BLD 305 design and detailing

BLD 301
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND

DETAILING
Structural Design and Detailing I

PROGRAMME: BUILDING TECHNOLOGY HND
COURSE: Structural Design and Detailing I COURSE CODE: BLD 305 CONTACT HRS:
1-1-3
Course Specification: Theoretical Content
General Objective 1.0: Know Codes of Practice used in Structural Design
1.1 Explain the object of Limit State Design.

1.2 Observe BS 8110, CP 110, CP 114, CP 115 and CP 116.
1.3 Explain BS 449 for Steel Design.
1.4 Explain BS 5950 for Steel Design. • Show the relevant codes and B.S.
• Chalk board, Relevant Codes and
B.S.
General Objective 2.0: Understand the process of design
2.1 Explain the steps in good design practice as follows:

a. Full Clients brief
b. Liaising with all other members of the design team.
c. Preliminary Investigation.
d. Adequacy of Preliminary Design for the purpose of
initial reliable estimate.
e. General arrangement of drawings.
f. Final Design – Working Drawings.
2.2 Interpret each in item in the design Practice. • Use questions and answers to discuss
.
General Objective 3.0: Understand and apply limit state characteristic material strengths and safety
and design loads.
3.1 Explain ultimate limit State as a probabilistic

approach to design.
3.2 Explain characteristic loads and wind loads.
3.3 Explain dead loads, imposed loads and
wind loads.
3.4 Explain partial factors of safety and global factors of safety. • Use question and answer to discuss
4
3.5 Calculate design load for ultimate and serviceability limit state.
3.6 Explain serviceability limit state in terms of deflection, cracking,
durability, fire resistance, vibration and fatigue.
• BS 8110
General Objective 4.0: Understand stress-strain relationships for concrete and steel.
4.1 Explain short-term design stress-strain Curve for concrete in compression.

4.2 Explain short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement.
4.3 Explain creep of concrete, shrinkage of concrete.
4.4 Illustrate bar shape and sizes, grades and strength of concrete
and reinforcement. • Use question and answer to discuss
BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 1

General Objective 5.0: Know the design methods of reinforced concrete rectangular beams.
5.1 Explain the behaviours of a reinforced concrete beam section.

5.2 Carry out preliminary analysis and member sizing.
5.3 Calculate the moment of resistance for a singly reinforced section.
5.4 Design for bending. • Use questions and answers to discuss.
• Use the appropriate code to design for
bending.
5.5 Design for shear, bond anchorage and check for deflection.
5.6 Calculate minimum amount of longitudinal bars and stirrups.
5.7 Explain bar Spacing rules.
5.8 Illustrate standard detailing practice.
5.9 Draw beam section and elevation. • Use appropriate code to design for shear
and amount of reinforcements.
• Use question and answer to discuss.
bending.
• BS 81110
5.10 Calculate moment of resistance for a double reinforced section.
5.11 Calculate the compression steel reinforcement.
5.12 Design a continuous beam.
5.13 Use Design graphs.
5.14 Calculate effective width of flanged beam for T and L sections.
5.15 Calculate moment of resistance of a flanged beam
5.16 Design a flanged beam (T-Section).
5.17 Carry out reinforcement detailing.
5.18 Describe curtailment of bars.
• Use questions and answers to discuss.
• bending.
• BS 8110
General Objective 6.0: Know how to design solid slabs and stairs.
6.1 Carry out preliminary sizing of slabs using span-effective depth ratio.
6.2 Calculate shear, punching shear, local bond and distribution steel.
6.3 Design slabs spanning in two directions.
6.4 Calculate shear, punching shear, local bond and distribution steel.
6.5 Describe stairs spanning horizontally.
6.6 Design a stair slab spanning horizontally.
6.7 Describe a stair spanning longitudinally.
6.8 Design a stair slab spanning longitudinally.
15 6.9 Detail staircase.
General Objective: 1.0. Know Codes of Practice used in Structural Design
1.1 Draw various structural elements.

1.2 Design a continuous beam.
1.3 Carry out reinforced cement detailing of the various elements.
1.4 Carry out detailing of a staircase.
- Give sketches - drawings, c

BLD 301
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND
DETAILING
INTRODUCTION Structural design: - The first function in the design of a building is the planning carried
out by the architect to determine the arrangement and layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements.
The structural engineer then determines the best structural system or forms to bring the architect’s concept
into being. Construction in different materials and with different arrangements and systems may require
investigation to determine the most economical answer. The architect and the engineer should work together
at this conceptual design stage.
Once the building form and structural arrangement have been finalized the design problem consists of
the following:
1. Idealization of the structure into load bearing frames and elements for analysis and
design
2. Estimation of loads
3. Analysis to determine the maximum moments, thrusts and shears for design
4. Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements for slabs, beams, columns and
walls using the results from 3
5. Production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar schedules
Structure design is the application of structural theory to ensure that buildings and other structures are
built to support all loads and resist all constraining forces that may be reasonably expected to be imposed on
them during their expected service life, without hazard to occupants or users and preferably without dangerous
deformations, excessive sideways (drift), or annoying vibrations. In addition, good design requires that this
objective be achieved economically.
Therefore design is seen as the process of determining and designing the structural nature i.e. its
strength, shape and materials required to bear and withstand the expected loading and its response on it. A
good designed structure must satisfy some three basic requirements; these are strength, serviceability and
economy.
The strength is to ensure that the structure is capable of carrying the applied load and that of
serviceability describe the amount of behavior the structure will exhibit under this load action as in the case of
deflection, cracking and vibration that may be suffered by the structure and its user. The condition of the
complete structure must be such that the users are not alarmed by its appearance and the finishes are not
damaged. While on the order hand the final aim of design will be an economic decision that is to design a
member with the required maximum strength at a minimum cost within the bound of specified serviceability
condition.

Notwithstanding the normal condition, provision should be made in application of structural theory to
design for abnormal as well as normal service conditions. Abnormal conditions may arise as a result of
accidents, fire, explosions, tornadoes, severer-than-anticipated earthquakes, floods, and inadvertent or even
deliberate overloading of building components. Under such conditions, parts of a building may be damaged.
The structural system, however, should be so designed that the damage will be limited in extent and
undamaged portions of the building will remain stable
These requirements can further be broken into the following criterion that governs the design of a
structure for a particular purpose may be summarized as follows.
i. Fitness for purpose

ii. Safety and reliability
iii. Durability
iv. External appearance
v. User comfort
vi. Robustness
Fitness for purpose: is generally covered by the overall geometry of the structure and its components. It
should be possible to have unrestricted and unhindered use of the structure for the purpose for which it is
built.
Safety and reliability: are assured by following the code of practice for loading, materials, design, construction
and fire resistance.
Durability: is taken care of by the choice of the right materials for the purpose and also by bearing in mind
during the design process, the requirements for the proper maintenance.
Good value for money: is perhaps the most important criteria. The designer should take into account not only
the cost of materials but also the buildability, the time required to build, the cost of the temporary structures,
the cost of maintenance over the period of time and in some cases the cost of demolishing or
decommissioning
External appearance: of the structure changes over a period of time. The designer should be aware of the
effect of cracking, leaking, staining, spalling, flaking, etc. of the materials in use. The designer should make
appropriate allowances to avoid the degradation of appearance.
User comforts are influenced by the vibration of the structure due to wind, road traffic, or vibrating
machinery. Large deflection under load also cause alarm to the users. The designer should pay adequate
attention to alleviation of these anticipated discomforts.
Robustness: this comes with the chosen structural form and is determined by the additional inherent strength
of the structures as a whole to withstand accidental loading. The collapse of one key member in the structure
must not initiate global collapse. The designer must foresee the domino effect in the structure and avoid it by
careful planning.
AIMS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

There are 3 main aims of structural design
i. under the worst loading condition the structure must be safe for society demand i.e. security
in the structure it inhabits
ii. During normal working condition the deformation of the member must not change from the
appearance, durability or performance of the structure.
iii. The structure must be economical with regard to first cost and maintenance cost. Infect most
design are implicitly and explicitly an economic decision.
In detailed analysis and design and indeed the overall structural scheme the engineer is guided by a code of
practice which is a character of a good designer. These codes of practice are intended to guide the designer
and should be treated as such.
DESIGN PROCEDURE.
The structural design of a project is usually broken down into the following 4 steps.
i. Selection of the type of structural form to be used and the materials out of which the structure
is to be made.
ii. Determination of the external loads that are expected to act on the structure.
iii. Calculation of the stresses and deformation that are produced in the individual member of the
structure by the external loads.
iv. Determination of the sizes of the individual members so that existing stresses and
deformations do not exceed the allowable value for the material.
DESIGN STANDARDS
It is a good practice by a designer uses the available design standards for the design of structural members. In
the UK, design is generally to limit state theory in accordance with
BS8110:1985: Structural Use of Concrete Part 1: Code of Practice for Design and Construction
The design of sections for strength must be in accordance with the plastic theory based on the behaviour of the
member at ultimate loads. Elastic analysis of sections is also covered because this is used in calculations for
deflections and crack width in accordance with
BS8110:1985: Structural Use of Concrete Part 2: Code of Practice for Special Circumstances
The loading on structures conforms to BS6399:1984: Design Loading for Building

Part 1: Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads
CP3:1972: Chapter V: Loading Part 2: Wind Loads
The codes set out the design loads, load combinations and partial factors of safety, material strengths, design
procedures and sound construction practice. A thorough knowledge of the codes is one of the essential
requirements of a designer.

CALCULATIONS, DESIGN AIDS AND COMPUTING
Calculations form the major part of the design process. They are needed to determine the loading on the
elements and structure and to carry out the analysis and design of the elements. The need for orderly and
concise presentation of calculations cannot be emphasized too strongly.
Design aids in the form of charts and tables are an important part of the designer’s equipment. These aids
make exact design methods easier to apply, shorten design time and lessen the possibility of making errors.
Part 3 of BS8110 consists of design charts for beams and columns, and the construction of charts.
DETAILING
The general arrangement drawings give the overall layout and principal dimensions of the structure. The
structural requirements for the individual elements are presented in the detail drawings. The output of the
design calculations are sketches giving sizes of members and the sizes, arrangement, spacing and cut-off
points for reinforcing bars at various sections of the structure.
Detailing translates this information into a suitable pattern of reinforcement for the structure as a whole.
Detailing is presented in accordance with the Joint Committee Report on Standard Method of Detailing
Structural Concrete [2]. It is essential for the student to know the conventions for making reinforced concrete
drawings such as scales, methods for specifying bars, links, fabric, cut-off points etc. The main particulars for
detailing are given for most of the worked exercises in the book. The bar schedule can be prepared on
completion of the detail drawings. The forms of the schedule and shape code for the bars are to conform to
BS4466:1981: Specification of Bending Dimensions and Scheduling of Bars for the Reinforcement for
Concrete
DESIGN LOADS
Loads are the external forces acting on a structure. Stresses are the internal forces that resist them. Depending
on the manner in which the loads are applied, they tend to deform the structure and its components—tensile
forces tend to stretch, compressive forces to squeeze together, torsional forces to twist, and shearing forces to
slide parts of the structure past each other.
Types of Loads
The term load can be used synonymously as action or force, which is described as that environmental demand
or effect on a structure which tends to change or alter the state of static of a structure. Therefore Structural
loads or actions are forces, deformations or accelerations applied to a structure or its components that give rise
to the development of internal stresses in a structure and can be either direct or indirect in nature.
External loads on a structure may be classified in several different ways. In one classification, they may be
considered as static or dynamic.

Static loads are forces that are applied slowly and then remain nearly constant. One example is the weight, or
dead load, of a floor or roof system.
Dynamic loads vary with time. They include repeated and impact loads.
Repeated loads are forces that are applied a number of times, causing a variation in the magnitude, and
sometimes also in the sense, of the internal forces. A good example is an off-balance motor.
Impact loads are forces that require a structure or its components to absorb energy in a short interval of time.
An example is the dropping of a heavy weight on a floor slab, or the shock wave from an explosion striking
the walls and roof of a building.
External forces may also be classified as distributed and concentrated.

Uniformly distributed loads are forces that are, or for practical purposes may be considered, constant over a
surface area of the supporting member. Dead weight of a rolled-steel I beam is a good example.
Concentrated loads are forces that have such a small contact area as to be negligible compared with the
entire surface area of the supporting member. A beam supported on a girder, for example, may be considered,
for all practical purposes, a concentrated load on the girder.
Another common classification for external forces labels them axial, eccentric, and torsional.
An axial load is a force whose resultant passes through the centroid of a section under consideration and is
perpendicular to the plane of the section.
An eccentric load is a force perpendicular to the plane of the section under consideration but not passing
through the centroid of the section, thus bending the supporting member
Torsional loads are forces that are offset from the shear center of the section under consideration and are
inclined to or in the plane of the section, thus twisting the supporting member.
Also, building codes classify loads in accordance with the nature of the source. For example:
Dead loads include materials, equipment, constructions, or other elements of weight supported in, on, or by a
building, including its own weight, that are intended to remain permanently in place.
Live loads include all occupants, materials, equipment, constructions, or other elements of weight supported
in, on, or by a building and that will or are likely to be moved or relocated during the expected life of the
building.
Impact loads are a fraction of the live loads used to account for additional stresses and deflections resulting
from movement of the live loads.
Wind loads are maximum forces that may be applied to a building by wind in a mean recurrence interval, or a
set of forces that will produce equivalent stresses.
Seismic loads are forces that produce maximum stresses or deformations in a building during an earthquake.
Service Loads
In designing structural members, designers should use whichever is larger of the
following:
1. Loadings specified in the local or state building code.
2. Probable maximum loads, based not only on current site conditions and original usage of proposed building
spaces but also on possible future events. Loads that are of uncertain magnitude and that may be treated as
statistical variables should be selected in accordance with a specific probability that the chosen magnitudes
will not be exceeded during the life of the building. In the absence of a local or state building code, designers
can be guided by loads specified in a national model building code or by the following data:
Loads applied to structural members may consist of the following, alone or in combination: dead, live,
impact, earth pressure, hydrostatic pressure, snow, ice, rain, wind, or earthquake loads; constraining forces,
such as those resulting from restriction of thermal, shrinkage, or moisture-change movements; or forces
caused by displacements or deformations of members, such as those caused by creep, plastic
flow, differential settlement, or sideways (drift).
Factored Loads
Structural members must be designed with sufficient capacity to sustain without excessive deformation or
failure, those combinations of service loads that will produce the most unfavourable effects. Also, the effects
of such conditions as ponding of water on roofs, saturation of soils, settlement, and dimensional changes must
be included.
In determination of the structural capacity of a member or structure, a safety margin must be
provided and the possibility of variations of material properties from assumed design values and of
inexactness of capacity calculations must be taken into account. Building codes may permit either of two
methods, allowable-stress design (elastic theory method) or load–and–resistance factor design (also known as
ultimate-strength design), to be used for a structural material.
In both methods, design loads, which determine the required structural capacity, are calculated by
multiplying the combinations of service loads with a factor. Different factors are applied to the various
possible load combinations in accordance with the probability of occurrence of the loads. In allowable-stress
design, required capacity is usually determined by the load combination that causes severe cracking or
excessive deformation. For the purpose, dead, live, wind, seismic, snow, and other loads that may be imposed
simultaneously are added together, then multiplied by a factor equal to or less than 1. Load combinations
usually considered in allowable-stress design are
(1) D +L + (Lr or S or R)
(2) D + L+ (W or E/ 1.4)
(3) D + L+ W + S/2
(4) D + L +S +W/2
(5) D + L + S +E/ 1.4
(6) 0.9D + / 1.4
Where
D _ dead load
L _ live loads due to intended use of occupancy, including partitions
Lr _ roof live loads
S _ snow loads
R _ rain loads
W _ wind loads
E _ seismic loads
Building codes usually permit a smaller factor when the probability is small that combinations of
extreme loads, such as dead load plus maximum live load plus maximum wind or seismic forces, will occur.
Generally, for example, a factor of 0.75 is applied to load-combination sums (2) to (6). Such factors are
equivalent to permitting higher allowable unit stresses for the applicable loading conditions than for load
combination (1). The allowable stress is obtained by dividing the unit stress causing excessive deformation or
failure by a factor greater than 1.
In load–and–resistance factor design, the various types of loads are each multiplied by a load factor,
the value of which is selected in accordance with the probability of occurrence of each type of load. The
factored loads are then added to obtain the total load (design load) a member or system must sustain. A
structural member is selected to provide a load-carrying capacity exceeding that sum. This capacity is
determined by multiplying the ultimate-load capacity by a resistance factor, the value of which reflects the
reliability of the estimate of capacity. Load criteria generally used are as follows:
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L+ 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D + 1.0E + (0.5L or 0.2S)
6. 0.9D + (1.3W or 1.0E)
DESIGN METHODS.
There are basically three methods of structural design which are
i. Elastic method: - this is also known as the permissible stress method it is the oldest of all the three
methods and has stood the test of time. This method is found to be safe to structures design
according to their elastic requirements.
In this method the ultimate strength of the material is divided by a factor of safety to obtain
the design stress which mostly falls within the elastic range of the material. It is also known as the
working stress method or the elastic theory method.
ii. Load factor method: - in this method of analysis the working loads are multiply by a factor of
safety. One major short coming of the load factor method is the failure to represent adequately the
behavior of members when failure is approached
iii.
iv. Limit state method: - this method establishes the limit state of structures and the difference with
the two above is that a design technique based on a single factor of safety sets up a system of
design coefficient which guaranty a structure will not attain such state under the worst load
combination and at a minimum strength.

The first method is found to have some short comings as it is best suited for elastic materials but not sufficient
enough when dealing with semi plastic materials such as concrete nor is it suitable when the deformations are
not proportional to the load as in the case of slender columns or the stability of the structure subjected to
overturning.
LIMIT STATE DESIGN METHOD.
The criterion for a safe design is that the structure should not become unfit for use, i.e. that it should
not reach a limit state during its design life. This is achieved, in particular, by designing the structure to ensure
that it does not reach
1. The ultimate limit state—the whole structure or its elements should not collapse, overturns or buckles
when subjected to the design loads
2. Serviceability limit states—the structure should not become unfit for use due to excessive deflection,
cracking or vibration
The structure must also be durable, i.e. it must not deteriorate or be damaged excessively by the action
of substances coming into contact with it. The code places particular emphasis on durability. For reinforced
concrete structures the normal practice is to design for the ultimate limit state, check for serviceability and
take all necessary precautions to ensure durability.
Ultimate limit state

(a) Strength
The structure must be designed to carry the most severe combination of loads to which it is subjected.
The sections of the elements must be capable of resisting the axial loads, shears and moments derived from
the analysis. The design is made for ultimate loads and design strengths of materials with partial safety factors
applied to loads and material strengths. This permits uncertainties in the estimation of loads and in the
performance of materials to be assessed separately. The section strength is determined using plastic analysis
based on the short-term design stress-strain curves for concrete and reinforcing steel.
(b) Stability
Overall stability of a structure is provided by shear walls, lift shafts, staircases and rigid frame action or a
combination of these means. The structure should be such as to transmit all loads, dead, imposed and wind,
safely to the foundations. Clause 2.2.2.1 of the code states that the layout of the structure should be such as to
give a stable and robust structure.
(c) Robustness

Clause 2.2.2.2 of the code states that the planning and design should be such that damage to a small area or
failure of a single element should not cause collapse of a major part of a structure. This means that the design
should be resistant to progressive collapse. The clause specifies that this type of failure can be avoided by
taking the following precautions.
1. The structure should be capable of resisting notional horizontal loads applied at roof level and at
each floor level. The loads are 1.5% of the characteristic dead weight of the structure between mid-height of
the storey below and either mid-height of the storey above or the roof surface. The wind load is not to be
taken as less than the notional horizontal load.
2. All structures are to be provided with effective horizontal ties. These are
(a) peripheral ties
(b) internal ties
(c) horizontal ties to column and walls
3. For buildings of five or more storeys, key elements are to be identified, failure of which would
cause more than a limited amount of damage. These key elements must be designed for a specially heavy
ultimate load of 34 kN/m2 applied in any direction on the area supported by the member. Provisions regarding
the application of this load are set out in BS8110: Part 2, section 2.6.
4. For buildings of five or more storeys it must be possible to remove any vertical load bearing
element other than a key element without causing more than a limited amount of damage. This requirement is
generally achieved by the inclusion of vertical ties in addition to the other provisions noted above.
Serviceability limit states

The code states that account is to be taken of temperature, creep, shrinkage, sway and settlement. The main
serviceability limit states and code provisions are as follows.
(a) Deflection
The deformation of the structure should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance. Deflections may be
calculated, but in normal cases span-to-effective depth ratios can be used to check compliance with
requirements.
(b) Cracking
Cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by correct detailing. Crack widths can be calculated, but in
normal cases cracking can be controlled by adhering to detailing rules with regard to bar spacing in zones
where the concrete is in tension.
In analysing a section for the serviceability limit states the behaviour is assessed assuming a linear elastic
relationship for steel and concrete stresses. Allowance is made for the stiffening effect of concrete in the
tension zone and for creep and shrinkage.
CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN LOADS

The characteristic or service loads are the actual loads that the structure is designed to carry. These are
normally thought of as the maximum loads which will not be exceeded during the life of the structure. In

statistical terms the characteristic loads have a 95% probability of not being exceeded. The characteristic loads
used in design and defined in BS8110: Part 1, clause 2.4.1, are as follows:
1. The characteristic dead load Gk is the self-weight of the structure and the weight of finishes, ceilings,
services and partitions that are permanently fixed to the structure;
2. The characteristic imposed load Qk is caused by people, furniture, and equipment etc. on floors and snow
on roofs. Imposed loads for various types of buildings are given in BS6399: Part 1;
3. The wind load Wk depends on the location, shape and dimensions of the buildings. Wind loads are
estimated using CP3: Chapter V: Part 2. The code states that nominal earth loads are to be obtained in
accordance with normal practice.
design load =characteristic load × partial safety factor for loads
=Fkγf
PURPOSE OF PARTIAL FACTOR OF SAFETY
1. the partial safety is intended to cover those variations in loading in design or construction which are
likely to occur after the designer and the contractor have each used their skill and knowledge (design
assumptions and inaccurate calculations)
2. Possible unusual increase in load beyond those considered in driving the characteristic load.
3. Inaccurate assessment of the effect of loading and unforeseen stress re-distribution within the
structure.
4. Variation in dimensional accuracy that may occur during construction.
In this method of design considerations are given to design factors which are factors employed in the design to
allow for variability in load and mechanical properties of materials. They are determined by statistical method
from numerous experiments. These factors will include.
The partial factor of safety in terms of material, the design strength of the material is obtained by dividing
the characteristic strength (fk) by the appropriate partial factor of safety for material (ɤm)
Design strength = fk
ɤm
Characteristic strength is defined as the value of the cube strength (fcu) of concrete or the yield stress of the
reinforcement (fy) below which not more than 5% of the rest will fail.
The following table below shows the values of ɤm (partial factor safety of material). This value takes into
account of
i. the importance of the limit state considered

ii. The difference between the strength of the materials tested and those of the material in the
structure.
Materials U.L.S deflection serviceability

1. Concrete 1.5 1.0 1.3
2. Steel 1.15 1.0 1.0
The factor of safety for materials γm takes account of

1. Uncertainties in the strength of materials in the structure
2. Uncertainties in the accuracy of the method used to predict the behaviour of
members
3. Variations in member sizes and building dimensions
i. Partial factor of safety in terms of loads (ɤf). The design load is obtained by multiplying the
characteristic load by an appropriate safety factor.
Design load n = characteristic load x (ɤf)
The characteristic loads are (Gk = dead load), (Qk = live load) and (Wk = wind load)
The following factors of safety given below are values as given in the CP 3 chapter 5 part 1 & 2 for the
different load combination.
Load combinations ultimate limit state serviceability limit state
1. Dead and imposed loads
ɤf for dead load 1.4 or 1.0 1.0
ɤf for live load 1.6 1.0
2. Dead load and wind load
ɤf for dead load Gk 0.9 or 1.4 1.0
ɤf for wind load Wk 1.4 1.0
3. Dead imposed and wind load
ɤf for dead load Gk 1.2 1.0
ɤf for imposed load Qk 1.2 0.8
ɤf for wind load Wk 1.2 0.8
The choice of ɤf should be such that it will produce or cause the most severe stress,
Worked example:- a rectangular section concrete beam supports a dead load of 30kN and a live load of
15kN. If the characteristic compressive strength of concrete is 30kN/mm2. Determine its cross sectional area
using the limit state design method.
Solution load combination = dead and live load
Design load n = (gk x1.4) + (qk x 1.6)
30 x 1.4 + 15 x 1.6
42 + 24
66kN
Design stress = compressive strength = 30 =20N/mm2
ɤm 1.5
Cross sectional area = design load 66 x 103 = 3300mm2

design stress 20
Ex.ii for the column shown below determine the minimum and maximum values of axial force N, shear force
V and bending moment as listed in cp 110, both the ultimate and the serviceability limit state should be
considered
75kN
wind load wk = 7kN imposed load Qk = 75kN

dead load Gk = 50kN
3m
Solution: axial load
First loading combination
Dead and live loads
Nmax = 1.4gk + 1.6qk = (1.4 x50 + 1.6 x 75) = 190kN
Nmin = 1.0 gk = 1.0 x 50 = 50kN
Second load combination
Dead and wind loads
Nmax = 1.4gk = 1.4 x 50 = 70kN
Nmin = 0.9gk = 0.9 x 50 = 45kN
Shear force V = 1.4(7 x 3) = 1.4 x 21 = 29.40kN
Bending moment M = 1.4(7 x 3 x3/2) = 44.1kNm
Third load combination
Dead live and wind loads
Nmax = 1.2(gk + qk) = 1.2(50 +75) =150kN
Nmin = 1.2gk = 1.2 x 50 = 60kN
Shear force V = 1.2 x 7 x3 = 25.2kN

Bending moment M= 1.2(7 x 3 x 3/2) = 37.8kNm
Serviceability
1st load combination
Dead and live
Nmax = 1.0(gk + qk) = 1.0(50 + 75) = 125kN
2nd load combination
Dead and wind load
Nmax = 1.0gk = 1.0 x 50 = 50kN
Shear force V = 1.0 x 7 x 3 = 21kN
Bending moment M = 1.0 x 7 x 3 x 3/2 = 31.5kNm
3rd load combination
Dead, live and wind loads
Nmax = 1.0gk + 0.8qk = 1.0 x 50 + 0.8 x 75 = 110kN
Shear force V = 0.8(7 x 3) = 16.8kN
Bending moment M = 0.8 x 7 x 3 x 3/2 = 25.3kNm
Ex. 3 the beam shown below is supported at A. the load supported by the beam are its own dead weight
uniformly distributed of 30kN/m and a live point load of 105kN at point C.
(a) determine the reaction at A required to resist an uplift by (i) applying a factor of safety of 2 to the
reaction and calculate for the working load.
(b) Using a limit state design approach with a partial factor of safety ɤf 1.4 or 1.0 for dead load and 1.6
for live load. Check also the effect on this design if a 10% increase is made on the live load.
105kN
30kN/m
9m B 6m C
A
Solution: ΣmB = 0
9Ra – 30 x 4.5+ 30 x 5 x 2.5 + 105 x 5 =0
9Ra – 1215 + 375 + 525 = 0
9Ra – 315 = 0
Ra = 315/9 = 35kN
Appling factor of safety of 2 to the reaction

Ra = 2(35) = 70kN
Now adding a 10% of live load
ΣmB = 0
9Ra – (30 x 9 x 45) + (30 x 5 x 2.5) + (1.1 x 105.5) =0
9Ra – 1215 + 375 + 577.5
9Ra = 29.17kN
iii. using limit state design

dead load = 1.4 or 1.0 and live load = 1.6
design load = design load over span AB
ultimate design load = design load for BC
1.4 x 30 x 105 = 168kN
iii. ΣmB = 0
9Ra – 270 x 4.5 + 210 x 2.5 + 168 x 5
9Ra – 1215 + 525 + 840 = Ra = 16.67kN
PROPERTIES CONCRETE
The main properties of concrete are discussed below.
Compressive strength
The compressive strength is the most important property of concrete. The characteristic strength that is the
concrete grade is measured by the 28 day cube strength. Standard cubes of 150 or 100 mm for aggregate not
exceeding 25 mm in size are crushed to determine the strength. The test procedure is given in
BS1881:1983: Methods of Testing Concrete
Part 108: Method for Making Test Cubes from Fresh Concrete
Part 111: Method of Normal Curing of Test Specimens
Part 116: Method for Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes.
Tensile strength
The tensile strength of concrete is about a tenth of the compressive strength. It is determined by loading a
concrete cylinder across a diameter as shown in fig 1a below
The test procedure is given in BS1881.
2.3.3 Modulus of elasticity

The short-term stress-strain curve for concrete in compression is shown in fig 1b.The slope of the initial
straight portion is the initial tangent modulus.
Fig. 2.1 (a) Cylinder tensile test; (b) stress-strain curve for concrete
At any point P the slope of the curve is the tangent modulus and the slope of the line joining P to the origin is
the secant modulus. The value of the secant modulus depends on the stress and rate of application of the load.
BS1881 specifies both values to standardize determination of the secant or static modulus of elasticity. The
dynamic modulus is determined by subjecting a beam specimen to longitudinal vibration. The value obtained
is unaffected by creep and is approximately equal to the initial tangent modulus shown in Fig. 2.1(b). The
secant modulus can be calculated from the dynamic modulus.
BS8110: Part 1 gives an expression for the short-term modulus of elasticity in Fig. 2.1, the short-term design
stress-strain curve for concrete.
2.3.4 Creep
Creep in concrete is the gradual increase in strain with time in a member subjected to prolonged stress. The
creep strain is much larger than the elastic strain on loading. If the specimen is unloaded there is an immediate
elastic recovery and a slower recovery in the strain due to creep. Both amounts of recovery are much less than
the original strains under load.
The main factors affecting creep strain are the concrete mix and strength, the type of aggregate, curing,
ambient relative humidity and the magnitude and duration of sustained loading.
BS8110: Part 2 section 7.3, adopts the recommendations of the Comybvité Euro- International du Béton
which specifies that the creep strain εcc is calculated from the creep coefficient ϕ by the equation
Oop= ,.

Where Et is the modulus of elasticity of the concrete at the age of loading. The creep coefficient ϕ depends on
the effective section thickness, the age of loading and the relative ambient humidity. The creep coefficient is
used in deflection calculations.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage or drying shrinkage is the contraction that occurs in concrete when it dries and hardens. Drying
shrinkage is irreversible but alternate wetting and drying causes expansion and contraction of concrete.
The aggregate type and content are the most important factors influencing shrinkage. The larger the size of the
aggregate is, the lower is the shrinkage and the higher is the aggregate content; the lower the workability and
water-to-cement ratio are, the lower is the shrinkage. Aggregates that change volume on wetting and drying,
such as sandstone or basalt, give concrete with a large shrinkage strain, while non shrinking aggregates such
as granite or gravel give lower shrinkages. A decrease in the ambient relative humidity also increases
shrinkage.
The drying shrinkage strain for normal-weight concrete may be obtained from Fig. 7.2 in the code for various
values of effective section thickness and ambient relative humidity. Values of shrinkage strain are used in
deflection calculations.

COLUMN

In analysis it necessary to classify columns into the following types

ISOLATED PAD BASES
Isolated pad bases are square or rectangular slabs provided under individual columns.
They spread the concentrated column load safely to the ground and may be axially or
eccentrically loaded (Figs 11.1 and 11.2). Mass concrete can be used for lighter
foundations if the underside of the base lies inside a dispersal angle of 45°, as shown
in Fig. 11.1(a). Otherwise a reinforced concrete pad is required (Fig. 11.1(b)).
Fig. 11.1 (a) Mass concrete foundation; (b) reinforced concrete foundation.
Assumptions to be used in the design of pad footings are set out in clause 3.11.2 of the
code:
1. When the base is axially loaded the load may be assumed to be uniformly
distributed. The actual pressure distribution depends on the soil type. Refer to soil
mechanics textbooks;
2. When the base is eccentrically loaded, the reactions may be assumed to vary
linearly across the base.

Example
design a pad footing

BLD 405
WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES AND WALLS
Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth which would not be able to stand
vertically unsupported. The wall is subjected to overturning due to pressure of the
retained material.
The types of retaining wall are as follows:

1. In a gravity wall stability is provided by the weight of concrete in the wall;
2. In a cantilever wall the wall slab acts as a vertical cantilever. Stability is provided
by the weight of structure and earth on an inner base or the weight of the structure
only when the base is constructed externally;
3. In counterfort and buttress walls the slab is supported on three sides by the base
and counterforts or buttresses. Stability is provided by the weight of the structure
in the case of the buttress wall and by the weight of the structure and earth on the
base in the counterfort wall.
Examples of retaining walls are shown in Fig. 12.1. Designs are given for cantilever
and counterfort retaining walls.
Fig. 12.2

Fig. Gravity retaining wall

Fig. counter fort wall

Fig. cantilever wall

Earth pressure on retaining walls
(a) Active soil pressure
Active soil pressures are given for the two extreme cases of a cohesionless soil such as sand and a
cohesive soil such as clay (Fig. 12.2). General formulae are available for intermediate cases. The
formulae given apply to drained soils and reference should be made to textbooks on soil mechanics
for pressure where the water table rises behind the wall. The soil pressures given are those due to a
level backfill. If there is a surcharge of w kN/m2 on the soil behind the wall, this is equivalent to an
additional soil depth of z=w/γ where γ is the density in kilonewtons per cubic metre.
Cohesionless soil, c=0 (Fig. 12.2(a)) The pressure at any depth z is given by

where γ is the soil density and ϕ is the angle of internal friction. The force on the wall of height H1 is
(ii) Cohesive soil, ϕ=ϕ (Fig. 12.2(b)) The pressure at any depth z is given theoretically by
p=γz−2c
where c is the cohesion at zero normal pressure. This expression gives negative values
near the top of the wall. In practice, a value for the active earth pressure of not less
than is used
Fig. 12.2 (a) Cohesionless soil (c=0); (b) cohesive soil (ϕ=0).
Referring to Fig. 12.2 the vertical loads are made up of the weight of the wall and base and the
weight of backfill on the base. Front fill on the outer base has been neglected. Surcharge would need
to be included if present. If the centre of gravity of these loads is x from the toe of the wall, the
stabilizing moment is ΣWx with a beneficial partial safety factory γf=1.0. The overturning moment
due to the active earth pressure is 1.4P1H1/3 with an adverse partial safety factor γf=1.4. The
stabilizing moment from passive earth pressure has been neglected. For the wall to satisfy the
requirement of stability
ΣWx≥1.4P1H1/3
(c) Vertical pressure under the base

The vertical pressure under the base is calculated for service loads. For a cantilever wall a 1 m length
of wall with base width b is considered. Then
area A=b m2
modulus Z=b2/6 m3
If ΣM is the sum of the moments of all vertical forces ΣW about the centre of the base and of the
active pressure on the wall then
ΣM=ΣW(x−b/2)−P1H1/3
The passive pressure in front of the base has been neglected again. The maximum pressure is
This should not exceed the safe bearing pressure on the soil.
(d) Resistance to sliding (Fig. 12.2)

The resistance of the wall to sliding is as follows.
(i) Cohesionless soil The friction R between the base and the soil is μΣW where μ is the coefficient of
friction between the base and the soil (μ= tanϕ ). The passive earth pressure against the front of the
wall from a depth H2 of soil is
(ii) Cohesive soils The adhesion R between the base and the soil is βb where β is the
adhesion in kilonewtons per square metre. The passive earth pressure is
P2=0.5γH2 +2cH2
2
A nib can be added, as shown in Fig. 12.2, to increase the resistance to sliding through passive earth
pressure.

For the wall to be safe against sliding
1.4P1<P2+R
where P1 is the horizontal active earth pressure on the wall.

12.2 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER WALLS
12.2.1 Design procedure
The steps in the design of a cantilever retaining wall are as follows.
1. Assume a breadth for the base. This is usually about 0.75 of the wall height. The preliminary
thicknesses for the wall and base sections are chosen fromexperience. A nib is often required
to increase resistance to sliding.
2. Calculate the horizontal earth pressure on the wall. Then, considering all forces, check
stability against overturning and the vertical pressure under the base of the wall. Calculate the
resistance to sliding and check that this is satisfactory. A partial safety factor of 1.4 is applied
to the horizontal loads for the overturning and sliding check. The maximum vertical pressure
is calculated using service loads and should not exceed the safe bearing pressure.
3. Reinforced concrete design for the wall is made for ultimate loads. The partial safety factors
for the wall and earth pressure are each 1.4. Surcharge if present may be classed as either
dead or imposed load depending on its nature. Referring to Fig. 12.3 the design consists of
the following.

(a) For the wall, calculate shear forces and moments caused by the horizontal earth pressure. Design
the vertical moment steel for the inner face and check the shear stresses. Minimum secondary steel is
provided in the horizontal direction for the inner face and both vertically and horizontally for the
outer face.
(b) The net moment due to earth pressure on the top and bottom faces of the inner footing causes
tension in the top and reinforcement is designed for this position.
(c) The moment due to earth pressure causes tension in the bottom face of the outer footing.
The moment reinforcement is shown in Fig. 12.3.
Fig. 12.3
Example 12.1 Cantilever retaining wall
(a) Specification
Design a cantilever retaining wall to support a bank of earth 3.5 m high. The top surface is horizontal
behind the wall but it is subjected to a dead load surcharge of 15kN/m2. The soil behind the wall is a
well-drained sand with the following properties:
density γ=1800 kg/m3=17.6 kN/m3

angle of internal friction ϕ =30°
The material under the wall has a safe bearing pressure of 100 kN/m2. The coefficient of friction
between the base and the soil is 0.5. Design the wall using grade 30 concrete and grade 460
reinforcement.
(b) Wall stability

The proposed arrangement of the wall is shown in Fig. 12.4. The wall and base thickness are
assumed to be 200 mm. A nib has been added under the wall to assist in the prevention of sliding.
Consider 1 m length of wall. The surcharge is equivalent to an additional height of 15/17.6=0.85 m.
The total equivalent height of soil is
3.5+0.25+0.85=4.6 m
The horizontal pressure at depth y from the top of the surcharge is
17.6y(1−0.5)/(1+0.5)=5.87y kN/m2
The horizontal pressure at the base is
5.87×4.6=27 kN/m2
The weight of wall, base and earth and the moments for stability calculations are
given in Table 12.1.
(i) Maximum soil pressure The base properties are
area A=2.85 m2
modulus Z=2.852/6=1.35 m3
The maximum soil pressure at A calculated for service load is
The maximum soil pressure is satisfactory.

(ii) Stability against overturning The stabilizing moment about the toe A of the wall
for a partial safety factor γf=1.0 is
Page 376
Table 12.1 Stability calculations
Load Horizontal load (kN) Distance from C(m) Moment about C (kN m)
Active pressure 4.99×3.75=18.71 1.875 −35.08
0.5×22.01×3.75=41.27 1.25 −51.59
Total 59.98 −86.67
Vertical load (kN) Distance from B (m) Moment about B (kN m)
Wall+nib 4.35×0.25×24=26.1 −0.5 −13.05

Base 2.85×0.25×24=17.1 0 0
Backfill 1.8×3.5×17.6=110.88 0.525 58.21
Surcharge 1.8×15=27.0 0.525 14.18
Total 181.08 59.34
59.34+(181.08×1.425)=317.4 kN m
The overturning moment for a partial safety factor γf=1.4 is

1.4×86.67=121.34 kN m
The stability of the wall is adequate.

(iii) Resistance to sliding The forces resisting sliding are the friction under the base
and the passive resistance for a depth of earth of 850 mm to the top of the base:
For the wall to be safe against sliding

128.69>1.4×59.98=83.97 kN
The resistance to sliding is satisfactory.
(iv) Overall comment The wall section is satisfactory. The maximum soil pressure under the base
controls the design.
(c) Structural design

The structural design is made for ultimate loads. The partial safety factor for each pressure and
surcharge is γf=1.4.
(i) Wall reinforcement The pressure at the base of the wall is

1.4×5.89×4.35=35.7 kN/m2
The pressure at the top of the wall is
1.4×4.99=6.99 kN/m2
shear=(6.99×3.5)+(0.5×3.5×28.76)
= 24.47+50.33=74.8 kN
moment=(24.47×0.5×3.5)+(50.33×3.5/3)
=101.51 kN m

The cover is 40 mm; assume 20 mm diameter bars. Then
Provide 16 mm diameter bars at 140 mm centres to give a steel area of 1435 mm2/m.
Determine the depth y1 from the top where the 16 mm diameter bars can be reduced to a diameter of
12 mm.
As=807 mm2/m
100As/bd=100×807/(1000×200)=0.4
M/bd2=1.6 (Fig. 4.13)
M=1.5×1000×2002/106
=64 kN m
The depth y1 is given by the equation
64=6.99y12/2+1.4×5.87y13/6
or
y13+2.55y12−46.73=0
Solve to give y1=2.92 m.
Referring to the anchorage requirements in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.9.1, bars are to extend an
anchorage length beyond the theoretical change point. The anchorage length from Table 3.29 of the
code for grade 30 concrete is (section 5.2.1)
37×16=595 mm
Stop bars off at 2920−592=2328 mm, say 2000 mm from the top of the wall.
The shear stress at the base of the wall is
The design shear stress is
The shear stress is satisfactory.

The deflection need not be checked. For control of cracking the bar spacing must not exceed 3 times
the effective depth, i.e. 600 or 750 mm. The spacing at the bars in the wall is 140 mm. This is less
than the 160 mm clear spacing given in Table 3.30 of the code for crack control.
For distribution steel provide the minimum area of 0.13% from Table 3.27 of the code:
A=0.13×1000×250/100=325 mm2/m
Provide 10 mm diameter bars at 240 mm centres horizontally on the inner face.
For crack control on the outer face provide 10 mm diameter bars at 240 mm centres each way.
(ii) Inner footing Referring to Fig. 12.4 the shear and moment at the face of the wall
are as follows:

Provide 12 mm diameter bars at 120 mm centres to give 942 mm2/m.
This is satisfactory. For the distribution steel, provide 10 mm bars at 240 mm centres.
(iii) Outer Footing Referring to Fig. 12.4 the shear and moment at the face of the wall are as follows:
shear=1.4(72.41×0.8+11.36×0.8/2−17.1×0.8/2.85)
=1.4(57.93+4.54−4.8)
=80.74 kN
moment=1.4[(57.93−4.8)0.4+4.54×2×0.8/3]
=33.13 kN m
Note that the sum of the moments at the bottom of the wall and at the face of the wall
for the inner and outer footing is approximately zero.

BLD 405
The yield line theory and slab design
The yield line theory is one of the most important developments in the analysis and design of slab
system. The yield line theory is considered the ultimate load theory for the design of reinforced
concrete slab. In the yield line method the computation of ultimate load is based on the pattern of the
yield lines that are developed in the slabs under conditions approaching collapse. This method of slab
design (yield line) was an innovation of Ingerslav which was further developed and improved by
Johansson on which the common limit state or collapse method is based on.
When a slab is loaded with increasing loads, the stresses in the reinforcement and the concrete
increase more or less proportionately up to load level corresponding to the yield stress in the
reinforcement. If the load is increased further excessive deformations and rapid increase in strain will
result. These deformations will be elastoplastic up to a load level called the limit load. When the
limit load is reached the slab will continue to deform without any additional increase in load leading
to the total collapse. At this stage a pattern of crack will form a set of lines known as the yield lines
resulting into a mechanism leading to the total collapse of the slab.
A yield line is define as a line in the plane of a slab across which reinforcing bars have yielded and
about which excessive deformation (plastic rotation) under constant limit moment (ultimate moment)
continues to occur leading to failure.
THE YIELD LINE PATTERN

One way slab the behaviour of one way slab regarding its ultimate moment capacity is the same as
that of beam of unit width. Consider a one way slab of unit width, simply supported at the end and
loaded with uniformly distributed load as shown in the fig. below the maximum positive B.M will be
at the mid span of the slab its value being equal to +wl2/8. While for a fixed end one way slab of unit
width the maximum negative B.M will be –wl2/8 at the ends and maximum mid span positive B.M
will be +wl2/24

Both slabs at service load will not exhibit cracks, but as the load is being increased the cracks will
develop at the top of the slab in the negative moment region and at the bottom in the positive
moment regions. as the load is further being increased the negative and the positive steel will start
yielding. At the yield s. as the load is further being increased the negative and the positive steel will
start yielding. At the yield

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BLD 301

STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND

Structural Design and Detailing I

1.1 Explain the object of Limit State Design.

2.1 Explain the steps in good design practice as follows:

3.1 Explain ultimate limit State as a probabilistic

4.1 Explain short-term design stress-strain Curve for concrete in compression.

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 1

5.1 Explain the behaviours of a reinforced concrete beam section.

General Objective: 1.0. Know Codes of Practice used in Structural Design

1.1 Draw various structural elements.

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 2

walls using the results from 3

5. Production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar schedules

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 3

i. Fitness for purpose

AIMS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The loading on structures conforms to BS6399:1984: Design Loading for Building

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 5

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 6

External forces may also be classified as distributed and concentrated.

There are basically three methods of structural design which are

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 9

LIMIT STATE DESIGN METHOD.

Ultimate limit state

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 10

Serviceability limit states

CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN LOADS

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 11

i. the importance of the limit state considered

BLD 305 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING (CLASS NOTE.)Page 12

2. Steel 1.15 1.0 1.0

The factor of safety for materials γm takes account of

Load combinations ultimate limit state serviceability limit state

1. Dead and imposed loads

ɤf for dead load 1.4 or 1.0 1.0

ɤf for live load 1.6 1.0

2. Dead load and wind load

ɤf for dead load Gk 0.9 or 1.4 1.0

ɤf for wind load Wk 1.4 1.0

3. Dead imposed and wind load

ɤf for dead load Gk 1.2 1.0

ɤf for imposed load Qk 1.2 0.8

ɤf for wind load Wk 1.2 0.8

Solution load combination = dead and live load

Design load n = (gk x1.4) + (qk x 1.6)

Design stress = compressive strength = 30 =20N/mm2

Cross sectional area = design load 66 x 103 = 3300mm2

wind load wk = 7kN imposed load Qk = 75kN

Solution: axial load

First loading combination

Dead and live loads

Nmax = 1.4gk + 1.6qk = (1.4 x50 + 1.6 x 75) = 190kN

Nmin = 1.0 gk = 1.0 x 50 = 50kN

Second load combination

Dead and wind loads

Nmax = 1.4gk = 1.4 x 50 = 70kN

Nmin = 0.9gk = 0.9 x 50 = 45kN

Shear force V = 1.4(7 x 3) = 1.4 x 21 = 29.40kN

Bending moment M = 1.4(7 x 3 x3/2) = 44.1kNm

Third load combination

Dead live and wind loads

Nmax = 1.2(gk + qk) = 1.2(50 +75) =150kN

Nmin = 1.2gk = 1.2 x 50 = 60kN