Prof. Dr. Mohamed G.

El-Ziney
Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Dairy Science
& Technology
2 life taxonomy: Ziney 2013
1. Eukaryotic microorganisms
2. The body of the fungus is known
as the thallus/hyphae
3. Not a plant, no chlorophyll (no
photosynthesis), heterotrophs
(Saprophytic - parasitic –
symbiotic)
4. Cell wall is composed of Chitin
(polymer of N-acetylglucosamine),
except for the oomycetes, the wall
is made of cellulose
5. Some are unicellular; microscope
(yeast) others are multicellular
like mushroom
6. Multicellular fungi consist of a group of
fungal microscopic, each of which is
called a hyphae. Hyphae are translucent
tubelar with many nuclei, filled or lined
from the inside with cytoplasm, usually
colorless and sometimes coloured, with a
diameter ranging from 5-7 µ
7. Some are divided by transverse
filaments called septa, which have holes
that allow the continuity of the
cytoplasm, others are not divided, are
called coenocytes; aseptate.
8. These filaments intertwine with each
other and branch to form the mycelium
9. They reproduce by sexually and
asexually (by forming uninuclear
or multinucleated spores, which
are usually formed at the tips of
the hyphae).
10. The optimum temperature for it
is between 20-30°C, and it prefers
growth in acidic media, pH 2.5-3.5
11. Fungi are usually non motile, but
they may form mobile
reproductive units, usually with
flagella
11. Aerobic and facultative anaerobic
12. Excess food items are stored in
the form of oils or glycogen
13. It produces toxins known as
mycotoxins such as aflatoxins
 Decomposition of organic matter in the soil -
nature

It produces some deadly toxins such as aflatoxins

It produces many vital substances: enzymes,

antibiotics, proteins, vitamins

Some of it are used as food, such as mushrooms,

while others are used in some important
industries, such as making bread and cheese

Some cause spoilage of food, leather and textiles

1. Saprophytic fungi
The vast majority of fungi adapt to living in the surrounding environment, where
they convert complex organic matter into simple soluble organic matter that is
easily absorbed.
2. Parasitic fungi
Some fungi depend for their food on other living organisms, including:
• Obligate parasitic fungi, such as the wheat rust fungi
• Facultative parasitic fungi, such as Fusarium sp if the host is found to
parasitize on it or live saprophyt on some organic matter in the soil
3. Symbiotic fungi Other fungi live mutually beneficial with other organisms and
are called such as:
• Mycorrhizae fungi (fungus-root) A relationship between fungi that live in the
soil attached to plant roots. Later provide fungi with carbohydrates in return
fungi give minerals to plants.
• Lichens are relation between fungus (absorbs elements from the soil and gives
them to algae) and algae (makes carbohydrates and gives them to mushrooms)
Mycorrhizal Fungi

Moss Fungi Lichen

1. Sexual reproduction usually occurs once at the end of the fungus' life
cycle
2. Imperfect fungi It is a fungus that has an unknown
sexual phase
3. Stages of sexual division:
3.1- Plasmogamy : The fusion of two haploids 1n (+,-) cells, which leads to
the emergence of a united cell containing two nuclei. Dikaryon is known
as a two or more nuclei in one cell
3.2- Karyogamy: Nuclei fusion and formation of Zygote (Diploid 2n)
3.3- Meiosis stage to produce 4 haploid (1n) spores which could be
Homothallic or Heterothalic
Dikaryon
2. Binary fission

1. Fragmentation

3. Budding
 4. Sclerotia
It is formed under unfavorable
conditions in some Ascomycetes
form stony bodies, which are
tightly assembled hyphae -
filled with nutrients - bearing
in their midst the dormant cells

Sclerotia ergot Claviceps Sp.

 Chlamydospores
Non motile
A thick cell wall inside the
hypha. It has saved nutrients

Zoospores
swimming (motile)
Conidiospores Asexual spores One or two flagella
Non motile Produced inside sacs
It has multicolored Zoosporangia
and shapes which used Sporangiospores
to classify the fungi Non motile
e.g. Penicillium Produced in sacs known as
Sporangia
e.g. Rhizopus
Fungal classification according to:
1. Divided or not dividing mycelium (Septate or Aseptate
hyphae).
2. The type of sexual spores.
3. Classification based on DNA analysis methods such as
28s/18s RNA sequence
 Fungi Classification
The kingdom of fungi is divided into two divitions:
I. Slime Fungi (Myxomycota)
II. True fungi (Eumycota))

I. Myxomycota
It serves as a connection between the two kingdoms of
fungi and animals. It is widely spread in nature and
controlled by humidity and heat. It also abounds in rainy
seasons and lives parasitically on other organisms.
Genus: Physarum

I. Myxomycota
It is a fungus of little economic
benefit and is characterized by its
formation of a vegetative body known
as plasmodium (fungus-like slime
molds); it is a bare protoplasmic
mass that is not surrounded by a cell
wall, but is surrounded by a plasma
membrane and contains many nuclei
and is similar to an amoeba.
It iIt is a fungus of little
economic benefit and is
characterized by its formation of
a vegetative body known as
 Eukaryotic,
 heterotrophic,
 walled organisms;
 distinguished from Myxomycota
 ‫‪1- Mastigomycota‬‬
‫الفطريات السوطية‬

‫‪2- Zygomycota‬‬ ‫‪3- Ascomycota‬‬

‫الجراثيم الزيجية‬ ‫الجراثيم األسكية‬
‫(الزقية)‬

‫‪True Fungi Divisions‬‬

‫‪4- Basidiomycota‬‬ ‫‪5- Deuteromycota‬‬

‫الجراثيم البازيدية‬
‫الفطريات الناقصة‬
Division of Eumycota
This section includes the vast majority of fungi. Most of this
1section is filamentous, which include
)Mastigomycota) ‫ الفطريات السوطية‬:1
) Rhizophydium globosum ) ‫ فطر القمح الجذري‬:‫مثل‬
)Zygomycota( ‫ الفطريات الزيجية‬:2
) Rhizopus stolonifer( black beard mold ‫ عفن الخبز‬:‫مثل‬
)Ascomycota( ‫ الفطريات الزقية‬:3
) Saccharomyces cerevesiae( bred yeast ‫ خميرة الخباز‬:‫مثل‬
) Aspergillus( ‫ ) وأسبرجيللس‬Penicillium( ‫وبنسيليوم‬
Basidiomycota ‫ الفطريات البازيدية‬:4
) Agaricus( mushroom ‫ عيش الغراب‬:‫مثل‬
)Deuteromycota( ‫ الفطريات الناقصة‬:5
)Helminthosporium( ‫) و الهلمنثوسبوريم‬Alternaria( ‫ الترناريا‬: ‫مثل‬
Basidiomycota
 1- Filamentous fungi that saprophytic on wet organic
matter
2- They reproduce sexually by Zygospores and asexually
by Sporangiospores, such as Mucor and Rhizopus
3. Undivided hyphae

‫ثالوس‬
4
Thallus Rhizopus stolonifer ‫فطر عفن الخبز األسود‬
۵
It consists of undivided fungal hyphae characterized by:
( Columella ) ‫ العويميد‬. 1 Creeping part that extends over the organic matter known
( Stolon ) ‫ المداد‬. 2 as Stolons (White), from which stem semi-roots
( Rhizo ) ‫ أشباة جذور‬. 3 (branched - brown). Rhizoid penetrate to fix the thread
‫ حوامل فردية‬. 4
Sporangiophore and absorb the digested nutrients (due to the digestive
Sporangium ‫ حافظة جرثومية‬. ۵ enzymes that they secrete . externally to decompose
complex organic matter)
* Against each group of rhizoids emerges a bundle of aerial filaments (3-7) which
later form the sporangiophores bearing the sporangium containing
Sporangiospores.
Rhizopus nigricans ‫فطر العفن الطري‬
Its characteristics: A fungus that causes soft root in decomposing vegetables and
fruits. Formic acid is produced by the fermentation of sugars
 Mucor spp ‫فطر‬
Characteristics: It has no Rhizo and a single
sporangiophore

• M. racemosus
A plant pathogen isolated from Camembert soft cheese
 Thamnidium spp ‫فطر‬
• characteristics:
It is characterized by the exit of branches from the main
sporangiophores carry small sporangia contained spores lighter in color
than those of the main sporangia. It grows at low temperatures and
decomposes fat and protein
• E.x. T. elegans : It grows in meat at refrigerator temperature

‫جراثيم ثانوية‬
4 ‫جوامل فرعية‬
3. Asexual reproduction:
* The terminal part of the sporangiophore swells, forming what is known as the sporangium
(in which the cytoplasm, nuclei and nutrients are concentrated)
• This part is separated from the rest of the stem by a transverse wall
• Divides its contents into spores
• The transverse wall protrudes into the sporangium, forming what is known as the
columella (it supplies the germs formed with nutrients - it presses on the transverse wall and
it explodes and the spores spread)
• When the germs mature and the color of the sporangium becomes black, the columella
swells and presses on the transverse wall, tearing it and spreading the spores
4. Sexual reproduction
1. Two young hyphae are approached, each of which is a short lateral appendage that grows
until they adhere to form what is known as Progametangia
2. The progametangia swells up and is filled with cytoplasm, nuclei, and nutrients.
3. Each of them has a transverse wall that divides it into two parts, the gametangium and
suspensor.
4.The transverse septa between the gametangia fade and its contents mingle and form the
zygot, which is encased in a rough and thick wall, forming the zygospore. The
suspensions dissolve and the zygospore falls
5.Under the right conditions, it grows, forming a new hyphal thread
 • Its fungal hyphae are divided by septa.
• It reproduces sexually by ascospores, which are
formed inside special bags called asci (Ascus),
which usually contain 4-8 ascospores.
• The sexual organs of these fungi are distinguished
sexual organs
into male (Antheridium) and female
(Ascogonium)
• Reproduce asexually by Conidospores
It includes two groups:
Group one: Pseudohyphae (Yeasts)
Group two: includes the rest of the Ascomycetes fungi

Yeast Budding
1. Existence
2. Its role for humans
3. General Features
1. They are single or connected to form what is known as
Pseudomycelium (Oval - round - cylindrical - without
cytoplasmic membrane)
2. Asexual reproduction is by simple binary fission or Budding
3. Sexual reproduction is by ascospores. Some form sporogenous,
such as Saccharomyces spp, and others are asporogenous (false
or imperfect fangi), such as Candida spp.
Family: Saccharomycetaceae
Genus: Saccharomyces spp
• S. cerevisiae
1. Bread production (bakery yeast)
2. Production of alcoholic beverages (alcohol)
3. Getting rid of glucose in egg whites as they dry
4. Invertase production (hydrolyzed sucrose), and thiamine
production
5. Give a distinct flavor to the meat
6. Source of single cell microbial protein (SCP)
• S. aceti
Converting alcohol to acetic acid, causing spoilage of alcoholic beverages
Genus. Zygosaccharomyces (Osmophilic yeasts)
1. high sugar tolerance (50-60%),
2. high ethanol tolerance (up to 18%),
3. high acetic acid tolerance (2.0-2.5%).
• Z. bailli var osmophilus: Loving osmotic pressure, found in foods with high
sugar concentrations
• Z. bailli var bailli: Causes the spoilage of wine, vinegar, sweet salads and
mayonnaise
• Z. rouxii : Causes the spoilage of honey and sugar solutions
 Genus. Debaryomyces spp
(Salt-tolerant yeasts )
• Fermentation occurs in the presence of low amounts of sugars
• Grow on the surfaces of fish, pickled meat and sausage
• slow fermentation
• used nitrite

• D. hansenii
Tolerant to salinity (18-25%) - found in all types of soft and dry
cheese. It produces arabinitol (arabitol), riboflavin, xytol and
accumulate pyruvic at low conc. of thiamine
 Genus. Hanseniaspora spp
• It has a high ability to cause fermentation, but it is not
tolerate a high concentrations of sugar (4-6%).
• It is need vitamins for their growth – it is used in biological
detection of the production and presence of these
vitamins
• Polar budding and ascospore is sac contains 2-4 spores
H. osmophila
• It was isolated from soil and plants and caused spoilage in
grapes and berry
 Second Group: Pseudoyeast
Deuteromycotina
Genus: Candida spp

• Candida as a word meaning the bright white, it does not

contain carotenoid pigments
• The genus is a mixed genus divided into 40 segments
located under 3 main groups according to their fatty acid
content and the nature of electrophoretic migration of
cell proteins.
C. kefyr kefir milk

C. vini Wine spoilage

C. mycoderma Film forming yeast

C. lipolytica spoil the better and margarine

C. Krusei Its growth encourages the growth

of lactic acid bacteria - a source of
lipids, vitamins & invertase
enzyme
C. utilis Single cell protein
 Genus. Torulopsis

• multi polar budding

• Tolerate salt 2-12%

T. Nitritophila
Obligate halophilic- it produces a slime layer on meat and cheese
and spoils the butter and sweetened condensed milk
 Genus. Rhodotorula spp

• multi lateral budding

• Not fermentate

• R. glutinis,
• R. mucilaginosa
Produces orange to purple pigments (carotenoids) - like to
grow cold conditions and are found in fresh products e.g.
poultry - shrimp - fish - meat
 II. Fungi with divided hyphae
1. Ascomycetes fungi with divided hyphae; septa
2. Ascocarp ia a fruiting body. It consists of very tightly interwoven
hyphae and millions of embedded asci, each of which typically
contains four to eight ascospores, which are collected in what is known
as stroma

3. classified according to the forms of Ascospores

Ascocarp
• The most prevalent fungi – saprophyte
• Asexual reproduction is carried out by
conidia spores carried on Secondary
Sterigmata which branched from
sterigmata all of carried on
conidophore
• Sexual reproduction is carried out by
ascospores in which the ascospores, it
has a female and male organs
• Has industrial and pharmaceutical
important (cheese – antibiotics)
 Sterigmata

Basipetal succession conidiospores

P. roqueforti Blue cheese

P. camemberti Camembert and berry chees

P . citrinum Produce Citrinin toxin (yellow rice)

P . viridicatum Produce Ochratoxins

1. The most common fungi
2. Saprophyte, cause respiratory and skin diseases
to humans
3. Asexual reproduction is carried out by
conidispores which stand on Secondary
Sterigmata which come after primary sterigmata
all of it stand on vesicle. Each conidophore is
supported by foot cell
4. Hyphae are internally divided by unbranched
and transverse walls; septum.
5. Sexual reproduction is carried out by asco sacs in
which the ascospores spread in an irregular
manner,
6. Forming a fruiting body.
7. Important to industry (production of glycolic
acid)
Basipetal succession conidiospores
A . flavus ) ‫( أخضر‬ Produce Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1,
G2)

A . parasiticus Produce Aflatoxins

A . niger ) ‫(أسود‬
Produce Ochratoxins
Called black mould

A . oryzea )‫(ابيض‬ Produce proteases and lipases

• Highly spread fungus
• Fragile
• When it get older the conidia
divide into two cells
• Known as dark mold or black
spot
• It grows on the surface of meat
and dairy products
Mycotoxigenic moulds
 Xerophilic moulds
 Heat-resistant mould
 Preservative-resistant mould
 Anaerobic moulds
 Mycotoxigenic moulds

More than 400 mycotoxins are known.

 Mycotoxins are often imported in (sub) tropical food
Products and feedstuffs.
 Acute toxicity is rare and occur mostly in tropical
countries
 Immune surpression
Carcinogenic
Tremorgenic activity

Nephrotoxic
Oestrogenic

Idiopathic
Hepatic necrosis pulmonary
MYCOTOXINS
hemosiderosis
Gastro-intestinal
disturbances Haemorrhage of the
lung and brain
Haemaorrhage
of liver Dermal toxicosis

Parasympathetic nerve system

 Fungi Product Defect
Mucor sp., Aspergillus niger, Butter ‫الزبد‬ spotting ‫التبقع‬
Cladosporum sp., Rhizopus
sp.
Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp.

Penicillium sp., Cladosporium sp. Butter ‫الزبد‬ Bitterness ‫الطعم‬

‫المـر‬
Aspergillus repens Condensed Mould buttons
milk ‫األزرار‬
‫الحليب المكثف‬
Mucro sp., Penicillium sp., Soft cheese Grow on cheese
‫الجبن الطري‬ surfaces
Hard cheese
‫الجبن الجاف‬