21


Respiration

21.1 Significance of respiration

1 Respiration is the process by which organisms release chemical energy from food through the
controlled oxidative breakdown of food. Some of the energy released is used to form ATP.
2 Overall equation for respiration:

3 The major differences between burning and respiration:

Burning Respiration

Site of occurrence Outside cells Inside living cells

Release of energy Uncontrolled release in one go, Controlled release in a stepwise

i.e. there is only a single reaction manner, i.e. involving many
reactions

Catalysed by No Yes, each reaction is catalyzed by

enzymes? a specific enzyme

Formation of All energy (stored in glucose) is 55% of energy is lost as heat;

ATP lost as heat 45% is stored in form of ATP

4 ATP acts as an energy carrier. When it is broken down into ADP and a phosphate, a small
amount of energy is released and is readily usable by the cell for metabolic activities.
5 Features of ATP as an energy carrier:
- ATP acts as an energy carrier in the cell in which it is made. It cannot be transferred from
cell to cell.
- The energy released from the oxidative breakdown of one glucose molecule can be used to
form many ATP molecules in the cell.
6 Respiration and photosynthesis allows a cycling of molecules (carbon dioxide, water, oxygen
and glucose) and a flow of energy in ecosystems.

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2020

(Third Edition) -1-
21.2 Site of respiration

1 The first stage of respiration occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell. The cytoplasm contains various
enzymes that catalyse the reaction. The remaining steps occur in the mitochondria (線粒體).
2 The structure of a mitochondrion:

3 Structures of the mitochondrion adapted for respiration:

Structure Adaptive feature for respiration

Double - Inner membrane is highly folded to form cristae (嵴)

membrane - Cristae are packed with enzymes involved in the reactions of respiration;
greatly increase the surface area for packing more enzymes

Mitochondrial - Fills the space enclosed by the inner membrane

matrix - Contains enzymes involved in the reactions of respiration
(線粒體基質) - Provides a fluid medium for reactions to take place

4 Mitochondria are particularly abundant in active cells, such as liver cells, muscle cells and
epithelial cells of intestinal villi.

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2020

(Third Edition) -2-
21.3 Aerobic respiration

1 Respiration that requires oxygen is called aerobic respiration (需氧呼吸). It occurs in three
main stages: glycolysis (糖酵解), the Krebs cycle (克雷伯氏循環) and oxidative phosphorylation
(氧化磷酸化).

a Glycolysis
- Catalysed by enzymes in the cytoplasm
- Does not require oxygen
- Involves two main stages:

 Breakdown of glucose to triose phosphate

Glucose is split into two molecules of triose phosphate (丙糖磷酸) using energy from
two molecules of ATP.
 Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate
Triose phosphate is oxidized to pyruvate (丙酮酸鹽). Two molecules of NADH and
four molecules of ATP are formed.
b Bridging between glycolysis and Krebs cycle
- Catalysed by enzymes in the mitochondrial matrix:

- Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA (乙酰輔酶 A)

- Carbon dioxide and NADH are formed

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2020

(Third Edition) -3-
 c Krebs Cycle
- Catalysed by specific enzymes in the mitochondrial matrix
- Involves two main stages:

 Combination of acetyl-CoA with 4-C compound

Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-C compound to form a 6-C compound.
 Regeneration of 4-C compound
The 6-C compound is oxidized step by step to regenerate the 4-C compound. Two
molecules of carbon dioxide, three molecules of NADH, one molecule of FADH and
one molecule of ATP are formed.
d Oxidative phosphorylation
- Occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion:
 NADH

NAD
+ ATP
2 e− electron
H+
release ATP through
electron transport chain a series of redox
reactions


2 e− 1
2 H + O
 2 2

H2O
 NADH and FADH from glycolysis and Krebs cycle are oxidized and lose hydrogen.
Hydrogen atoms split into hydrogen ions and electrons. NAD and FAD are regenerated.
 The electrons take part in a series of redox reactions to form ATP.
 Hydrogen ions and electrons are finally accepted by oxygen, the final electron
acceptor, to form water.
New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2020
(Third Edition) -4-
2 Similarities and differences between aerobic respiration and photosynthesis:
Aerobic respiration
Site of - All living cells (cytoplasm and
occurrence mitochondria)
Type of - Catabolism; breaks down organic
metabolism food by oxidation to release energy
Energy - Chemical energy in organic food is
transformation converted to ATP and heat
- Both involve an activation step
and products formed
Activation process
- Activation of glucose by
phosphorylation using ATP
- The activated glucose is broken down
in a controlled manner in glycolysis
for forming ATP and NADH
Reactions involved in energy transformation
Krebs cycle
- Carbon dioxide is removed from
Cyclic process and
products formed
pyruvate
- NADH, FADH and ATP are formed
- The original 4-C compound is
regenerated
- Both involve electron transport
- Energy released in the transport of electrons is used to form ATP
Electron transport and
formation of ATP
- Electrons in NADH and FADH are
finally accepted by oxygen
- ATP is formed by oxidative
phosphorylation
- ATP is also formed in glycolysis and
Krebs cycle by phosphorylation
New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology
(Third Edition) -5-
Photosynthesis
- Chloroplast-containing cells
- Anabolism; builds up organic food
by reduction to store energy
- Light energy is converted to
chemical energy in organic food
- Activation of chlorophyll by light
absorption
- Electrons are excited to a high
energy level
Calvin cycle
- Carbon dioxide is fixed into the
cycle by a 5-C compound
- NADPH and ATP are used to form
triose phosphate, which
subsequently forms glucose
- ATP is also used to regenerate the
5-C compound
- Electrons from chlorophyll are
finally accepted by NADP to form
NADPH
- ATP is formed by
photophosphorylation
 Oxford University Press 2020
3 To study the rate of respiration in organisms, we often measure the rate of carbon dioxide
production or the rate of oxygen consumption by organisms.

21.4 Anaerobic respiration

1 Respiration that does not require oxygen is called anaerobic respiration (缺氧呼吸). The
reactions occur in the cytoplasm only.

Alcoholic fermentation
2 When oxygen supply is insufficient, yeast respires anaerobically and carries out alcoholic
fermentation (酒精發酵):

 Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidized to pyruvate. NADH and ATP are formed.
 Pyruvate is reduced to ethanol (乙醇) by NADH. Carbon dioxide is released.
3 Alcoholic fermentation of one glucose molecule produces only two molecules of ATP through
glycolysis, i.e. much less energy when compared with aerobic respiration (38 ATP).

Lactic acid fermentation

4 When there is an insufficient supply of oxygen, skeletal muscle cells carry out lactic acid
fermentation (乳酸發酵) to release a small amount of energy:

 Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidized to pyruvate. NADH and ATP are formed.
 Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid by NADH.

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2020

(Third Edition) -6-
5 Anaerobic respiration is important during strenuous exercise. During strenuous exercise, there
is an insufficient supply of oxygen for complete oxidation of glucose in skeletal muscles.
Muscle cells carry out lactic acid fermentation to provide additional energy in a very short
time for more powerful muscle contraction at a higher rate.
6 An oxygen debt (氧債) is the extra amount of oxygen breathed in after exercise for removing
all the lactic acid produced by anaerobic respiration in muscles:

7 Industrial applications of alcoholic fermentation in yeast:

- For producing ethanol in beer brewing and wine brewing
- For producing carbon dioxide to raise the dough (麪糰) in bread-making
- For producing ethanol as a biofuel (生物燃料)
8 Industrial applications of lactic acid fermentation in bacteria:
- For making yoghurt and cheese
- For pickling vegetables

21.5 Comparison of aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Similarities - Release energy from the oxidative breakdown of organic substances

- Transfer energy to the energy carrier ATP, and some energy is lost as heat
- Consist of a number of reactions controlled by enzymes

Differences - Occurs in cytoplasm and - Occurs only in cytoplasm

mitochondria
- Oxygen is required
- Organic substances are completely
broken down into carbon dioxide
and water
- A larger amount of energy is released
(38 ATP per glucose)
- Oxygen is not required
- Organic substances are partially
broken down to form lactic acid or
ethanol and carbon dioxide
- A much smaller amount of energy is
released (2 ATP per glucose)

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2020

(Third Edition) -7-