8 Transport in humans

8.1 Need for transport system

1 In very small organisms (e.g. Amoeba), substances are transported throughout the body by
diffusion or streaming of the cytoplasm.
2 In large multicellular organisms, the cells in different parts of the body are far away from each
other. A transport system is needed to ensure the supply of useful substances to target cells
and the removal of waste from them.
3 In humans, the transport system includes the circulatory system (循環系統) and the lymphatic
system (淋巴系統).

8.2 Human circulatory system

1 The human circulatory system consists of three main parts: blood, blood vessels (血管) and the
heart.
2 The components of blood and their main functions:

Component Function

Plasma (血漿) - Carries water and dissolved substances such as carbon

(55% by volume) dioxide, nutrients, urea, hormones, antibodies and
fibrinogen (纖維蛋白原) throughout the body
- Distributes heat throughout the body

Blood cells Red blood cells - Contain haemoglobin which carries oxygen from the
(45% by (紅血細胞) lungs to all parts of the body
volume)
White blood cells - Protect our body against diseases by killing germs
(白血細胞)

Blood platelets - Involved in blood clotting which prevents further blood

(血小板) loss and the entry of germs into our body through the cut
wounds

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3 Features of the blood cells:

Red blood cell White blood cell Blood platelet

Two major types: Very small pieces of cell

phagocyte
fragments
whole
lobed
nucleus

section large round

nucleus
lymphocyte

Shape Biconcave disc shape Irregular shape Irregular shape

Size Quite small Phagocytes (吞噬細胞) are Very small

quite large and
lymphocytes (淋巴細胞)
are small

Number About 5.4 millions About 7000 About 250 000

(per mm3 of
blood)

Colour Red due to the pigment Colourless Colourless

haemoglobin

Nucleus No nucleus when Large round or lobed No nucleus

mature

Site of In bone marrow (骨髓) of In bone marrow and In bone marrow

production some bones spleen (脾) (mature in
lymph nodes (淋巴結))

Life span About 120 days For most, 7–10 days

less than 3 days

Site or In the liver and spleen Some are killed by germs In the liver and spleen
method of (haemoglobin is broken or passed out of the body
destruction down into iron and bile in faeces
pigment)

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4 There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries.
5 The relationship between different types of blood vessels:

capillaries
arterioles ( 微血管 ) venules
arteries ( 小動脈 ) ( 小靜 veins
( 動脈 ) 脈) (靜
脈)

aorta vena cava

( 大動 ( 腔靜脈 )
脈)

direction of
blood flow

fibrous tissue fibrous tissue

valves
muscles and muscles and (瓣膜)
elastic tissues elastic tissues
endothelium endothelium endothelium

artery capillary vein

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6 Differences between arteries and veins:

fibrous tissue

muscles and
elastic tissues

endothelium

lumen

artery vein

Artery Vein

Direction of Away from the heart Towards the heart

blood flow

Location Deep inside the body Closer to the body surface

Elastic tissue Thicker; allows distend and recoil to Thinner

maintain a continuous blood flow

Muscle Thicker; regulates the amount of Thinner

blood flow to different parts of the
body

Lumen Smaller Larger; reduces the resistance to

the blood flow inside

Presence of Not present (except at the base of the Valves are present to prevent
valves pulmonary artery and the aorta) backflow of blood

Nature of Oxygenated blood (except in the Deoxygenated blood (except in the

blood pulmonary artery and the umbilical pulmonary vein and the umbilical
artery (臍動脈)) vein (臍靜脈))

Force for blood Provided by the pumping action of Provided by the contraction of
flow the heart skeletal muscles that squeezes the
veins

Blood pressure Higher; due to the pumping action Lower; the pressure drops after blood
of the heart passes through capillaries

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7 Functions of different types of blood vessels and their adaptation to their functions:
Blood
Function
vessel
Artery Carries oxygenated blood
away from the heart (except in
the pulmonary artery and the
umbilical artery)
Vein Carries deoxygenated blood
to the heart (except in the
pulmonary vein and the
umbilical vein)
Capillary Allows the exchange of
materials between blood and
body cells
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Adaptation
- The thick wall helps withstand the high blood
pressure.
- The thick layer of elastic tissue allows the
arteries to distend and recoil to maintain a
continuous blood flow.
- In the arterioles, the layer of muscles contracts
or relaxes to change the size of the lumen and
help regulate the amount of blood flow.
- The large lumen reduces the resistance to the
blood flow.
- Valves are present to prevent the backflow of
blood.
- The force for blood flow in veins is mainly
provided by the contraction of the skeletal
muscles lying next to the veins.
- Forms a network to provide a large surface area
for rapid exchange of materials between the
blood and body cells.
- The total cross-sectional area of capillaries is
very large. Blood flows slowly in the capillaries.
This allows a longer time for the exchange of
materials.
- The one-cell thick wall provides a short distance
for rapid diffusion of materials.
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8 Changes in total cross-sectional area, blood pressure and rate of blood flow along different
blood vessels:
Blood pressure
 In arteries and Blood pressure is high due to the
arterioles pumping action of the heart. Blood
pressure changes periodically as the
heart contracts and relaxes.
 In capillaries The small diameter of the capillaries
results in a high resistance to blood
flow. This leads to a drop in blood
pressure.
 In veins and The blood has overcome great
venules resistance of the blood vessel walls
after travelling a long distance away
from the heart. The blood pressure
drops to nearly zero.
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Rate of blood flow
Rate of blood flow in the arteries is
high under the pumping force of the
heart. When the arteries branch into
arterioles, the total cross-sectional
area of the arterioles increases, so the
flow rate drops.
The total cross-sectional area is the
greatest. Rate of blood flow drops to
nearly zero. This provides more time
for the exchange of materials between
blood and body cells.
The force from the pumping heart can
no longer drive blood forwards. Rate of
blood flow increases due to
contraction of skeletal muscles lying
next to the veins.
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9 The heart is mainly made up of cardiac muscles (心肌) which contract and relax continuously
without fatigue throughout life.
10 Structures of the human heart and the blood vessels connected to it:

11 Direction of blood flow through atria and ventricles:

Right atrium Right ventricle Left atrium Left ventricle

Blood Receives Pumps Receives Pumps oxygenated

flow deoxygenated blood deoxygenated blood oxygenated blood blood to the rest of
direction from the anterior to the lungs via the from the pulmonary the body (except the
vena cava and the pulmonary arteries veins lungs) via the aorta
posterior vena cava

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12 Comparison of thickness of muscular wall between the right ventricle and the left ventricle:

Right ventricle Left ventricle

Thickness of muscular wall Thinner Thicker

Significance To pump blood for only a short To provide greater force to

distance to the lungs pump blood to all parts of the
body (except the lungs)

13 Adaptive features of the heart for pumping blood:

Structure Adaptation

Cardiac muscles Can contract and relax continuously without fatigue

Ventricles Have a thick muscular wall that provides a strong force of contraction to
drive blood over a long distance to all parts of the body

Bicuspid valve, Prevent backflow of blood in heart to ensure blood flows in one direction.
tricuspid valve and
semilunar valves

Heart tendons Prevent the bicuspid and tricuspid valves from turning inside out

8.3 Blood circulation

1 Blood passes through the heart twice when it flows throughout our body in one complete loop.
This is known as double circulation (雙循環).
2 In the pulmonary circulation (肺循環):

3 In the systemic circulation (體循環):

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4 At the capillaries, small molecules (e.g. oxygen and nutrients) are forced out of the capillary
wall into the tissue fluid (組織液) and then diffuse into the body cells.
5 Waste products from body cells (e.g. carbon dioxide) diffuse into the tissue fluid and then
diffuse across the capillary wall into the blood.
6 The composition of tissue fluid is similar to blood, except for the absence of red blood cells,
blood platelets and plasma proteins.
7 Formation of tissue fluid in the capillary bed:

8 Importance of tissue fluid:

- Provides a relatively constant environment for the normal functions of the body cells.
- Serves as an important link for the exchange of materials between the blood in the capillaries
and body cells.

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8.4 Human lymphatic system
1 The lymphatic system consists of lymph (淋巴), lymph vessels (淋巴管), lymph nodes and other
organs such as the spleen (脾), the thymus (胸腺) and the tonsils (扁桃體).
2 Lymph has the same composition as tissue fluid.
3 Lymph moves inside lymph vessels very slowly by the contraction of skeletal muscles lying
next to the lymph vessels.
4 Valves are present in the lymph vessels to prevent backflow of lymph.
5 Functions of the lymphatic system:
- To collect and return excess tissue fluid to the blood circulation.
- To protect our body against disease by filtering out germs from the lymph at the lymph
nodes.
- To transport lipids from the lacteals in intestinal villi to the blood.

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