THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

Respiration
Respiration can be defined as a
biochemical process in which the digested
foods are oxidized to release energy. It
takes place in the tissues of our body. It is
catabolic process in which energy is
released.

Respiration involves:
a) Exchange of respiratory gases (O2 and
CO2).
b)Oxidation of food to release energy.
Energy is stored in the cells temporarily in the form of ATP which breaks
down into ADP when the cell needs it. It occurs in mitochondria.
ATP ADP + ip + Energy

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION: It is the process of absorption of

oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide from the body through lungs.

INTERNAL RESPIRATION: It is the process of utilization of O2 to

produce energy and CO2 by oxidation of food materials inside the cell.
The energy produced is stored in the form of ATP. The energy can be
released by hydrolysis of ATP. As there is breakdown of substrates to
produce energy and carbon dioxide, respiration is catabolic process.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION:
It is a kind of respiration in which oxygen is necessary to oxidize food. In such
respiration, from one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are released. It occurs in
all higher organisms.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2+6H2O+ENERGY
The whole of respiratory system can be studied under following two sub headings:
1. Respiratory Organs:
 Nose and nasal cavity.
 Larynx
 Trachea and bronchi
 Lungs
2. Mechanism of respiration:
 Pulmonary ventilation
 Gaseous exchange
 Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
 Internal respiration
Now here is a detail study about
respiratory system of humans.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS

1. Nose and nasal cavity:

i. External nares: External nares are the opening of nasal cavity. They are
present just above the mouth. Two nares are separated from each
other by inter nasal septum. The nasal septum is made up of septal
cartilage in anterior part and posterior part is made up of bony part
(vomer and ethmoid bones). External nares open to the outside.
ii. Nasal chamber :External
nostrils lead into nasal
chamber. The nasal cavity
is lined with nasal
mucosa containing
ciliated epithelium. The
vestibule of nose is lined
with skin from which vibrissae (nasal hairs) grow which helps to filter
the air coming from the environment.

iii. Internal nares: In posterior part, the nasal chambers open into internal
nares which open into nasopharynx. The opening of paranasal sinuses
and nasolacrimal ducts lie in the nasal cavity.

Functions of nasal cavities:

a) The superior one-third of the nasal mucosa is olfactory area which
contains olfactory cells which are involved in perception of smell.
b) The lower two-third of nasal mucosa is respiratory area. This warms and
moistens the air before it enters the rest of the upper respiratory tract.
c) The vibrissae check the entry of dust particles into the lungs.
d) The ciliated epithelium prevents infection by sweeping out
microorganisms.
 2. Pharynx: the pharynx may be
divided into three parts:
nasopharynx, oropharynx
and laryngopharynx. The
laryngopharynx opens into
trachea by glottis that lies on
the floor of pharynx behind
the tongue. It is vertical slit like aperture provided with a
cartilaginous flap of skin called epiglottis. It covers glottis during
swallowing of food which prevents entry of food into trachea.

3. Larynx: the larynx is situated in the anterior neck at the level of

third to sixth cervical vertebrae. The
size of larynx is similar in boys and
girls before puberty but at puberty
the size grows in male generally with
deeper voice and called “Adam’s
apple”. The larynx connects
laryngopharynx with trachea. The
larynx is formed by nine cartilages:
3 single Thyroid(C-shaped), Cricoids
(ring-shaped) and epiglottis, 3 Paired
arytenoids, corniculate and
cuneiform.
The laryngeal cavity is furnished with a pair of vocal cords (true vocal
cords) a pair of vestibular folds (false vocal cords). The true vocal cords are
responsible for production of sound and the vestibular folds are
responsible for protection of vocal folds. The
sound produced has mainly three properties
namely pitch which depends on length and
tightness of vocal cords, loudness which
depends upon force of vibration of vocal
cord and its quality depends upon shape of
mouth, position of lips and tongue and Para
nasal sinuses.

3 Trachea: The trachea also called windpipe is a hollow flexible tube

extending from larynx to the thoracic
cavity, runs in the neck in front of the
esophagus. Anterior and lateral walls of
the trachea are supported by 15 to 20
C-shaped tracheal cartilages: Cartilage
rings reinforce and provide rigidity to
the tracheal wall to ensure that the
trachea remains open at all times.
Internally the trachea is lined with
pseudo stratified ciliated epithelium.

4 Bronchi: After entering the thoracic cavity the trachea divides into
left and right main (primary) bronchi at the tracheal bifurcation.
Each primary bronchus enters the corresponding lungs at the hilus
(medial depression) and divides several times to form smaller
branches called bronchioles. Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left one. The bronchiole wall is supported by
 incomplete cartilaginous rings. The bronchi are internally lined
with pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium.

F) Lungs: lungs is the most important and central organ of respiratory

system. It occupies most of the space of thoracic cavity. There is a pair of
lungs situated at either side of heart. They are soft, pink, spongy and light
colored. Apex of the lungs is present near the clavicle and the base of lungs
rests on the diaphragm. They are surrounded by double layered epithelium
called pleura. The space between the two layers is called pleural cavity and
is filled with pleural fluid.

The right lungs has three lobes

(superior, middle and inferior)
divided by oblique and
horizontal fissure and the left
lungs has two (superior and
inferior) lobes divided by
oblique fissure. The lung
contains the bronchial tree
starting from the main bronchus to the alveoli.

Gaseous exchange takes place in alveoli. The alveoli are rich with blood
capillaries. The wall of alveoli is lined with type I pneumocytes which helps
in gaseous exchange and type II pneumocytes which reduces surface
tension so that lungs don’t collapse. The gaseous exchange takes place by
simple diffusion.
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION:
In mammals the entire process of respiration involves following steps:

A) Pulmonary ventilation:
The process of intake of atmospheric air(oxygen) into the lungs and
elimination of air (carbon dioxide) from the lungs is known as
pulmonary ventilation. It is the technical word used for breathing. It can
be studied under two phases:
a) Inspiration: when atmospheric pressure is greater than pressure
within lungs, air flows into the lungs called inspiration. Diaphragm
is the major muscle of inspiration. Contraction of diaphragm
increases the vertical dimension of chest. The external intercostals
muscles also contract raising the ribs and moving the sternum
upwards (anteriorly). This increases the anterio-posterior
dimension of the chest. Therefore the volume of thoracic cavity as
well as lungs is increased which decreases pressure inside alveoli
and filling the lungs with atmospheric air.
b) Expiration: When pressure inside the lungs is more than
atmospheric pressure, air moves out called expiration. It is a
passive process which occurs due to relaxation of diaphragm and
intercostals muscles. The intercostals muscles contract which pulls
the ribs down and inward and diaphragm is moved up decreasing
the vertical dimension of chest. As a result, the volume of thoracic
cavity decreases exerting huge pressure in lungs thus increasing
pressure inside alveoli which results in expulsion of air from lungs.
c) Transport of O2 by blood- RBC of blood contains hemoglobin
as respiratory pigment. Human blood contains nearly 150
gram of Hb per 100 ml. hemoglobin readily combines with
and dissociates to form free Oxygen.
Hb + O2 == HbO2

Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable compound and thus can

dissociate quickly. The quantity of O 2 combining with Hb
depends upon pressure of Oxygen. The graph in which
percentage of saturation of blood is plotted against PO 2 is
called Oxygen dissociation curve. It is S shaped. It indicates
that blood has high affinity for O2. In man, arterial blood has
PO2 of about 95 mm Hg and Hb is about 95 % saturated. In
venous blood, PO2 is about 40 mm Hg and about 70 %
haemoglobin is saturated with O2. The Oxygen and CO2
transport is closely associated. Increase in conc. of CO2
decreases the amount of O2 that can be carried in the blood
at a given partial pressure of O 2. This is known as Bohr’s
effect. The graph shows that the increase in the PCO 2 lowers
the curve.

Gaseous exchange: The exchange of oxygen and carbon

dioxide occurs between alveolar air and alveolar blood
capillary by the process of simple diffusion. This occurs along
the concentration gradient i.e. from higher partial pressure
to lower partial pressure. The partial pressure of oxygen is
about 100mmHg in alveoli and about 40 mmHg in alveolar
capillary blood. So oxygen diffuses from alveoli to capillary
blood. Similarly the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is
about 40 mmHg in alveoli and about 47 mmHg in alveolar
capillary blood. Thus, carbon dioxide diffuses from capillary
blood to alveoli.
B) Transport of O 2 and CO 2: Oxygen is transported from lungs to tissues
and carbon dioxide is transported from tissues to lungs.
a) Transport of O2: Blood transports oxygen in two ways:
i) In solution form: About 1-3% of oxygen is transported in
dissolved form in the plasma.
ii) As oxyhaemoglobin: oxygen is transported mainly as oxygen
attached to hemoglobin (Hb). One gram of Hb can carry up to
1.34 ml of oxygen. 100 ml of blood contains about 20 ml of
oxygen.
Hb + 4O2 Hb (4O2)
b) Transport of CO2: Carbon dioxide is transported in the form of
bicarbonates (90%), as carboamino compounds (5fg %) and as
dissolved in plasma (5%).
i) As bicarbonates: In the tissue capillary red blood cells, CO2
produced by tissue metabolism combines with H2O to give
carbonic acid (H2CO3) presence of carbonic anhydrase.H 2CO3
is dissociated into H+ and HCO3–.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–
Bicarbonate thus produced moves into the plasma. To maintain
electrical neutrality Cl- moves into the RBCs. This movement of
chloride ion into the RBCs to maintain electrical neutrality is known
as Chloride shift/Hamburger effect.

Gas exchange in humans occurs as Oxygen

and carbon dioxide diffuse between a
capillary and an alveolus.
Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are
transported around the body in the blood through arteries,
veins and capillaries. They bind to hemoglobin in red blood
cells, although oxygen does so more effectively. Carbon dioxide
also dissolves in the plasma or combines with water to
form bicarbonate ions (HCO−)

3).This reaction is catalyzed by the carbonic

anhydrase enzyme in red blood cells.
The main respiratory surface in humans is the alveoli, which
are small air sacs branching off from the bronchioles in
the lungs. They are one cell thick and provide a moist and
extremely large surface area for gas exchange to occur.
Capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary
artery run across the alveoli. They are also extremely thin, so
the total distance gases must diffuse across is only around 2
cells thick. An adult male has about 300 million alveoli, each
ranging in diameter from 75 to 300 µm.
Inhaled oxygen is able to diffuse into the capillaries from the
alveoli, while CO
2 from the blood diffuses in the opposite direction into the
alveoli. The waste CO
2 can then be exhaled out of the body. Continuous blood flow
in the capillaries and constant breathing maintain a steep
concentration gradient.

Haldane effect:
Hydrogen ion produced in RBCs is buffered by Hb inside RBCs and
thus Hb acts as a buffering agent. Deoxygenated Hb acts as better
buffering agent than oxygenated Hb. In the tissues capillary RBCs
where Hb is deoxygenated, Hb combines with hydrogen ion. This
 facilitates conversion of H2CO3 TO H+ and HCO3– in the RBCs. This
process of formation of
HCO3– in the RBCs is known
as Haldane effect.

ii) As carbamino
compounds: CO2 reacts
with amino groups(NH2)
of proteins (Hb) to
produce carbamino
compounds.
CO2 + NH2-R R-NH-COOH

iii) Dissolved CO2: CO 2 is more soluble in blood than oxygen and

about 5% of CO 2 is transported in dissolved form.

C) Internal respiration:
Internal respiration takes place inside the cells in various tissues. The
oxyhaemoglobin dissociated in the tissue capillaries to produce free O 2
which diffuses into the tissue. O 2 is utilized to breakdown food materials
to produce energy.
HbO8 Hb4 + 4O2

C6H12O6 + 6CO2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY

This process is known as Internal respiration.
Lung volumes and capacity:
The amount of air inspired or expired during respiration can be
measured with a device called spirometer. Various terms related to lung
volumes are as follows:
• TIDAL VOLUME (TV): Volume inspired or expired in each normal
respiration. = 500 ml
• INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV): The Maximum volume that
can be inspired over the inspiration of a tidal volume/normal
breath. It is used during exercise/exertion.=3100 ml
• EXPIRATRY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV): The maximal volume that
can be expired after the expiration of a tidal volume/normal
breath. = 1200 ml
• RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV): Volume that remains in the lungs after a
maximal expiration. It can’t be measured by spirometer.= 1200 ml
• INSPIRATORY CAPACITY ( IC): Volume of maximal inspiration:
IRV + TV = 3600 ml
• FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY (FRC): Volume of gas remaining
in lung after normal expiration, cannot be measured by spirometer
because it includes residual volume:
ERV + RV = 2400 ml
• VITAL CAPACITY (VC): Volume of maximal inspiration and
expiration:
IRV + TV + ERV = IC + ERV = 4800 ml
TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC): The volume of the lung after
maximal inspiration. The sum of all four lung volumes, cannot be
measured by spirometry because it includes residual volume:IRV+
TV + ERV + RV = IC + FRC = 6000 ml
 The graphical representation of lung volumes and capacities is as
shown in figure:

Dead space: The regions of the respiratory tracts that contain air but do
not exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with blood are known as dead
spaces. They are of following types:
a) Anatomic dead space: conducting airway up to terminal bronchioles.
b) Alveolar dead space: Alveoli containing air but lacking blood in
surrounding capillaries.
c) Physiological dead space: the total dead space(anatomic and
alveolar).

Oxygen dissociation curve:

The curve obtained by plotting percentage saturation of hemoglobin
against partial pressure of oxygen is known as oxygen dissociation
curve.
Bohr’s effect: Increased CO2
shifts the oxygen haemoglobin
dissociation curve to the right
because increase in PCO2
decreases the PH which in turn
decreases the affinity of Hb to
oxygen. The shifting of curve to
the right in presence of high PCO 2
is known as Bohr effect. This is useful for transport of oxygen to the
tissues. In the tissues where PCO 2 is high Hb has less affinity to
oxygen. So, oxygen dissosiates from Hb and enters the tissues. In
lungs the lung capillaries has low PCO 2and Hb has more affinity to
oxygen. So oxygen binds to Hb in lung capillaries RBCs.

Artificial respiration: In acute asphyxia(decreased blood PO 2 )

respiration can be assisted by artificial means like mouth-to-mouth
breathing, bag and mask ventilation, mechanical ventilation etc.