Geographic Information Infrastructure.
The Formative Years (1960-1970)
The origin of GIS is strongly dependent on researches and developments in electronic data
processing which dates back to the 1940s and 1950s. This led to the successful implementation of
computer aided graphic data processing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in
1955 and database management system (DBMS) by General Electric in 1965. These break troughs
allowed for bulk processing of large amounts of complex data electronically and quickened
government agents to invest in computer system that could handle Geographic Data. The result is
the development of the Canada Geo Info System (CGIS) which was set up to address the needs of
land and resources information management of the federal government of Canada. This system
has been formally recognized as the 1 st GIS. Similar developments are: The USGS in 1973, which
developed the Geographical Information Retrieval and Analysis System (GIRAS) with an aim to
handle and analysis land–use and land-cover data. The Swedish Land Data Bank (SLDB) developed
in the early 1970 to automate land and property registration and The Local Authority
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Management Information System (LAMIS) and the Joint Information System (JIS) were developed
in Britain for land use control and monitoring.
Other organizations like universities and research institutions quickly developed growing interest
in computer based mapping they funded several research which led to the development of: The
first contemporary vector GIS called ODESSEY was developed by the Harvard laboratory of
Computers and the Experimental Cartographic Unit (ECU) at the Royal College of Arts in London,
England, which was concerned primarily with the production of high quality maps.
The 1960 and the 1970s therefore represent the important formative years of GIS. During these
two decades, hundreds of GIS software packages for handling and analysis of geographical
information were produced. These early systems were used mainly by governments’ agencies
and universities for specific data management and research purposes. They were based on main
frame computers running in batch modes as standalone soft-ware applications. They were also
mainly proprietary software programs and data structures. Most of these early systems were
constructed on the relative simple concepts of raster cells rather than vectors. Its major
application areas were in Land and Resources Management, Census, Surveying and Military. Other
areas where attempts have been made in its use are in utilities, oil explorations and urban
planning.
Generally, GIS in this formative age were application driven i.e. they were custom built to meet
the needs of individual origination
The Maturing Technology Years (1980 - MID 1990)
The major milestone in the development of GIS concepts and techniques is the break-
through in the concept of topology as applied to spatial data. Within geographic data structures
topology refers to the spatial relationship of adjacency, connectivity and containment amongst
topographic features. Based on this concept geographical data can be stored in simple structures
that are capable of representing their attributes (i.e. what they are), location (where they are) and
their relationship (how they spatially relate with one another). By 1982 Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI) released the Arc Info software package, which ran on minicomputers, it
was one of the foremost vector based GIS to use the geo relational data model that employ a
hybrid approach to geographic data processing. The geo relational data model stores graphic data
using topological data structures, while attributes data are stored using the relational (tabular)
data structures. All these took place between the early 1980s to the mid-1980s. By mid 1980s, the
focus of GIS was more on data collection, quality and standards; as well as data analysis and
database organization. This data oriented emphasis of this period influenced how GIS technology
developed. It led to the integration of raster and vector geographic data; and the integration of
geographic data with other types of business data (enterprise computing environment). It also
initiated the concept of ‘Open GIS’ which is aimed at developing systems capable of sharing
technical and data resources with another. Similarly, the phenomenal growth in computer
technology by the 1990s greatly accelerated the development of GIS. These advances were in
operating systems, computer graphics, database management, computer human interactions and
graphic human interface. These allowed for GIS to become a multiplatform application that run on
different classes of computers either as standalone or as time-shearing systems. Developments
quantitative and analytical techniques in social and physical sciences led to astronomical
developments in GIS as it availed ample opportunity for the processing and management of the
large quantities of data generated from various fields of human activities and environment. Thus
GIS applications was no longer restricted to the fields of land and resources management but
quickly extended to new areas as facility management, vehicle navigation, market research, and
decision support in business management amongst others.
During this period more sophistications ware introduced by GIS vendors into the software
packages this allowed for more user control and interaction. There was also a shift in GIS
functionality aiming to satisfy a specific need or objective to one that met the demand of
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corporate business goals and information requirement. Real time data input facilities were
introduced into some GIS; other facilities include advanced data modeling routines and scientific
visualization technologies.
By mid 1990s GIS had become relatively matured in terms of technology and applications.
the GIS industry had grown into specialized sectors/businesses such as companies concerned with
only GIS software development, others with GIS computer hardware and software, manufacturers
of data acquisition equipment’s, data acquisition and supply companies, CAD systems and image
processing systems, information technology consultants and systems integrators, GIS books and
journal publishers etc.
The Age of Geographic Information Infrastructure (MID 1990 – Date)
The concept emerged in the early 1990’s when the United State Government Proposed a
National Information Infrastructure (NII) with objectives to provide all US citizens access to
information affecting their lives that pertains to Government, Health care, Education, and
community development. Thus GIS was made part of this information that would be provided.
In 1994, President Clinton ordered the implementation of the National Spatial Data
Infrastructure (NSDI). This was defined as technology, policies, standards and human resources to
acquire, process, share, distribute and improve the utilization of geospatial data. Similar
structures were put in place by other countries like Canada, European Union, Australia, and New
Zealand for the establishment of their Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI).
Infrastructure implies that Geographic Information must be treated in the same way as
other infrastructures such as economic, political or highways, bridges, power and communication
networks, education systems etc. the GII is the vehicle for delivering geographic information
services. It has thus, developed new critical components of a GIS which is very different from its
predecessors. A typical GIS today has the following 10 technical and operational characteristics:
1. It is a part of a computer network rather than a standalone computer
2. It is made of multitier, distributed software components that allow information sharing
across multiple processors and data storage system.

Table 1: Evolutions in GIS

STAGE OF
FORMATIVE YEARS
DEVELOPMENT
Time Frame 1960 - 1980
General activity computer aided graphic
data processing at the
Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT)
(1955)
database management
system (DBMS) by
General Electric in (1965)
development of the Canada
Geo Info System (CGIS)
The USGS developed the
Geographical Information
Retrieval and Analysis
System (GIRAS) in 1973
The Swedish Land Data
Bank (SLDB) in 1970
The Local Authority
Management
Information System
(LAMIS) and the Joint
Information System (JIS)
MATURING TECHNOLOGY GI INFRASTRUCTURE
1980 – mid 1990 Mid 1990 - date
development of GIS concepts and Implementation of various
techniques (break-through in the National Spatial Data
concept of topology as applied to Infrastructure (NSDI)
spatial data)
Environmental Systems Research
Institute (ESRI) released the
ArcInfo software package, which
ran on minicomputers (1982)
The focus of GIS was more on data
collection, quality and standards;
as well as data analysis and
database organization (mid
1980s)
Integration of raster and vector
geographic data; and the
integration of geographic data
with other types of business data
(enterprise computing
environment).
initiated the concept of ‘Open GIS’
Advances were made in operating
systems, computer graphics,
database management, computer
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human interactions and graphic

human interface.
more sophistications ware
introduced by GIS vendors into
the software packages this
allowed for more user control and
interaction
Technical Mainframe computers Mainframe and micro computers Workstations and PCs
Environment Proprietary software Geo-relational data structures Network/internet
Proprietary data structure Graphic user interface Open systems design
Mainly raster-based New data acquisition technologies Multimedia
(GPS, remote sensing) Data integration
GIS became a multiplatform Enterprise computing
application that ran on different Object oriented data model
classes of computers either as
standalone or as time-shearing
systems.
Major Users Governments Governments Governments
University University University
Military Utilities Utilities
Business Business
Military Military
General public
Major Application Land and resource Land and resource management Land and resource
Areas management Census management
Census Surveying and Mapping Census
Surveying and Mapping Facilities management Surveying and Mapping
Market analysis Facilities Management
Market analysis
Utilities
Geographic data browsing

3. It is connected by the internet for access of data and technical resources available on the
World Wide Web (www).
4. It is developed using industrial standards for computers systems development methods,
software development tools, database connectivity etc.
5. It contains a set of off-the-shelf software applications that allows the performances of
common data processing functions such as input/output, database administration, spatial
analysis and generation of information product.
6. Uses data stored locally in its own hard drive and those drawn from Local Area Networks
(LAN)as well as the internet.
7. It is capable of using raster and vector data and can integrate geographic data with other
business data.
8. It is capable of presenting the results of information retrieval and analysis using
multimedia technology that includes sounds, graphics and animation.
9. It is highly coupled with other software applications for statistical analysis, word processing
and other desktop applications.
10. It support multiuser information needs ranging from sophisticated spatial problems solving
and complex business decision making to simple information query and browsing.
 13

GIS SUBSYSTEMS
GIS is divided into 3- subsystems summarized as:
Input – processing – output (IPO), it should be noted that all components of GIS are embedded in
each sub system.

Data Acquisition
Information Presentation
Subsystem
Digital land surveying,
GPS, Digital level
Hard copy maps

Analytical & digital

photogrammetry
Screen display of
graphic information
Remote sensing Spatial Fig 2 GIS Subsystems
Database
Reports
Scanning of existing map

Export data

Non spatial attributedata

acquisition

Data Acquisition Subsystem: These refer to all hardware’s, software’s and other components
meant for the acquisition of data. They include all land surveying, remote sensing and digital
photogrammetry methods, hardware, software, personnel e.tc.

Spatial database Management Subsystem: these are all hardware, software, spatial database,
procedures and expertise used for the storage, manipulation, analysis and retrieval of spatial data.
It includes the spatial database, host computer and all associated software.
Information presentation subsystem: these include hardware, software and procedures for the
presentation of results.

GIS INFRASTRUCTURE (components of GIS)

Early GIS were described to be made of five basic components namely: Hardware, Software,
Spatial database, Procedure and Expertise. However, prevailing concepts puts it at four
components namely of Data, Technology, Application and People.
Contemporary Components
1. Geographic Data Component: Geographic data are records of locations and characteristics
of natural features or human activities that occur on or near the earth’s surface.
All data in a GIS are either spatial data or attribute data. Spatial data tells us where
something occurs. Attribute data tells what occurs; it tells us the nature or characteristics
of the spatial data. For example, we might describe the location of a municipal water well
as a point with the coordinates "45 degrees 17 minutes 20 seconds north latitude, 94
degrees 7 minutes 48 seconds west longitude." Furthermore, we can observe and report
several attributes of that well, including its depth, yield, water quality, and proximity to a
pumping station. Every GIS provides the ability to store and manipulate both the spatial
data and the associated attribute data. Depending on their nature of use geographic data
are categorized into three distinct types: Geodetic control networks, Topographic base and
the Graphical Overlays.
 14

a) Geodetic control networks: this is the foundation of all geographic data. It provides a
geographical framework by which different sets of geographic data can be spatially
cross referenced with one another. They are established by high precision surveying
methods and vigorous computations at continental, national levels.
b) Topographic base: this is created as a result of basic mapping program by national,
state and local government mapping agencies. The contents of Topographic database
can be obtained by various methods of land surveying with Remote Sensing and
Photogrammetry being at the fore.
c) Graphical Overlays: These are thematic data related to specific GIS applications.
Overlays of physical features can be derived from a topographic base/map (the
physical features include road and drainage networks, vegetation cover and buildings).
Overlays of socioeconomic activities such as population, parcel boundaries, natural
resources values and land-use status can be investigated by site investigation, field
surveying remote sensing and other forms of data collection methods
Contemporary implementations of a GIS are more concerned with data sharing, quality
and standards rather than data creation, structures and types. Thus, every geographic data
must carry along with it a metadata (this is information about the data collection
standards)

Figure 5: Examples of the Different Kinds of Geographical Data Collected For Different
Purposes by Persons from Different Disciplines

2. The Technology Component: This refers to hardware and software.

a) Hardware: these are made up of a configuration of core and peripheral equipment that
is used for the acquisition, storage, analysis and display of geographic information. The
heart of a GIS hardware architecture is the central processing unit (CPU) of the
 15

computer. The CPU performs all data processing and analysis task and also controls the
input/output connectivity with data acquisition and information presentation/display
subsystem. Computers are the platforms for GIS; they are sometimes classified based
on the processing powers of the CPU. These are supercomputers, mainframes,
minicomputer, workstation and microcomputers/personal computers (PC).
Conventional GIS were developed as stand-alone applications that can run on any of
these computers. Contemporary GIS however, are mostly implemented in a network of
environment using the client/server model of computing. This model is based on the
concept of decision of work among different machines in a local or distributed
computer network. A server is the computer on which data and software are stored. A
client is the computer by which the users access the server. Application programs are
executed on either the server or client computer. This configuration which combine
the processing power of a workstation and the economy of a pc, has replaced the
mainframe and minicomputers as dominant hardware platforms for GIS. Peripheral
equipment’s are wide and varied including scanners, digitizers, printers, plotters
multimedia devices etc.
b) Software: These are the application program needed to run a GIS. They were
conventionally developed using a hybrid approach that handled graphical and
descriptive data separately (geo-relational data model). In this case graphical data
ware handled by the graphical data engine which is usually privately owned by the GIS
software vendor. While a commercial DBMS took care of the associated attribute data.
The connection between the graphical data engine and the DBMS was provided by the
software vendor as a proprietary interface. Contemporary developments now adopt an
object-relational model in the design and development of their software products. GIS
that run on such software allow both graphic and descriptive data to be stored in a
single database. The use of this object oriented technologies has effectively
transformed a GIS from a filling cabinet of maps into a smart machine of geographical
knowledge because they allow users to identify facts about the real world and
transform this facts into geographic objects useful for geo-data processing and
analysis. Originally GIS software were developed as turnkey systems which do not
allow for modifications by end users, they however now shipped to end users with a
set of core software tools for standard geographic data processing and analysis and a
script language extension that allows users to customize the software to meet their
specific data processing and analysis needs.

3. The Application Component: this can be explained from three perspectives: areas of
applications, nature of applications and approaches to implementations.
a) The application areas of GIS has grown remarkably over the years from a relatively
narrow focus on land and resources management to all sectors of the economy and
for applications pertaining to both earth’s natural environment and human
activities (Table 2).
b) The nature of applications has been greatly influenced by the internet which
originally began as a network for military communications and scientific
information exchange in 1969; it has now grown into an international network of
networks. GIS have today become a virtual global system that offers all kinds of
geographical information services
c) Its implementations are not only as means for geographic data management and
spatial decision support; it also provides the mechanism for geographic information
resources sharing and the communication of spatial information and knowledge.
 16

Table 2: Application Areas

sector Application areas
Academic i. Research in all areas humanities, science and engineering
ii. Primary and secondary schools- in district delineation, facility management
bus routing and
iii. Spatial digital libraries

Business i. Banking and insurance

ii. Real estate- development projects planning and management, sales and
renting services, building management
iii. Delivery of goods and services.
Government i. Federal government- national population mapping, resource and
environmental management, weather services, public land management
population census, elections and voting.
ii. State government- surveys and mapping, land resources management,
highway planning and management
iii. Local government- social and community development, land registration and
property assessment water and wastewater services
iv. Public safety and law enforcement- crime analysis, deployment of human
resources community policing, emergency planning and management
v. Health care planning and management
vi. International development and humanitarian relief

Industries i. Engineering – surveying and mapping, site and landscape development,

pavement management
ii. Transportation – route selection for goods delivery, public transit, vehicle
tracking,
iii. Utilities and communication – electricity, gas, and water distribution, pipeline
s, telecommunications networks
iv. Forestry – forest resource inventory, harvest planning, wildlife management
and conservation
v. Mining and mineral exploration
vi. Systems consulting and integration

Military i. Training
ii. Command control
iii. Intelligence gathering

4. The people: the profile of the user community can be classified into three: viewers,
general users and the GIS specialist.
a) Viewers: these are the public at large whose only need is to browse geographic
data base occasionally for referential information. They primarily need easy access
to information and an ease of use of system. Their acceptance or rejection of the
technology has significant impacts on the development of GIS as a whole since they
constitute the largest class of users.
b) General users are people who use GIS for conducting business, performing
professional services and making decisions
 17

c) GIS specialists are the people who actually make GIS work. They include: GIS
managers, database administrators, application specialists, systems analysts and
programmers

Conventional Components
1. Hardware component: the machinery on which GIS operates – computers, printers
digitizers etc. These can be divided into three basic components according to the purpose.
a) Data Input: Data are entered by reading previously prepared digital data (from earlier
works or outside sources) on CD disk, tape, or floppy disk; manual digitizing or typing from
a key board.
b) Data Management and Analysis: this is the core of GIS. The computer is employed to
manage and analyze data. They include the workstations, Personal Computers (PC) and
associated structures such as the Internet.
c) Output: GIS provides a variety of products. The Monitor display is the most common
output device because it is what is seen on screen that would be printed. Others are
plotters (which give very high quality outputs) and printers. Tapes, disks or a network are
used to output digital data.
2. Software Component: These are the computer programs needed to run a GIS. There are
many GIS programs available, ranging from low-cost and low–performance packages to
expensive and very powerful ones. They also include supported programs, such as
statistical, word processing, graphing and others. These can also be divided into three
basic components according to the purpose, i.e.
a) Software for data acquisition: e.g. survey acquisition software like SKI for GPS, image
processing software’s (ER Mapper), Surfer etc.
b) Software for data base management: these are software for management of data in a
database e.g. dBase, oracle, access etc.
c) Software for information presentation: these are software’s for the presentation of
outputs i.e. Microsoft words, AutoCAD, Aldus freehand, Adobe Illustrator, Map
publisher etc.
3. Spatial Database: this is the heart of GIS. It contains data (structure) pertaining to one or
more applications. In it we have:
a) Locational data of object. This can be represented in vector form as points, lines, areas
and volumes or in tessellation of object oriented data model.
b) Attribute data. These are observed facts about objects.
c) Spatial Relationships between the objects and the others for implementation.
4. Procedure: these are algorithms and rules used for integrity cheeks, transactions and
controls of database updating. They are steps, techniques, forms and methods that related
to GIS packages in algorithms form, in the operations of a database.
5. Expertise: these are people who provide the intelligence to use the system.

BASIC CONCEPT OF SPACE (GEOGRAPHIC ENCLOSURE)

Fig.3. Spatial Modeling

 18

Real-world features exist in two basic forms: objects and phenomena. Objects are discrete and
definite (e.g. buildings, highways, cities etc.) while phenomena are distributed continuously over
large areas (e.g. temperature, rainfall, noise level). Geographical phenomena require two
descriptors to represent the real world; what is present, and where it is. A third is the time span.
The basic philosophies in the above descriptors (units) are measured with their relationships. It is
assumed that one of them is constant (i.e. time) and predefined, while one is not known. In
relation to geographic location, the “what” becomes the object (Phenomenon), the “where”
becomes space (location) and the ‘when’ becomes time (date). In the case of remote sensing we
predefine the location and measure the phenomenon (object).

In representing geographical space, the predefined and measured ones depend on a personal
view which is based on either: 1) The Field based Concept and basic spatial reasoning (Remote
Sensing approach) and 2) The Object Based Concept (vector approach)

DIGITAL REPRESENTATION OF GEOGRAPHIC DATA

Digital geographic data are numerical relationships that describe real world features and
phenomena, coded in specific ways in support of GIS and mapping. For geographic data to be
useful in a GIS they must be encoded in a digital form and organized as a geographic database
which presents a perception of the real world in very much same way as the conventional paper
maps do. The ways of representing data are known as data models.
The geographic matrix as proposed by Berry (1964) was a major mile stone in the development of
data organization in geographic studies. In a geographic matrix, the row represents the variations
of specific aspects of natural or socioeconomic characteristics across some geographic space (i.e. a
spatial pattern of variables that can be identified and mapped). The column, on the other hand,
denotes a specific location in geographic space. Therefore each cell formed by the rows and
column of the geographic matrix contains a specific item of geographical fact that can be found in
a particular location.

Field Based Concept:

In this concept the reality of the geographic space is seen as a “non-empty” space composed of
tiling of area units with each unit having a certain locational value. For instance thematic data are
recorded for each unit. Here the locational values are known but the object is not known. This is
the concept of remote sensing and Digital Image Processing.

* * Object

Land map
Fig 4 FIELD BASED CONCEPT

Object Based Concept

The geographical space here is empty and comprises of discrete and identifiable objects
having an area unit with thematic data (object known) and a certain locational value (unknown.).
It is assumed that the space is fitted by a terrain object. An object is spatial features that satisfy
the following conditions:
1) It has identifiable boundaries or spatial extent.
2) It is relevant to some intended applications.
3) It is describable by one or more characteristics referred to as attributes. It is also
known as the vector approach
Object is
known
 19

Fig 5.OBJECT BASED CONCEPT

Table 1 Basic Concept of space

Field View Object View

Tessellation (raster, grid) Vector (topological vector model)

- simple data structure - complex data structure
- difficult to represent topology - efficient representation of topology
- suitable for image processing functions - certain functions are difficult to implement

Describe what concept you will adopt in preparing a robust database in a geographic enclosure,
justify your reasons.

COMPONENTS OF A GEO-SPATIAL OBJECT

For any spatial objects there are two components: Thematic (Attribute data) and Geometric data)

Thematic
(attribute) Data

Locatio Topologic
Relationship
Geospatial
Object Spatial
Metric
Relationshi
Geometric p Relationship
Data

Shape& Spatial order

Fig 6COMPONENTS OF A GEOSPATIAL OBJECT Size Relationship
A. The geometric component of a geospatial object can further be divided into three:
1. Location: this is determined during data acquisition through either the object base
approach (vector) using a GPS and other surveying methods or the field based approach
(Tessellation or Raster) using digital image processing.
2. Shape and Size: this is the shape /size of the object, i.e. the area of a forest etc. it is
defined by the various positions of the boundary of the object
3. Spatial relationship: this is the associations or connections between different real word
feature(one object and the other). Spatial problems in GIS software are solved using the
spatial relationships. It has three components:
a) Metric Relationship: this is implicitly determined from the location of objects; its storage is
not needed explicitly in a database. Distances and directions of points require coordinates,
with different transformations. It is based on coordinate geometry.
b) Topological Relationships: this is based on mathematical topology. They are the
relationship that remains invariant under certain topological transformation. This type of
relationships is needed for spatial analysis and customized maps. Research has proven that
they do not change under scaling. The advantages of topology include:
 20

Intelligent Vectors: these are functionalities attached to topology’s data structure. Nodes and
chains know more about their surroundings and this knowledge can be used for a variety of
analytical tricks
Automatic Recognition of spatial relationships: Relationships such as connectivity, adjacency and
containment are included in topology.
Multiple Linkages: each feature is linked to other features, providing multiple connections,
linkages that join (unit) them.
c) Spatial Order Relationship: this is based on Lattice geometry (lattice means an
arrangement in space of isolated points in a regular pattern, showing the positions of
atoms, molecules, or ions in the structure of a crystal). For example Object A is contained
in B – this gives relationships at coarse level, it does not give detailed relationships as
topological relationships.
B)Attribute data: these are non-spatial attributes e.g. Name or characteristics of objects. These
are always obtained through social surveys (i.e. the use of questionnaires)

Ministry of Agriculture Forestry

Spatial 12 13
Data Bauchi Rd

University
Of Jos15 14

Non Spatial Data

Fig 7 A = Map and
B = Database
B ADDRESS NAME VALUE in Naira OWNER
12 Bauchi Road Ministry of Agric 200,000 = 00 FGN
13 Bauchi Road Forestry 400,000 = 00 FGN
14 Bauchi Road Bauchi Park 800,000 = 00 PLSG
15 Bauchi Road University of jos 10,000,00 = 00 FGN

GEOSPATIAL DATA
A GIS contains two main types of data:
1. Locational (spatial) Data: these indicate where various objects of features (e.g. Homes,
rivers, administrative areas) are located.
2. Attribute data: these data provide information about the properties or characteristics of
these objects (e.g. Who owns a house, the population of an administrative area)

Geographic data refers to information about the earth's surface and the objects found on it.
Geographical data models are the formalized equivalents of the conceptual models used by
people to perceive geographical phenomena. Geo-spatial data stores the geographic location of
particular features, along with information describing what these features represent. The location
is usually specified according to some geographic referencing system (e.g., latitude, longitude) or
 21

simply by an address. Geo-Spatial data may define some physical characteristics, such as location
or position, or it may also define a property such as the area of a forest, plot of land, etc. This
information comes in three basic forms:
 Spatial data: - Spatial data contains the locations and shapes of map features.
 Tabular data: - Tabular data is collected and compiled for specific areas and is the
descriptive data that GIS links to map features.
 Image data: - Image data includes such diverse elements as satellite images, aerial
photographs, and scanned data (data that's been converted from printed to digital
format).

Fig. 8:Concept of Geospatial Data

Data can be created or bought. For example, a GPS receiver can be used to identify sites in an
agricultural field where weed data is collected. A table can be created in the GIS showing location
as well as species and number of weeds present in the measured area. Alternatively, data can be
purchased. In most cases, images are bought from satellite or aircraft companies that used
cameras to collect images of the Earth's surface. The sources of GIS data are many and varied but
some of them are acquired through remote sensing methods, digitization of existing analogue
maps, scanning of existing analogue maps, data from field investigations (primary data), tabular
data, report, human input etc. they include:-
 Base Maps:-Include streets and highways; boundaries for census, postal, and political
areas; rivers and lakes; parks and landmarks; place names; and USGS raster maps.
 Business Maps and Data:-Include data related to census/demography, consumer
products, financial services, health care, real estate, telecommunications, emergency
preparedness, crime, advertising, business establishments, and transportation.
 Environmental Maps and Data--Include data related to the environment, weather,
environmental risk, satellite imagery, topography, and natural resources.
 General Reference Maps--World and country maps and data that can be a foundation for
your database.
 National Geo-Spatial Data Infrastructure (NGDI)
 GPS

GIS Requires that every piece of information be tied to a specific geographical unit (space).
Geospatial objects refer to things that are distributed in or over the earth; each geospatial object
has three types of data that are explicitly required to be stored especially in a Vector based
conception (attribute, temporal and geospatial).
LOCATIONAL DATA
 22

Locational data defines the position of an object in space. It is usually expressed by a set of
x, y, (or z) coordinates, i.e. location is generally specified along 2 or 3 axis. Objects in space are
represented in a GIS as point, line and polygons.

A Point Object: this refers to any spatial object that has no area. It is un-dimensional (O-D), e.g.
Wells, electric poles, location of towns in a regional setting (depending on the scale) Etc. in reality
there is no point without dimensions or an area coverage, but it has been accepted generally that
a point be treated as being of no dimension. Points indicate specific location features which are
usually not shown in true size, especially those which are too small to be depicted properly at the
given scale.

P (X1, Y1, Z1) Fig. 9: Point Object with no dimension

A Line Object: A line object is a one dimensional (1-D) feature made up of connected sequence of
points. A line has a beginning and an end, they are therefore defined by X and Y coordinates. The
end points are called Nodes. When the line is a curved one, the curve is made of a series of
connecting lines called Arcs, the links along the arcs are called vertices.

N1

N2
Fig.10: Line object

Lines are used to represent linear features like roads, streams or administration boundaries.
Sometimes the thickness of the line indicated a measure (such as amount of traffic on a road or
the type of the road).

A Polygon (Area): is an enclose area object which is 2-dimensional with at least three sides. It is
defined by a closed loop of lines described by series of x, y and Z coordinates.

Fig 11: A Polygon

 23

In GIS, points are called points, lines are called Arcs, and areas are called polygons.

Topological Data:this is associated with locational data. It refers to the way all the objects are
related to each other in space, how are they arranged? Which one leads to the other? Nodes are
the end points of line and lines intersections.From topology a spatial pattern develops.These
patterns include adjacency, connectivity e.t.c.Topology is one of the most useful data structure
concepts in GIS.It is special programming on the data that creates powerful connections among
features. With topology, each feature has the following characteristics;
Adjacency: considers which features are nested next to each other.
Connectivity: relates how geographical featuresare attached to one another functionally, spatially
or logically.

Attribute Data: this refers to actual phenomena that are located in space or characteristics of
objects. These vary over space and time. That is why they are refers to as VARIABLES in statistics.
Because they vary, they are measured and characterized in different scales of measurements.

Numbers generally have qualities which include; Magnitude, Equal Interval and Absolute Zero.

Magnitude: This refers to the ability to know if one score is greater than, equal to, or less
than another score.
Equal Interval: This means that the possible score are each on/at equal distance from each
other.
Absolute Zero:Refers to a point where non-of the scales exists or where a score of zero can
be assigned.
When we combine these three scale qualities, four scales of measurements can be deduced

Table 2: Scale of Measurement

Scale Level Scale of Scale Qualities Examples
measurement
4 Ratio Magnitude, Equal Age, height,
interval and Absolute weight,
Zero percentages
3 Interval Magnitude, Equal Temperature
intervals
2 Ordinal Magnitude Ranked order
100, 200, etc
1 Nominal None Names, list of
works.

1.)Nominal Scale:These represent only names, trademarks, etc.It has none of the three qualities
above for example a list of students in alphabetical order, or the names of an organizational chart.

2.) Ordinal Scale: This has magnitude only. It implies arrangement of things such that there is an
inherent order (hierarchy) e.g. the classification of things – 100L, 200L, primary 1, 2, 3 …etc.This is
used extensively in remote sensing and digital image processing.
3.)Interval Scale:This possesses both magnitude and equal intervals but no absolute zero. The
values are in natural sequence such that the distances between the values are logical,meaningful
 24

and consistent. For example,Temperature; because we know that each degree is the same
distance apart and we can easily tell if one temperature is greater, equal or less than another.
Temperature however does not have an absolute zero because there istheoretically no point
where temperature does not exist.
4.) Ratio Scale: This contains all three qualities for example if you are 20 yrs. old, you not only
know that you are older than someone who is 15 yrs. (magnitude), but you also know that you
are five yrs. older (equal intervals) and when a person is born, his or her age is zero.

RASTER AND VECTOR DATA

These are the way of defining spatial data in a computer. Topology is a special
characteristic of spatial data that establishes powerful relationships among features.

Some Definitions:
Map - A Map is the paper version of a landscape drawing, also called hardcopy.

Coverage-This is the digital form or version of a map in the computer. Usually GIS coverage has a
single, major theme such as land use or vegetation. They are normally not general ‘reference’ (i.e.
multiple themes and different types of data) as many maps.

Data Structure-This is the form of the data in the computer. It is the format and type of
construction of data the GIS program understand and uses; the way GIS data are built, stored and
displayed.

DATA STRUCTURE PROCESS

The understanding of a data structure becomes clearer as a concept, when we know
where in the GIS process it is determined or developed.

DATA STRUCTURE PROCESS

Data Entry. (Digitize)

|
Edit
|
Digital file storage
|
-------------Conversion for GIS use --------

Raster ---Possible Transformation--- Vector

`Firstly, Data entry : here hard copy maps are turned into digital formats through digitizing, -
tracing the maps electronically and changing it into digital form after which the digital format is
edified and temporarily stored; waiting to be entered into a GIS.

Fig. 12: Vector - Raster

representation
 25

In the GIS the stored data must be converted to fit into either a raster or a vector GIS (both have
its own disadvantages).Raster can be transformed to vector and vector to Raster.

Features Raster

Tessellation

Sampling

Fig 13: The Raster view of the Real World

RASTER DATA FORMAT

In a raster format, a landscape scene is gridded and each cell in the grid is given a single
landscape identity. Usually a code number (or letter) that refers to specific attributes measure
(e.g. a particular soil type or landuses). The Grid in the illustration shows a fictitious landscape
with code A, B and C representing various landscape features. Shape is not totally conserved in
the grid form because raster format generalizes data. The grids are of uniform size and their size
determines the details that can be maintained in the dataset. Raster data describe the interior of
objects rather than the boundaries
 26

Fig13 Raster Model

VECTOR DATA FORMAT

This uses x,y coordinates to define the location of points, line and area. Vector data tends
to define centers and edges of features. This implies the map like drawing of features, with the
generalizing effect of a raster grid minimized. Shape is better retained, much like an actual map.
The lines are continuous and are not broken into grid structure.

Fig 14 Vector Model

To illustrate the differences between raster and vector, the real world scene is depicted in both
data structures. Fig 12 and 13shows how data are reduced to a grid with letter codes indicating
various terrain features. Each cell has only but a single code. It cannot have two codes.
In a raster format, the cell is the minimum mapping unit, i.e. the smallest size. Any
landscape features can be represented and drawn. Real size and shapes cannot be kept by the
raster cell. Also, it shape change are more geometry than curvy.
The vector format (Fig 14) uses symbols that depict size and shape. The river maintains it
curves and the lakeareas have their realistic odd shape. The only limitation would be the thickness
of the line used to draw the features.
 27

Table 3 Raster vs. Vector model

Raster model
Simple data structure
Easy and efficient overlaying
Compatible with Remote Sensing imagery
High spatial variability is efficiently represented
Simple for programming by user
Same grid cell definition for various attributes
Vector model
Complex data structure
Difficult to perform overlaying
Not compatible with RS imagery
Inefficient representation of high spatial variability

Inefficient use of computer storage Compact data structure

Errors in perimeter and shape Efficient encoding of topology, perimeter and shape
Easy to perform network analysis
Difficult to perform network analysis
Inefficient projection transformations
Loss of information when using large pixel sizes
Less accurate and less appealing map output Highly accurate map output

Modeling spatial problems

In general terms, a model is a representation of reality. Due to the inherent complexity of the world
and the interactions in it, models are created as a simplified, manageable view of reality. Models
help you understand, describe, and predict how things work in the real world.There are two main
types of models:

Representation models—represent the objects in the landscape

Process models—Simulate processes in the landscape
Representation models
Representation models try to describe the objects in a landscape. Examples of these objects
include buildings, streams, or forests. The way representation models are created in a GIS is
through a set of data layers. For Spatial Analyst, these data layers will be either raster or feature
data. Raster layers are represented by a rectangular mesh or grid, and each location in each layer
is represented by a grid cell, which has a value. Cells from various layers stack on top of each
other, describing many attributes of each location. The representation model attempts to capture
the spatial relationships within an object (for example, the shape of a building) and between the
other objects in the landscape (for example, the distribution of buildings). Along with establishing
the spatial relationships, the GIS representation model is also able to model the attributes of the
objects (for example, who owns each building). Representation models are sometimes referred to
as data models and are considered descriptive models.
 28

A representation model is composed of layers of data

Process models
Process models attempt to describe the interaction of the objects that are depicted in the
representation model. The relationships are modeled using spatial analysis. There are many
different types of interactions; Spatial Analyst provides a large suite of tools to describe them.
Process modeling is sometimes referred to as cartographic modeling. Process models can be used
to describe processes, but they are often used to predict what will happen if some action
occurs.Each Spatial Analyst tool can be considered a process model. Some process models are
simple, while others are more complex. Even more complexity can be incorporated by adding
logic and combining multiple process models with Map Algebra or ModelBuilder.
One of the most basic Spatial Analyst operations is adding two rasters together:

Complexity can be added through logic. For instance, if a location has sandy soil that is also dry,
the location meets the criteria (true [T]) and is a suitable location for some purpose:

Additional complexity is added through specialized tools whose algorithms are designed to
generate analytical results that would be very difficult to create by an individual. And even more
complexity can be achieved by combining multiple tools and logic. A process model should be as
simple as possible to capture the necessary reality to solve your problem. You may only need a
single operation or tool, but with complicated models, sometimes hundreds may be necessary.
Types of process models
There are many types of process models to solve a wide variety of problems, including these:
Suitability modeling—What is the optimum location for something, such as a new school,
landfill, or public park?
Distance modeling—What are the nearest protected habitats for an endangered species?
Hydrologic modeling—What direction will the water flow off a surface?
Surface modeling—What are the pollution levels for various locations in a county?
A CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR SOLVING SPATIAL PROBLEMS.
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a set of conceptual steps can be used to help you build a model and implement. These
involve 6 steps
Step 1: state the problem.
To solve your spatial problems.starts by clearing starting the problem you are trying to
solve and the goal you are trying to achieve .
Step 2:: break the problem down
Once is understood, you must break the problem down into a series of objective!,identify
the elements and their interactions that are needed to meet your objectives and crest the
necessary input data set to develop the representation models. With your objective defined, you
can now begin to develop the steps necessary to reach your goal. By arranging the objectives in
order, you will begin to get a better understanding of problems you are ultimately trying to solve.
For example. If your goal was to find the best sites for spotting grass cutters your objectives might
be to find out where grass cutters were recently spotted. What vegetation types and the location
of human dwellings and roads. The overall model (made up of series of objectives, process
models, and input datasets)

Step 3:explore input datasets. It's very useful to understand the spatial attributes
properties of individual object in the landscape and the relationship between them.
Step 4.....

Step 5...verify the model result... check the result from model in the field.. should contain.
parameters
Step 6...implement your result. Once you have conceptuallly solved your spatial problems
and verify

GEO INFORMATIC TOOLS

From earlier discussions, the components of GIS are: Hardware, Software, Spatial database,
Procedure and Expertise. These five components comfortably fall into each of the Three GIS
subsystems: Data acquisition subsystem, database management subsystems and information
presentation subsystem. Each subsystem or process has its associated components which is
unique for its use.
GIS software comprises all the subsystems but not all the methods in each subsystem in
general however; geoinformatic tools can be divided into two major groups.
1. Hardware
2. Software

HARDWARES
1. Data acquisition hardware
 GPS
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 Digital land surveying

 Analytical/digital aerial photo

 Remote sensing
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 Hydrographic surveying
 Map digitization
 Scanning

2. Database management hardware: Personal Computers

3. Information presentation hardware: pc, printer, monitor, projector etc.

GIS SOFTWARE
These are also classified into data acquisition, database management and information
presentation software’s they include
Autocad/FastCAD, Database, Mappublisher, Aldus Freehand and various Programming languages.
Others which combine sub-system’s requirements include: ILWIS, Arcmap Autocad MAP, Idrisi and
a host of others.

DATA ACQUISITION DEVICES (DIGITIZER AND SCANNER)

This is one of the most common methods of GIS data entry. It involves digitizing existing
maps by hand. This is done by placing a map on an electronically sensitive table called a digitizer
and tracing the map features with a mouse device sometimes called a puck or cursor.

The device uses a vector format. It converts analogue maps to digital format.
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The digitized data are coordinate points that are later connected into chains. Features are
recorded as follows.

FEATURE SHAP DIGITIZED COORDINATE INPUT

E

Point . . xy

Line X1Y1……… X2Y2

Polygon x1 y 1 , x 2y 2
….x4y4...x1y1.

Table 4 Digitizing forms in a GIS

Each feature receives a label or identity of some type either during digitizing or after. Most GIS
automatically assign a sequence identification number (ID) into each feature. And a possible
classification code number (e.g. is crop-type class).

DIGITIZING TABLET
The tablet would have a driver which the computer uses to sense the digitizer. Also CAD software
(AutoCAD, micro station, fast CAD etc) is needed.
The sizes of the useful part are as follows;

A0--- 841 x 1189

A1---- 594mm x 841mm
A2----- 420mm x 594mm
A3 ----- 297 x 420mm
A4------- 210 x 297m

E.g of digitizers are Calcomp, accugrid, HP, summagraphics etc.

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SCANNERS
An alternative to manual digitizing is the automatic digitizing. This technology is however
not yet matured, with factors such as cost and limited capabilities keeping it out of range of most
GIS operations. Several types of automated digitizers exist; these are manly scanners.
Scanners are used for converting existing maps to digital formats (raster). It consists of
array of detectors.In the use of a scanner the object is represented by regular cells of equal size,
coordinates value are implicit. The smaller the cell the high the resolution value recorded in look
up table.
Resolution is expressed as DPI i.e dots per inch e.g. 300- 800 dpi, 300cells in an inch or 800dots
inan inch.
Scanner varies in sizes as does Digitizers. Scanner is less efficient in terms of storage.
Various types of scanners include;
THE HAND SCANNER: This is a hand-held copying devise moved along the map. These are usually
too small, however for maps larger than text page size and are limited in spatial and zonal
resolution. They are however very inexpensive.

DESKTOP SCANNER: These are larger and more stable. They are also faster and offer reasonably
good quality images. They are however limited to page size and are not really meant for maps
data. They are also reasonably cheap.
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DRUM SCANNER: These are the bestmap scanners; they are large and expensive. They contain a
rotating drum and moving scanner. Large maps can be scanned in a fairly short time with high
degree of accuracy and quality.

VIDEO SCANNER: this is a reasonable alternative to drum scanners. It works much like a normal
video camera, making scanning sweeps of the map gathering tones that are rasterized and
converted into numbers. These machines are faster but tend to generalize data sometimes
creating problem of map feature recognition

DIGITIZING
This is tracing of map features, which really means entering nodes and vertex. A square
feature is easy to outline: touch the corners and press the data entry button, the only problem is
being careful to locate nodes and vertices accurately.

EDITING DIGITIZED DATA

Editing of a digitized data is essential task, although it takes time, and needs a critical eye for
details and perfection. Some very common errors which need to be edited are.
 35

Undershooting and Overshooting: These are chains that do not reach other chains as intended, or
that extend beyond the target location. This requires either extending or reducing the chain
length.
 Misplaced Labels: This is when classification labels are entered during or just after
digitizing to define features. Some features may receive no labels, multiple labels or
incorrect labels.
 Double Lines: It is easy to enter an original data feature twice. The least accurate one is
typically removed by highlighting it and pressing the delete key.
 Mistakes in Tracing: This include:-
 Silver: this when two different polygons overlap each other instead of flushing together.
Silver is removed by relocating polygon 1 to the left.
 Incorrect Polygon: This is when a polygon contains error.
This can be corrected by removing the two vertices that defines the incorrect chain.
 Gap: A gap or incorrect chain when noticed closure must be made by pointing to the open
ends if each chain and instructing a connection is similar to undershoot or overshoot.

GEO REFERENCING
Spatial information requires the establishment of a spatial reference system to which all
spatial measurement must relate. A map, must primarily, portray accurately real-world features
that occurs on the curved surface of the Earth. GIS data files usually must have a real world
coordinate system, if they are to be valid coverage
Geo-referencing (Geographic Referencing) is the process of registering or fixing data to a standard
coordinate system. It is the representation of the location of real-world features within the spatial
frame work of a coordinate system. This is a data transformation process.
The best method of establishing proper geo-referencing is to define at least four ‘tic point’
around the area being digitalized (closed to the corner as possible) each with a precisely known
world coordinate position that is typed into the program when the program knows these points,
digitized points can be properly located relative to their real world location. The ability to
manipulate and analyze geographically referenced spatial data is what distinguishes a GIS from
CAD and other types of computer graphics systems.
Generally, latitudes-longitudes are real world coordinates systems but smaller systems such as
various grid references are adopted for regional purposes and more accurate positions. Often the
UTM coordinate system is most convenient for scales of 1:500,000 or larger.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT HARDWARE

A database is an organized integrated collection of data/information stored about things and their
relationships to each other so as to be capable of use by relevant applications with the data being
accessed by different logical paths. The objective of collecting and maintaining information in a
database is to be able to relate fact and situations that were previously hitherto separated
together.
The DBMS hardware’s are computers. There are different types of computers
Mainframe: This is the first generation computer. It consists of a host CPU with a tape drive,
terminals amongst others. It is multi-user and multi-tasking. It is use for networking.
Mini frame (work station): This similar to the work frame but less costly. It has limited terminals
e.g. WANG. It is out dated and only used for networking. It is multi-user and multi-tasking and can
also be used as a standalone e.g. HP, HPUX, SUNSPARE, SUN, OS UNIX. Digitalphotogrammetry
and DIP systems are based on work stations.
 36

PC or Microcomputer: It is single user and multi-tasking. Itconsists of a monitor,

CPU,memory,ALU,control.It architecture is as presented.

Control Monitor

CP ROM Fig 15: Computer

System Architecture

ALU Memory
RA

PRESENTATION HARDWARE
Monitor: Monitor sizes varies from 14”,17”,21”, for image processing sizes greater than 21” with
graphic cards are most appropriate, while 14” screen are good for alphanumeric operations.
Caution should be taken to restrict these to low radiation types.
Plotter: These are either flat bed or drum types. A plotter has 4 to 8 or more pens. Its dimensions
vary as in digitizers and scanners. They also come with drivers.
Printers: These can be LaserJets, Dotmatrix, Ink-jets etc all of various sizes.

GIS SOFTWARES
There are currently a large number of GIS programs available - . The industry standard for vector
mode GIS was traditionally set by Arc/Info, produced by a California company called
Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI). This originally ran under Unix, though the DOS
and Windows NT version were also produced but they were not user friendly. ESRI subsequently
introduced ArcView which could run on Windows and was much more user friendly. ArcView
provided a lot of functionalities available in Arc/Info and therefore superseded Arc/Info in the PC
world.
In 2001 ESRI introduced ArcGIS 8.1. This was seen as a replacement to both ArcView and Arc/Info.
There are presently various versions of ArcGIS for both Unix and Windows. ArcGIS contains three
main components which performs different functions: ArcMap, ArcCatalog and Arctools, although
there are various other extensions and add-ons. There are also three levels which are ArcView,
ArcEdit and ArcInfo. These provide diferent degrees of functionality with ArcView being the entry
level version and ArcInfo the most advanced. The most resent version of ArcGIS is 10.2

General software’s needed for GIS can be divided into data acquisition, database management
system and information presentation software’s.
The basics functions of any GIS software are:
 Spatial data acquisition, e.g.:-Photogrammetric compilation of map data e.g. Kork,
 Survey measurement and computations,
 Digital image processing e.g. Idrisi, Ilwis,
 Scanning usually a 3rd party software e.g. paintbrush,
 Database updating e.g. Zeiss map 500.
 Processing.
 Editing of coordinate lists
 Plotting or printing out of digital data editing when necessary.
 Topologic Editing(splinter removal, pseudo-polygon silver line, over shoots and undershoot
removal)
 37

 Edge matching analysis. (I.e. when features are digitized from different map sheets.)
 Polygonization of arcs into polygons
 Topology Structuring
 Manipulation:Data retrieval (browsing, windowing, query generation etc.)
 Very important (e.g. soil type, land use etc.)
 Map generalization (line thing, scale changing etc.)
 Calculating of centroid.
 Reclassification
 Projection change
 Coordinate transformation
 Buffer generation e.g. 2km on either side of a line object ( e.g. rivers)
 Digital terrain analysis. (Interpolation, contouring, slope computation etc)
 Output (presentation)
 Hardcopy map production
 Statistical and alphanumeric tabulation
 Interactive display
 Computer data files resulting from variable manipulations

GIS SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE

There are three basic architectures namely:
1) Dual architecture (2) layer architecture (3) Integrated architecture
1. Dual Architecture: The architecture is slow because the software; CAD and RDBMS are linked on
a dual architecture. Examples of the software’s are;
Arcinfo, AutoCAD + Dbase, Microstation + Oracle
In this architecture, there are two software’s and two databases (spatial data and attribute data.)
2. Layer Architecture: This consists of a unified database and two software in operation but linked
in the real world.
3. Integrated Architecture.It is managed by a single software and consists of a unified database.

GIS REPRESENTATION OF THE WORLD

In a GIS, different object types are represented by different layers or themes. A layer can either
be points, lines, polygons, and possibly a raster dataset. No layer can have a mixture of this
representation. Each layer is also associated (linked) with an attribute table.
Examples of layer types:
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GIS APPLICATIONS
This involves the use of GIS in satisfying a given need. This depends on how it is being used. In
some cases it can be used as an organizing frame work, in another it can be a tool for taking
decisions. When these two are combined, GIS possess a wide range of applications. GIS
applications are however limited by the awareness of its possibilities, the imaginations of those in
charge of the facilities and the costs involved.

APPLICATION AREAS
The GIS technology is applied to dozens of different disciplines and fields of work. They include:
Land planning, forestry, automated Mapping/Facilities Management, environmental
management, Natural resources Extraction, Urban Planning, education etc.

GENERIC QUESTIONS THAT A GIS CAN INVESTIGATE

Generic questions which GIS frequently investigate are included
in two broad groups:-
A spatial Questions:- "What's the average number of people working with GIS in each location?"
is an a spatial question - the answer to which does not require the stored value of latitude and
longitude; nor does it describe where the places are in relation with each other.
Spatial Questions:-" How many people work with GIS in the major centers of Abuja" OR “Which
centers lie within 10 km. of each other? ", OR “What is the shortest route passing through all
these centers". These are spatial questions that can only be answered using latitude and longitude
data and other information such as the radius of earth. Geographic Information Systems can
answer such spatial questions as:

A. Location - What is at………...…....?

B. Condition - Where is it………...…...?
C. Trend - What has changed…...…?
D. Routing - Which is the best way….?
E. Pattern - What is the Pattern……..?
F. Modeling - What if………………….?

Locational questions: - involves querying the data base to determine the type of features which
occur at a given place. (E.g. what is the population of a given census tract?)

Conditional Question: - this involves finding out features that satisfy specific condition which
satisfy certain characteristics. (E.g. where is all the land within 200 meters of a road which is forest
covered?). Where more than one type of data is involved this referred to as Intersection
Question, since it is necessitates finding the intersection of data sets.

Trend Questions: this involves monitoring how things change over time (e.g. what is the change in
traffic flow along Lagos roads, or change in land use over time). Other trend questions are more
complex and involve some form of spatial analysis.

Routing Question: requires calculations of the best (fastest, quickest, shortest, etc.) routes
between places.

Pattern Question: allows environmental and social scientists and planners to describe and
compare the distribution of phenomena and to understand the process which accounts for their
 39

distribution (e.g. is there some patterns in the distribution of diseases which are thought to be
caused by exposure to radiation?)

Modeling Questions:- this allows for different models of the real world to be evaluated –
modeling scenarios e.g. which area will be affected a 20cm rise in sea level.

Characteristics of GIS applications (summary)

In summary, GIS applications are characterized as follows:-
 Analyses in an integrated but multidisciplinary way
 Integrates Remote sensing, field survey and cartographic data
 It evolved from the need for information on the changing patterns of the earth’s surface
 It answers questions of
What is (where) - at what point in time, and
Where is - at a specific location
It also includes all basic (generic) questions discussed earlier.
 Represents a model of the real world
 Involves data in form of tables, maps, list of names addresses etc.
GIS OPERATIONS
Operations in GIS can be as a Single Layer operationor Multiple Layer Operations.

SINGLE LAYER OPERATIONS INCLUDE:

Boundary Operations
These include the following: and.

Clip: this operation uses a clip layer like a cookie cutter on an output layer. The input layer’s
attributes are not altered

Erase: Erase is opposite of clip. The center cookie cutter is removed.

Update:
 40

Split:

Append: This is the opposite of split.

Dissolve:

Proximity Analysis

Buffering
This specifies a sphere of influence. It is also known as spread, search or corridor. Though very
difficult to do manually, it is a routine operation that requires that the user specifies a distance.

Feature Identification
Interactive graphical identification: Select objects from a map and be able to extract their
corresponding attribute data from the attribute table.

Querying
The database queried and in turn, selection and viewing of corresponding graphically selected
data on the map is done.

Feature Classification
When we create maps of area data such as data mapped by counties these are known as thematic
or choropleth maps. We are in fact classifying our data into groups that are represented by a
particular coloring scheme.
Thematic or choropleth maps are a model of reality. We model the data by creating legends that
tell a particular story.
 41

Neighborhoods and Connectivity Operations

These two functions look at areas associated with individual location. These are very useful in
network analysis as in pipeline management and transportation.

Topographic Operation
This involves the generation of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and displayed in 3-D. triangulated
irregular network (TIN) is a better way of displaying the elevation values.

MULTIPLE LAYER OPERATIONS

Overlay Analysis
In an overlay analysis, logical (Boolean) operations are used to relate spatial data in different
layers. For example, if you have layer A and layer B, you could ask the following overlay analysis
questions:
What areas consist of both layers A + B?
What areas consist of A And Not B?
For example, in layers of crops and soils, it is best used to identify the type of crop in a particular
soil zone etc.

Search Operation or Window

This is useful when looking for certain attributes within a neighborhood which must be logically
defined.

CARTOGRAPHIC MODELING (cartographic flow chart)

A cartographic model is a graphical representation of the data and analytical procedure used in a
study. It is the process of linking or organizing basic analysis operations in a logical sequence such
that the output from one is the input to the next. This model is represented by flow charts to
indicate:
Sequence of operations
Explicit assumptions
Relation between variables
In a design the entities are in blocks while the process/relationships are in diamond shaped boxes.