Transmission of Nerve Impulse:

A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system and messages are transmitted across different parts
of the body as impulses through these neurons. Nerve impulse is a wave of depolarisation of the membrane of nerve
fibres, that is, the axon of the neuron. The transmission of nerve impulse involve three events -
Generation of nerve impulse or action potential
Conduction of nerve impulse
Synaptic transmission of nerve impulse

Generation of Nerve Impulse or Action Potential:

Resting membrane potential:
The neural membrane of a resting nerve fibre has positive charge on its outer side and a negative charge on the inner
side. This is called the resting membrane potential (RMP) The resting potential of the neural membrane is about -70mV.
The neural membrane is polarised due to differential distribution of Na + and K+ ions. Na+ ions are the main extracellular
cations which have the tendency to move inwards and K + ions are the main intracellular cations present in the axoplasm
which have a tendency to move outward. The K + channels in the neuron membrane are always open and allow these ions
to leave the cell whereas the gated Na+ channels remain closed and do not allow Na + ions to enter. Thus, the neuron
membrane is more permeable to K + ions compared to Na+ ions. Even the Na+- K+ exchange pumps allow the exit of three
Na+ ions in exchange for the entry of two K + ions. The inner surface of the neural membrane remains negative because
more K+ ions leave the cell than Na + ions entering the axoplasm. The axoplasm also contains Cl - ions and organic
anions.

Generation of action potential:

On being stimulated by any stimulus of adequate strength, the permeability of the neural membrane for Na + increases at
the point of stimulus reception as the gated channels open. This results in Na + ions rushing into the axoplasm of the
neural fibre. Thus, at this particular part of the neuron, the inner surface of the neural membrane becomes positive and
the outer surface becomes negative. This change in the distribution of electrical charges on the inner and outer surfaces
of the neural membrane is known as the reversal of potential and results in depolarisation of the neural membrane. The
depolarisation lasts for only a moment and occurs only at the point of stimulus. The neural membrane adjacent to this
depolarised point is still polarised and has a positively charged outer surface and negatively charged inner surface. This
potential difference between two adjacent areas is called action potential. The positive charge from the outer surface of
the adjacent polarised area moves towards the negatively charged outer surface of the depolarised area. This results in
depolarisation of the adjacent area which was earlier polarised and causes the membrane in this newly depolarised area
to become more permeable to Na+ ions which rush from the outer side of the membrane into the axoplasm. This
generates an action potential in this area while the originally depolarised area becomes polarised again. This occurs
because an increase in the positive charge inside the axon prevents further entry of Na + ions and permeability of the
membrane decreases towards Na+ ions. The establishment of sodium channels helps to send Na + ions to the outer surface
of the neural membrane and hence it becomes positively charged and the inner surface becomes negatively charged.
Thus, the resting potential of the membrane is restored and the depolarised region becomes polarised again. This process
is known as repolarisation. Thus, a wave of depolarisation or action potential moves from point to point along the length
of the nerve fibre and is known as the nerve impulse.

Conduction of a nerve impulse

The action potential that is set up at one end of the nerve fibre is conducted by the local circuits. During conduction of
nerve impulse, negative charge on the outer surface of a depolarised area attracts the positive charge from the outer
surface of the next polarised area while positive charge on the inner surface of the depolarised area is attracted by the
negative charge on the inner surface of the next polarised area. So, the depolarised area becomes polarised and the next
polarised area becomes depolarised and the action potential flows onward as a wave of depolarisation.
Conduction of Nerve Impulse in Nonmyelinated nerve Fibres
In nonmyelinated nerve fibres, the ionic changes are repeated over the membrane all along the length of the fibre. So,
the action potential flows all along the membrane over the entire length of the fibre.
Saltatory Conduction of Nerve Impulse in Myelinated nerve Fibres
In myelinated nerve fibres, the myelin sheath acts as an insulating layer around the nerve fibres but it is discontinuous
and is absent over the nodes of Ranvier. The myelinated regions of the nerve fibres cannot be depolarised. In such
fibres, the ionic changes and the consequent depolarisation occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier which are free from the
myelin sheath. Thus, the action potential jumps from one node to the next. This mode of transmission of the nerve
impulse is known as saltatory conduction of nerve impulse.
Synaptic transmission of nerve impulses
As the nerve impulse reaches the axon terminals of the neuron, it is passed on to the dendrites of the next neuron
through a point of no physical contact or a fine gap known as the synapse. This transmission is known as synaptic
transmission. The neuron transmitting the impulse is known as the presynaptic neuron and the one receiving the impulse
is known as the postsynaptic neuron.

Q1. A nerve impulse travels along a myelinated nerve fibre at a speed that is 50 times faster than the nonmyelinated
fibre. Why?
Answer: In myelinated nerve fibres, the nerve impulses do not have to run all along the fibre sd in nonmyelinated fibres.
As the action potential travels by jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next in myelinated fibres the nerve impulses
are conducted far more rapidly, around 50 times faster, through them than through non-myelinated fibres.

Q2. In the polarised state of the neural membrane

A. The inner surface of the membrane is negatively charged and the outer surface is positively charged.
B. The inner surface of the membrane is positively charged and the outer surface is negatively charged.
C. Both the inner and outer surface of the membrane are positively charged.
D. Both the inner and outer surface of the membrane are negatively charged.
Solution: In the resting state of a neuron, the neural membrane is said to be polarised. The neural membrane of a resting
nerve fibre has positive charge on its outer side and a negative charge on the inner side. This is called the resting
membrane potential (RMP) The resting potential of the neural membrane is about -70mV. Thus the correct option is a.

Q3. In a resting neuron, the outer surface of the neuron carries positive charge because
A. The membrane is more permeable to Na+ ions and allows them to move outside passively.
B. The gated sodium ion channels remain closed and do not allow Na+ ions to enter whereas potassium ion channels
remain open and allow K+ ions to move out.
C. The gated potassium ion channels remain closed and do not allow K+ ions to enter whereas sodium ion channels
remain open and allow Na+ ions to move out.
D. Both a and c
Solution: In a resting neuron, Na+ ions are the main extracellular cations which have the tendency to move inwards and
K+ ions are the main intracellular cations present in the axoplasm which have a tendency to move outward. The
K+ channels in the neuron membrane are always open and allow these ions to leave the cell whereas the gated
Na+ channels remain closed and do not allow Na+ ions to enter. Thus, the neuron membrane is more permeable to
K+ ions compared to Na+ ions. Even the Na+- K+ exchange pumps allow the exit of three Na+ ions in exchange for the
entry of two K+ ions. Thus, the correct option is b.
Q4. Differentiate between the resting membrane potential and the action membrane potential.
Answer:
Resting Membrane Potential Action Potential
1. It is the potential difference across the 1. It is the potential difference across the
membrane in the resting phase of a neuron. membrane in a stimulated neuron.
2. The interior of neuron is electronegative in
2. The interior of the neuron is electropositive.
relation to the extracellular fluid.
3. During resting potential, the neural membrane becomes more
3. At the resting potential, the neural membrane
permeable to the Na+ ions due to opening of gated sodium ions
is more permeable to the K+ ions.
channels.
+ +
4. Na - K ATPase pump maintains resting 4. Na+ - K+ ATPase pump does not operate during the action
membrane potential potential.
FAQs
Q1. What is the refractory period of a neuron?
Answer: The process of repolarisation of the entire neuron requires some time and during which the neuron cannot be
stimulated again. During this period, also known as the refractory period, the neuron recovers from the previous impulse
and gets ready for the next one.

Q2. What factors affect the speed of transmission of nerve impulses?

Answer: The speed of transmission of nerve impulses depends on three factors:
Speed of nerve impulse transmission increases with increase in temperature. Hence, warm blooded animals have faster
responses compared to cold blooded ones.
Larger the diameter of the nerve fibre or axon, the faster the speed.
Impulse transmission is faster if the nerve fibre is covered with a myelin sheath.

Q3. What is the difference between a nerve and a nerve fibre?

Answer: The long fibre-like process that develops from the cell body of a neuron is known as the axon or a nerve fibre.
A nerve is a bundle of several nerve fibres and and blood vessels enclosed within a connective tissue covering.
Q4.What are Pacinian Corpuscles?
Answer: The Pacinian corpuscles are receptors present deep in the dermis, that sense pressure. Each receptor is
connected to a sensory neuron and when pressure on the skin changes its shape, the pressure sensitive sodium ion
channels in the membrane of the sensory neuron open up and cause depolarisation of the membrane. As pressure
increases, more channels open up leading tp generation of the action potential and the impulses travel through the
sensory neuron.
Synapse
We know that the nervous system of our body controls and coordinates different functions by transmitting impulses
from the CNS to the various body parts and vice versa with the help of neurons. Impulses are transmitted from the axon
terminals of the signal-passing neurons called the presynaptic neurons to the dendrites of the target neurons called
postsynaptic neurons across junctions known as synapses.
The presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron membranes form a synapse which forms a point of contact between the two
neurons. A gap may be present between these neurons which is called the synaptic cleft.

Fig: Synapse Fig: Electrical synapse

Types of synapse:
The two types of synapses are:
Electrical synapses
Chemical synapses

Electrical synapses:
The membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons in electrical synapses are in close proximity to each other. The
electric current from one neuron flows directly into the other neuron across electrical synapses. Impulse conduction
along a single axon is extremely similar to impulse transmission between electrical synapses. Electrical synaptic impulse
transmission is always faster than chemical synapse transmission.

Chemical synapses:
The distance between one neuron and the next neuron is further at chemical synapses. Chemical synapses are more
common than electrical synapses in the nervous system.

Fig: Chemical synapse Fig: Resting membrane potential of polarised neuron membrane
Transmission of impulses:
Electrical synapses:
In electrical synapses, the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes of the two communicating neurons live very close at
the synapse and are connected with the help of an intercellular connection called a gap junction. The gap junctions
contain paired ion channels in the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes each of which form a pore.
A neuron membrane is always in a polarised state with high potential difference across its two surfaces. The membrane
potential of a polarised neuron membrane is known as the resting membrane potential and it is negative in value as the
outer surface of the membrane facing the extracellular fluid is positive in charge whereas the interior of the neuron has a
negative charge. This is because of the prevalence of Na+ ions on the outer side. This membrane potential is maintained
with the help of Na+-K+ ion pumps.

Excitation of a neuron results in reversing the resting membrane potential as the membrane becomes more permeable to
Na+ and they are pumped inside, making the interior of the neuron positive and the exterior negative. At this point the
neuron membrane is said to be depolarised and the membrane potential is called the action potential.

Fig: Action potential of a depolarised membrane

The depolarisation of the presynaptic neuron membrane results in a low potential difference across the membrane
whereas the polarised postsynaptic membrane has high potential difference. This results in the generation of a local ionic
current which is passed passively through the gap junction pores from the presynaptic membrane to the postsynaptic
membrane. As the postsynaptic neuron membrane receives the current, it depolarises and the conduction of impulses
continues across the length of the postsynaptic neuron.

Chemical synapses:
A fluid-filled area called synaptic cleft separates the membranes of the pre- and postsynaptic neurons at a chemical
synapse. The molecules involved in the transmission of impulses at these synapses are known as neurotransmitters.
Because neurotransmitters are released at the presynaptic end exclusively and their receptors are only present on the
postsynaptic end, synapses ensure one-way or unidirectional transmission of impulses.
Fig: Synaptic cleft
The transmission of impulses is aided by the ion channels present in the postsynaptic neuron.

Fig: Ion channels present in the postsynaptic neuron

Synaptic vesicles are found at the axon terminals. Neurotransmitters are substances that fill these vesicles.

Fig: Synaptic vesicles bearing neurotransmitters

Let us move forward to the sequence of events that occur during transmission of impulses. Firstly, the axon terminal
receives an impulse (action potential). At the terminal position of axons, synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters
are present. Synaptic vesicles migrate to the presynaptic membrane upon reception of the action potential.
Fig: Synaptic vesicles move towards the presynaptic membrane
Next, the synaptic vesicles bind to the presynaptic neuron's plasma membrane and the neurotransmitters are released in
the synaptic cleft.

Fig: Release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

The neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Ion channels are opened in the
postsynaptic membrane when released neurotransmitters bind to their appropriate receptors. Ions can enter the
postsynaptic neuron through the open channels.

Fig: Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors

In the postsynaptic neuron, these ions cause a new action potential that can be either excitatory or inhibitory. The
conduction of impulses takes place by the movement of action potential across the cell. Charges are reversed as sodium
ions move inside and potassium ions flow outward. This causes the neuron membrane at this region of the neuron to be
depolarised. The action potential that arises from this depolarization causes the nerve impulse to travel along the length
of the axon.

Fig: Depolarisation of postsynaptic membrane

Q1. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding the electrical synapses?
A. Transmission of impulses is slower compared to chemical synapses.
B. Impulse transmission is similar to impulse conduction along a single axon.
C. Electric current flows directly from one neuron into the other neuron.
D. Membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are in close proximity.
Solution: The membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons together form the synapse. There are two types of
synapses; electrical and chemical synapses. Chemical synapses transmit impulses more slowly because they rely on the
release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles to relay their signal, whereas electrical synapses transfer impulses by
electrical signals that can flow right across the synapse in a way similar to impulse conduction along a single axon. This
is possible because membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are in close proximity. Hence, option a is
correct.
Q2. Based on the transmission of impulses, rearrange the following in the correct sequence.
Entry of ions to the postsynaptic neuron.
Release of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft.
Binding of neurotransmitters to appropriate receptors.
Binding of the plasma membrane of the presynaptic neuron with synaptic vesicles.
Migration of synaptic vesicles to the presynaptic membrane.
A. III→II→I→IV→V
B. IV→II→III→I→V
C. V→IV→II→III→I
D. I→V→III→IV→II
Solution: At the synapse, neurotransmitters take part in the transmission of impulses. Synaptic vesicles carrying
neurotransmitters are located at the terminal location of axons. Synaptic vesicles move to the presynaptic membrane
when the action potential of an impulse arrives at the axon terminal. The membrane of the synaptic vesicle and the
presynaptic neuron fuse or bind together after which the neurotransmitters are released in the synaptic cleft. The released
neurotransmitters bind to the appropriate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane which open the ion channels in the
postsynaptic membrane. Through these open channels, the ions move into the postsynaptic neuron where they generate a
new action potential. Hence, option c is correct.
Q3. Define neurotransmitters. State their function.
Answer: A neurotransmitter is a biochemical messenger secreted by the axon terminals of a neuron. They are chemicals
that carry messages from neurons to muscles across neuromuscular junctions or between neurons across a synapse.
Q4. From where are the neurotransmitters released?
Answer: At the synapse, impulses are passed from presynaptic to postsynaptic neurons. When a nerve impulse reaches
the presynaptic axon terminal, membrane-bound sacs or synaptic vesicles travel toward the presynaptic membrane,
where they fuse with the membrane and release a chemical substance known as a neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft.
FAQs
Q1. What happens if the synapses are damaged or absent?
Answer: The sites of contact between neurons where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next are referred
to as synapses. The central nervous system would be constantly bombarded with impulses without synapses, resulting in
central nervous system exhaustion. The reactions would be delayed, and the backward flow of impulses would result in
a lack of coordination. The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is based on synapse damage and loss, which
results in decreased cognitive performance.
Q2. Are electrical impulses bidirectional?
Answer: The nature of electrical synapses is that they are bidirectional. When a presynaptic action potential travels to
the postsynaptic cell, the postsynaptic cell's membrane resting potential also travels to the presynaptic cell.
Q3. Are enzymes responsible for the breakdown of neurotransmitters?
Answer: Neurotransmitters can be broken down by the action of enzymes. The breakdown of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine into its component parts, acetate and choline, by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an important
example of this process.
Q4. Can neurotransmitters be inhibitory?
Answer: Neurotransmitters such as gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA), glycine, serotonin, etc are inhibitory in nature
and prevent the transmission of impulses from one neuron to the next.