Introduction

Welcome to GST 304: Nigerian Peoples and Culture which is a second-semester 1-

credit unit course. It is made up of sub-topics and outline of the various ethnic groups
of pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial Nigeria; culture areas of Nigeria and their
characteristics, evolution of Nigeria as a political unit, the concept of functional
education, social justice, individual and national development, norms and values and
moral obligations of citizens. You need to know from the outset that different topics
therein are in-exhaustive, hence, you may wish to broaden the purview of your
knowledge by consulting more materials on them.

First, we want to say that you may or may not be part of these ethnic groups that
either lived in centralized or segmented societies with a well-defined social, political
and economic system. Among the prominent ethnic groups in Northern or Southern
Nigeria, many traced their origins outside Nigeria and lived in centralized societies
with their sociopolitical organisations such as the Hausa, the Kanuri, the Nupe, the
Yoruba, the Bini etc. Others like the Igbo, the Fulani, the Tiv lived in segmentary or
autonomous village units in which authority was diffused. The Nigerian ethnic groups
have been shaped by their geographical environment with a population of over 167
million (National Population Commission August 2012) and more than 500 ethnic
groups.

The evolution of what became Nigeria comprised different independent chieftains,

states, kingdoms and empires. These, among others, included the Borno Empire, the
Hausa States, and the Sokoto Caliphate, in the North and in the South the Igbo
segmentary societies, Benin Kingdom and the Oyo Empire. The amalgamation of the
Northern and Southern Protectorates gave birth to Nigeria in 1914. The reason for the
amalgamation of Nigeria was to serve the interest of the imperial government
especially in the areas of raw materials and market for their manufactured goods. In
terms of economic and national development, agriculture accounted for more than
50% of the country’s gross domestic product GDP before independence. After
Nigerian independence, the agricultural activities in the country declined due to
stagnation of the sector in favour of the oil sector. This became a major catalyst for
the myriad of problems facing Nigeria such as corruption, nepotism, ethno-religious
crises etc. As you are aware, these problems require effective citizenship education to
enable Nigerians to have a better understanding of these challenges, their political and
legal rights, and their moral obligations to the state.

What you will learn in this Course

The overall aim of GST 304: Nigerian Peoples and Culture is to introduce you to the
history of traditional Nigerian peoples and culture. This course also attempts to trace
the pre-colonial history and the culture areas of Nigeria and the evolution of the
country as a political unit. This course will also teach you how to analyze and
understand people's cultures from a historical, sociological and anthropological angle.
Thus, your understanding of Nigerian peoples and culture will equip you, not only to
have a sound knowledge of Nigeria but also to teach other people too.

Course Aims

The major aim of this course is to help you understand and have a sound knowledge
of the traditional Nigerian peoples and culture. This will be achieved by:

 Introducing you to the traditional Southern and Northern Nigerian peoples

and culture;
 Helping you understand the evolution of Nigeria as a political unit;
 Highlighting some major cultural areas of Nigeria;
 Analyzing the impact of Western education on national development in
Nigeria; and
 Helping you understand the concepts of functional education, national
economy, and social justice in Nigeria.

Course Objectives

On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

 Have a sound knowledge of the traditional Nigerian peoples and culture;

 Discuss the cultural areas of Nigeria and their characteristics;
 Analyze the impact of Western education on national development in
Nigeria; and
 Explain the evolution of Nigeria as a political unit

Course Units

There are eight (8) study units in this course as follows:

Unit 1. Conceptual Perspectives of Culture

Unit 2. Notable Peoples (Ethnic groups) of Northern Nigeria and their Culture

Unit 3. Notable Peoples of Southern Nigeria and their Culture

Unit 4. The Culture Areas/Zones in Nigerian Regions

 1. Rain Forest Region of Nigeria
2. Savanna Region of Nigeria

Unit 5. Nigeria’s Geography, Population and Linguistic Classification

Unit 6. The Dynamics of the Evolution of Nigeria as a Political Unit

Unit 7. Traditional Crafts and Cultural Festivals in Nigeria

Unit 8. A Historical Analysis of Economy and National Development in Nigeria

Unit 9. A Historical Analysis Political Rights of Citizens in Nigeria

Unit 10. Issues Militating against Nigeria’s Corporate Existence

Recommended Textbooks and References

Nzemeke, A.D. and E.O. Erhagbe. (2002). Nigerian Peoples and Culture (2nd ed.).
Benin City: University of Benin Press.

Crowder, M. and G. Abdullahi. (1977). Nigeria: An Introduction to its History. Lagos:

Longman Nig. Plc.

Fafunwa, A.B. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria.

Nnoli, Okwudiba. (1978). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth Dimension

Publishers.

Onwuejeogwu, M.A. (2000). African Civilizations: Origin, Growth and Development.

Lagos: Uto Publications.

Ugowe, C.O.O. (1995). The Nigerian Legacy: A Handbook of a Black African

Culture and Civilization. Lagos: Hugo Books.

Background to Nigeria’s Cultural Diversity

The Nigerian state is a colonial creation. It is a product of a historical accident that
arose out of European adventurism with its eventual culmination in the colonization
of Africa. Thus, while the European explorers discovered the undeveloped estate that
later became Nigeria, the missionaries established the presence of Europe in the area
to pave the way for the eventual arrival of the European traders with their aggressive
trade interest. First, the European explorers, second, the European Christian
Missionaries and, third, the European traders played very important roles in the
chronological sequence of events that led to the colonization and creation of the
Nigerian state. It was the aggressive economic interest and the contestation for the
avaricious acquisition of the natural wealth of the native peoples that encouraged the
convocation of the inglorious Berlin Conference of 1884-85. Arising from the Berlin
Conference, the European interlopers adopted more carefully articulated control
mechanisms to bring their effectively occupied territories under their control. It was at
the Conference, that the British got the imprimatur from the circle of European
collaborators to occupy the area that later became known as Nigeria.

Nigeria is an agglomeration of various ethnic groupings. These ethnic groupings

significantly differ in their historical, social and cultural make-ups. This reality points
to a complex problem of tangible socio-political proportions that constantly manifests
in socio-cultural conflicts, ethno-religious intolerance, imagined or real political
marginalization and many others within the Nigerian milieu. Most of these problems
arise and persist mainly because of our improper appreciation of the cultural values,
religious beliefs and political inclinations of others. Yet, we all belong to the same
political entity that is administered from one centre; we have a common currency; one
federal constitution; one national anthem; one national team; one national assembly
and several other institutions. For us to be able to achieve our desire for unity in
diversity, we need to first and foremost, appreciate our history as a people and then
we also have to appreciate and tolerate our divergent cultures. This is the inescapable
reality that highlights the need for the study of Nigerian peoples and culture.

Culture: Some Conceptual Perspectives

In our attempt to give a conceptual impetus to the appreciation of the term culture, it
is proper to submit that there is a seemingly irrefutable consensus among scholars of
different intellectual orientations on what the term connotes. This is because culture is
commonly interpreted to mean the way of life of a people, and this could be material
or non-material. To that extent, it becomes plausible to argue that a people’s overall
life patterns are conditioned by the adherence to a specific order, which forms an
implicit code of conduct. Eating habits, choice of foods, relationship with others,
behavioural and attitudinal patterns, among other things, can be said to be components
of culture.
Clearly, therefore, culture relates to the way and manner with which a given people do
the things that are peculiar to them. This goes to explain why culture may be correctly
defined as the totality of a people’s way of life that manifests through the channels of
their belief system, the justice system, behavioural patterns, feelings, emotions,
morality, possessions and institutions. This validates the claim that culture is a social
inheritance that gives structure to people’s lives. It has been correctly argued that
human beings are systematically conditioned to conform to culturally defined and
constructed patterns of behaviour, thought and belief.

The process of learning to fit in or adapt to culture is referred to as cultural

socialization, which implies that a culture can be learned or adapted to. Perhaps, this
explains why E. Nwabueze argues that culture takes the normative, learned and
transmitted dimensions. Whereas the normative aspect of culture entails the goals to
be pursued, how to pursue them, the values to be espoused and what constitutes
morality, the learned culture involves acquired values, belief systems and rules of
conduct. The transmitted dimension of culture is symbolic.

Some scholars view culture as the totality of group expression, a historical process
and a dynamic entity. As a platform of cultural expression, cultural identity manifests
through certain styles of clothing, totems, tattoos and other aesthetic markers. Other
channels of group cultural expression are language, graphic arts, sculpture, drama,
dance, music, rituals, etc. The strength of cultural identity resides in the group cultural
expression. But fundamentally it transcends individual human life. As a historical
process, culture is viewed as a factor of development and the establishment of
institutions on the basis of specific historical events. This relates to the
interdependence of cultural and institutional factors in social transformation, political
development and economic growth. To that extent, this historical process views
culture as a functionally related system that is codified within a cybernetic model
featuring some basic functional imperatives.

As a dynamic process, culture changes intermittently, in line with the changing social,
political and economic realities of a people. Cultural dynamics constitute the
inevitable aspect of human existence and can take the forms of cultural socialization,
cultural adaptation, cross-cultural encounters or cultural imperialism. While cultural
socialization, cultural adaptation and cross-cultural encounters may take a consciously
voluntary process, cultural imperialism essentially comes in the form of the super-
imposition of a ‘superior’ culture over an ‘inferior’ culture. In the Nigerian
experience, the forms of cultural synchronization in the global system with its
concomitant Euro-Americanization of the country’s indigenous cultures profoundly
illustrate forced cultural dynamism.
Notable Peoples (Ethnic groups) of Northern Nigeria and their Culture

Introduction

Nigeria has over 500 different ethnic groups, all with their own languages and
heritage. The three major ethnic groups are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. However, there
are other notable ethnic groups scattered across the country’s two major geographical
divides in the North and South. The notable ethnic groups in the North includes
Hausa, Kanuri, Fulani, Tiv, Nupe, Igala, Idoma, Jukun, Igbira, and Berom. In this
unit, we shall discuss the notable ethnic groups in the northern part of Nigeria.

The Hausa Ethnic Group

Hausa is the largest ethnic group in northern Nigeria. The term Hausa also refers to a
language spoken indigenously by Savannah peoples across the far North from
Nigeria’s Western Boundary Eastward to Borno State and into much of the territory
of central Nigeria. Hausa influence has spread to most parts of West Africa and
beyond. Next to Swahili, the Hausa language is more widely spoken than any other
single indigenous language throughout the continent of Africa.

There are conflicting legends about the origin of the Hausa States in Nigeria.
However, the most popular account traced their origin to a certain Bayajida who
emigrated from Baghdad to Kanem Bornu and married the daughter of the Kanuri
ruler. Bayajida who was forced to flee Kanem Bornu due to squabbles relocated to
Biramta-Gabas, where his wife bore him a son. He left his family for Daura where he
killed a sacred snake “sarki” which had for years deprived the people of fetching
water from a well, except on Fridays. In appreciation of the great feat achieved by
Bayajida, the Queen of Daura married him and later gave birth to a son called Bawo.
It was Bawo’s seven (7) children that became the founders of the original Hausa states
known as Hausa Bokwai. The original 7 states are Biram, Daura, Katsina, Zaria,
Kano, Rano and Gobir. With the passage of time, another 7 states emerged known as
the Banza Bokwai. These states are Kebbi, Zamfara, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin and
Kwararafa. The various Hausa States emerged as city-states and developed a well-
structured centralized political system headed by the King, Sarki and other principal
officials. An elaborate judicial department was also put in place, headed by the Alkali
and the qadi.

The earliest form of worship in Hausa land was animism i.e pagan idol worship. It
was not until the 14th century that Fulani missionaries from Mali started serious work
of conversion of people from paganism to Islam in Hausa land. However, the people
continued to mix paganism with Islam until the advent of the Islamic Jihad of the
early 19thC led by Usman Dan Fodio. This development transformed Hausaland into
a theocratic state governed by Islamic law. With this development, the people's social
life such as marriage and education became highly influenced by Islamic and Arabic
culture. Hence in marriage, the women were put in purdah and were compelled to
wear a veil in public.

The Hausa architectural style and building design were heavily influenced by the
Arabic world. The major occupation of the Hausa is farming. The people also
engaged in handicraft such as weaving and dyeing clothes.

The Fulani Ethnic Group

The Fulani originated in upper Senegal and were believed to have descended from the
union between Tuculor women and Berber traders. By the 7th century A.D the Fulani
had firmly established themselves in West Africa. The Fulani were among the first
people to embrace Islam in West Africa. However, for centuries the Fulani were
scattered throughout West Africa and belong to no identifiable kingdom. By the 14th
century, Fulani scholars of Islam and pastoralists began to settle in Northern Nigeria.
They helped in propagating Islam while discouraging the Hausa from idol worship.
By the early 19th century the Fulani in Northern Nigeria led by Usman Dan Fodio, an
Islamic scholar launched a Holy War, Jihad on Hausa states with the purpose of
converting the people to Islam and putting an end to paganism. Usman Dan Fodio’s
campaigned received widespread support from his kinsmen and even Hausa who were
fed up with the corrupt leadership style and high handedness of their leaders. The
Jihad dramatically altered the political equation of Hausa land as Fulani’s who
supported Usman Dan Fodio in his campaign took over the seat of powers across the
land. Ever since the entire Hausa land was brought under the rulership of the Fulani
with Sokoto being the headquarter of the Islamic caliphate.

There are two categories of Fulani, the Fulani Bororo whose main occupation is cattle
rearing and the Fulani Gida i.e. town dwellers who engaged in urban crafts and trade.
The Fulani’s over the years have emerged as a critical element in the politics of
Northern Nigeria and the country at large. The Fulani has blended so well with the
Hausa that it is today difficult for an outsider to distinguish between these two sets of
people.

The Kanuri Ethnic Group

They are also known and referred to as Beri Beri by their Hausa neighbours. The
Kanuri’s are predominantly found in Borno and Yobe State. A substantial number of
them are also found in Kano and Nasarawa State. They are predominantly farmers and
fishermen and are known for their long facial marks. The Kanuri’s have their kith and
kins across the borders of Nigeria in Chad, Cameroun and Niger. Most Kanuri’s are
Sunni Muslims, while a few are animists. The Kanuri’s speaks a variety of dialects
such as Manga, Tumari and Bilma.

The Kisra legend or tradition of origin traced the founder of the earliest known Kanuri
kingdom to a prince called Kisra who migrated with his followers to the east of Lake
Chad from eastern Africa as a consequence of the destruction of the city of Meroe (in
present-day Sudan) by the people of Axum in about A.D. 350. By the 9th century,
Kanuri kingdom had fused with several petty states and developed into a great empire
known as Kanem at the east of Lake Chad. However, by the 15th century, the seat of
government was relocated to Bornu in the west of Lake Chad.

Ali Ghaji and Idris Alooma were two great leaders who contributed so much to the
fortune of the Kanem-Bornu empire. The Kanuri empire lasted for over a thousand
years (A. 774 – 1810), placing it as one of the longest-lasting dynasties in world
history. It was the sacking of Mai Ahmad, the last Kanuri ruler of the Sefawa dynasty
in 1808 from the seat of power at Ngazargamu by Fulani Jihadists and the subsequent
death of Mai Ahmad in 1810 that closed the chapter of the Sefawa dynasty.

However, Muhammad Al-Kanemi, a devout Islamic scholar and warrior rally support
for Bornu with his troops from Kanem by dislodging the Fulani jihadist. Al-Kanemi
argued that it was wrong of Usman Dan Fodio to launch Jihad against a fellow
Islamic state which had all along been practising the purest form of the Islamic faith.
Following the death of Mai Ahmad in 1810, Al-Kanemi became the Sheik or Shehu
of Bornu and ruled the territory until his own death in 1835. The new line of
leadership he established replaced the Sefawa dynasty and persisted to date. Thus, the
throne of the paramount ruler of Bornu, the Shehu stool is the exclusive preserve of
the descendants of Muhammad Al-Kanemi.

The people of Bornu had continued with the practice of Islam as the dominant faith
within their domains. The Kanuri because of the environment of the Lake Chad basin
were basically farmers, traders, salt producers and fishermen. The encroachment of
the Sahara Desert and the shrinking of Lake Chad had negatively impacted the
economy of Kanuri land coupled with the ongoing Boko Haram insurgency which had
displaced most of the populace and stifle economic activities in the area.
Nupe Group

The Nupe speaks the language generally classified as Nupoid group which is
identified with the sub-family group of languages of the Benue-Congo. The Nupe
ethnic stocks are found in 3 states of Nigeria, Niger, Kwara and Kogi. Bida, the seat
of the Etsu Nupe the paramount ruler of Nupe people is regarded as the traditional
headquarters of Nupeland.

The formation of Nupe Kingdom was largely attributed to Tsoede, also known as
Edegi. Tsoede who was born in 1465 was the son of a Nupe mother and an Igala
father who was raised at the Palace of Attah Igala in Idah. Having being equipped
with charm and magical power by his father, he eventually returned to his mother
place to establish the Nupe Kingdom through force of arms and conquest of other
neighbouring areas. Those he conquered include the Yoruba in the south and the
Kamberi and Kamuku in the North. He ruled the entire Nupeland from his
administrative headquarters of Nupeko until his death in 1591 during one of his
military expansionist mission’s north of the Nupe Kingdom. Long before the 19th
century, the Nupe people had historical links with the Hausas of Katsina, Kano and
Borno people, who pioneered the establishment of some of their towns such as Abaji,
Eggan, Kutigi and Enagi. In terms of culture, the Nupe borrowed substantially from
their neighbours across the River Niger such as Yoruba, Igala, Gwari and Borgu. It is
pertinent to state, that the Nupe did not only borrow culture from her neighbours but
also donated some aspect of her culture to them. For instance, while they borrowed
the kingship system of Igala land, they in turn introduced the Egugu masquerade in
Yoruba land. It was also from Nupe land that Islam spread to the neighbouring
Yoruba towns like Offa Kabba and Ibolo communities.

By the early 19th century the existing political structure in Nupeland was altered due
to the outbreak of the Fulani Jihad. The Nupe indigenous rulers were dislodged from
their offices by Fulani Jihadists who took over their positions. Mallam Dendo, a
Fulani Jihadist emerged on the seat of the paramount ruler of Nupe in Bida in 1804
and declared himself as the leader of the people. Mallam Dendo who derived his flag
of authority from the Emir of Gwandu presided over the affairs of Nupe people under
the supervision of Gwandu emirate. By 1832, Dendo’s son mounted the stool of his
father and was installed as the first Etsu Nupe. Ever since the Fulani’s has continued
to preside over the Nupe people.

The economy of Nupeland, though largely agrarian is supplemented with fishing and
cottage industries such as traditional soap making, blacksmithing, brass work,
woodwork and tailoring.
Jukun

The Jukun who speak six dialects, Wukari, Donga, Kona, Gwana and Pindiga, Jibu
and Wase Tofa is located in Taraba, Benue, Nassarawa, Plateau, Adamawa and
Gombe States, and some parts of northwestern Cameroon. The Jukun states presided
over chunks of Gongola and Benue river basins over a long period of time stretching
from the 14th to the 18th century A.D.

One of their traditions of origin claims that they are of the same stock as the Kanuri of
Borno. It is, thus, stated that they migrated with the Kanuri to Borno where they left
them and then continued their movement southwards before settling along the
Gongola and Benue river basins. Whereas between the 14th century and the 15th
century, Jukun suffered so much in the hands of Kano and Zaria who occasionally
raided her territories and exerted many tributes, as from the 16th century up to the
18th century, Jukun became a formidable military force that posed a serious threat to
Borno, Kano, Zaria, the surrounding areas of Jos Plateau and to some parts of the
Cross River basin.

As Jukun became very influential, many communities in the central parts of Nigeria
are from the upper Benue to the middle Niger adopted the Jukun institutions in one
way or the other. Thus, the Tiv, Idoma, Igala and Igbira derived so much from the
Jukun traditional belief system, economic activities and act of governance. By the turn
of the 18th century, internal wrangling and intrigues coupled with constant raids from
the Chambas had weakened the Jukun Kingdom and rendered her vulnerable to the
Fulani Jihadists who greatly plundered her territories in the 19th century. However,
the robust centralised political system of the Jukun, represented by the Aku of Wukari
survived the Islamic Jihadist onslaught and is still thriving to date.

The Jukuns are divided into two major groups, the Jukun Wanu and Jukun Wapa. The
Jukun Wanu are fishermen residing along the banks of the River Benue and Niger
where they run through Taraba State, Benue State and Nassarawa State. The Jukun
Wapa are the homeland Jukun that lives around Wukari. Even though the traditional
stool of Aku of Wukari was able to survive after the Fulani conquest of Jukun, the
initial cohesiveness of the people was disrupted as shown in the case of the Jukun in
Adamawa State who were brought under the rulership of the Fulani emir of Muri.

Prior to the advent of colonialism, Jukuns were predominantly traditional worshipers.

The coming of Christianity has significantly altered the people’s belief system, as
most Jukuns, including their paramount ruler, have embraced the Christian faith.

Ebira
The Ebira is also known as Igbira are heavily concentrated in the central senatorial
district of Kogi State, not far from the Niger- Benue Confluence. People of Ebira
ethnic group are also found in other Nigerian states such as Kwara, Ondo, Oyo, Osun,
Nassarawa, Edo, Benue and the Federal Capital Territory. Ebira Tao is the largest of
the several Ebira groups. The other sister groups are Ebira Koto and Ebira Ozum
(Kogi State), Ebira Fulani (Kogi State), Ebira Etuno (Edo State), Ebira Agatu (Benue
State) Ebira Oloko (Ondo, Oyo and Osun States).

The earliest homeland of the Ebira according to oral traditions was around Wukari in
the defunct Kwararafa empire. The Ebira alongside the Igala and Idoma were believed
to have migrated out of Wukari following a chieftaincy dispute in the area at about
1680 A.D. The Ebira in the course of their migration later split into various groups
and settled in different locations as discussed earlier between 1680 and 1750 A.D.
The Ebira are known for their cultural festivals such as “Echane” an annual
masquerade festival dedicated to women, “Eche Ori”, a new yam festival, and
“Eknechi” a night masquerade festival that marks the end of the Ebira calendar year
and the beginning of a new one.

The throne of the paramount ruler of Ebiraland known as the Ohonoyi of Ebira land is
located in Okene, a hilly and rocky terrain that served as a fortress for the Ebira
people against the enemy’s incursion especially in the 19th century. The Ebira are
predominantly Muslims and well verse in agriculture and crafts such as pottery,
dyeing and blacksmithing.

Igala

People of Igala ethnic group though largely domiciled in Kogi State are also found in
Delta, Anambra and Edo States. Various traditions link the Igala with the Yoruba,
Benin and Jukun. Similarities as well as differences in the institution of divine
kingship, methods of succession, royal regalia; and languages among the Igala,
Yoruba, Benin and Jukun have led, amongst other things, to a controversy about the
origin of Igala kingship and political institutions.

However, it is incontrovertible that the present dynasty ruling in Igala is of Jukun

origin. C. A. Temple in his compilation on the ethnic groups of Northern Nigeria
observed that the Igala descended from the Apa who had lived in the neighbourhood
of Ibi for many years but have to flee from the Jukun in a canoe down the Benue in
about 1490 A.D under their Chief Idoko. It was Idoko son, Ayegba Om’ Idoko who
joined forces with the head of Akpoto Omeppa to defeat the Jukun near Idah after
sacrificing her daughter Inikpi. Ayegba Om’ Idoko who emerged as the first Attah of
Igala ruled the Igala Kingdom from Idah while his elder brother Atiyele migrated east
word to establish Ankpa Kingdom. However, Idah has since continued to serve as the
traditional headquarters of Igalaland.

The traditional Igala society is largely agrarian, although fishing is also a mainstay of
the people’s economy especially the Igalas of the riverine Idah area. Igala practice a
number of different religions, including African traditional religion, Christianity and
Islam. The people through their culture and language are closely related to the
following ethnic groups, Idoma, Igbo, Itsekiri, Bini, Yoruba and Nupe.

Birom

The Birom are largely located in Plateau State but are also found in Bauchi and
Kaduna States. They speak the Birom language which belongs to the large Niger-
Congo family of languages. The Birom ethnic group which currently constitute the
largest indigenous group on the Jos Plateau migrated into their present abode from
Central Africa as Bantu migrants who took their journey from Ethiopia through Sudan
to Chad, and then to Niger before settling down at Gobir close to Sokoto from where
they moved before finally settling down at Riyom from where they eventually spread
to Xwang, Forom Zawan, Kuru, Gyel, Haipan, Fan and Gashish.

The Birom are predominantly farmers and hunters who celebrate their occupations
through series of cultural festivals such as Mandyang (rain festival – usually marked
between March – April), Nshor (hunting festival – usually marked between April –
May) Nzem Berom (music, dance, arts cultural day mandatory marked every first
week of April). The Birom political system prior to the advent of colonialism
functioned more as a chieftain under the Gwoms (village heads) and Da Gwoms
(village heads) until the establishment of the stool of the paramount ruler for the entire
Birom land known as Gbong Gwom Jos in 1935.

Idoma

People of Idoma ethnic group are largely found in Benue State and other states such
as Cross River, Nassarawa, Enugu and Kogi State. The Idoma legend of origins and
ethnicity is about the most complex aspect of their pre-colonial history. Different
accounts abound on the peoples’ origin and migrations. However, it is evident that the
evolution of an Idoma ethnicity begun in the 16th century from Apa in Kwararafa
empire to various places within the Lower Benue. This migration was in waves and
phases. The first wave of Idoma migrations which involved the Ugboju, Adoka and
Otukpo people occurred between 1535 – 1625. The second wave which involved the
core of western Idoma districts such as Otukpa, Orokam, Owukpa and Ichama took
place between 1685 – 1751. While the first wave was instigated by the Tiv migrants
who dislodged the Idoma from their first settlement in Benue valley Apa I, the second
wave of migrants to enter Idoma land came in through Igalaland following intense
chieftaincy tussles in Idah.

By about the last quarter of the 19th century, the process of the consolidation of new
territories in which the Idoma found themselves had been completed. This
consolidation was however at the expense of other numerically smaller ethnic groups
like the Igede, Akweya and Ufia on whose territories the Idoma settled while the
Igede were pushed to the eastern fringes of the Idoma territories, the Ufia and
Akweya were encircled by the Idoma and today constitute a bilingual micro-
nationality in the heart of Idomaland.

The people operated a decentralized and communal based system of government

throughout the precolonial period. However, the British colonial government which
firmly announced its presence in Idomaland following the suppression of the
Ogbuloko revolt in 1928, introduced chieftaincy institution in Idomaland, first at the
district level before the creation of the seat of the paramount ruler of Idomaland,
Och’Idoma in 1946 at Otukpo. This political innovation was not established
essentially to engender unity among the people but for administrative convenience,
especially for the enhancement of the British indirect rule system.

The major occupation of Idoma people over the years is farming, supplemented with
fishing and hunting. The people are also versed in handicraft such as blacksmithing,
woodwork, basketing and cloth weaving. Since the advent of colonialism and the
spread of Christian activities in the area, most people have embraced Christianity at
the expense of African traditional religion.

Tiv

The Tiv ethnic group, though predominantly domiciled in Benue state are also found
in Nassarawa, Taraba, Plateau and the Federal Capital Territory. The Tiv which form
part of the Bantu continuum lived within the Cameroun – Obudu complex between
1475 and 1505 before moving down the hills into the Benue Valley through four
waves of migration that lasted between 1475 – 1900. The migration of the proto Tiv
into the Lower Benue Valley was not spontaneous but occurred in phases and periods.
The phases lasted as follows, the first phase 1475 – 1535, the second phase 1535 –
1595, the third phase 1595 – 1775 and the fourth phase 1775 – 1900.

The reason for migration from Swem around the Cameroon – Obudu Plateau has been
attributed to diverse factors such as inter and intra ethnic hostilities, population
explosion and the gradual decline of the Kwararafa military efficacy in the Lower
Benue Valley. The migrations of the Tiv into the Benue Valley was accompanied by
series of warfare against the Jukun, Chamba, Idoma, the Alago, the
Hausawa/Katsinawa and the Kamberi.

The Tiv in their interaction with their neighbours had imbibed so much in terms of
farming techniques and technology, cultural practice and political system. The Tiv
who emerged from Swem as an egalitarian society by the 19th century instituted a
political system, Tor Agbande (Drum chief) which they copied from the Jukun. The
Tor Agbande held sway at the kindred level where they offered both political and
military leadership to their people.52 With the advent of colonialism, the British in
their attempt to implement the indirect rule system created the offices of district heads
and subsequently that of the paramount ruler of Tivland, Tor Tiv by 1945. The seat of
the Tor Tiv is in Gboko which in contemporary time is regarded as the traditional
headquarter of Tivland.

The Tiv are predominantly farmers. A significant portion of the population are also
engaged in trading and merchandise. The advent of Christianity in Tivland has
significantly altered the people’s belief system in favour of the Christian faith.
Nonguu Kristuuiseru sha Tar (Universal Reformed Christian Church) NKST one of
the largest indigenous Christian Mission in Nigeria is proof of the tremendous impact
of Christianity in Tiv land.

Conclusion

So far we have discussed the various notable ethnic groups in northern Nigeria by
tracing their history(ies) from their sources of origin to their current abode. The
narratives which flow from the pre-colonial period up to the contemporary era has
profiled the unique identities of the notable ethnic groups of northern Nigeria. It is
significant to state here that have lived within the same geographical belts and
interacted with themselves, some of the ethnic groups also share a lot of similarities in
terms of politics and socio-cultural practices. As it is commonly said, variety is the
spice of life, the divergence in the peoples’ way of life, culture and belief system,
essentially connotes great heritage for Northern Nigeria.

GST 304: Nigerian Peoples and Culture

Unit: 4

Nigeria’s Geography, Population and Linguistic Classification

Nigeria’s Geography

Nigeria is located in West Africa, roughly between Latitude 4 ° N, 14° N, Longitudes

4 ° E, and I5 ° E. The country's most southerly point is near Brass in the Niger Delta,
which is roughly north of the Equator. The country's northern boundary is
approximately at 14°N. Her westerly boundary runs roughly along Longitudes 3°E.
Her easterly boundary runs from a point to the southwest of the estuary of the Cross
River to northwards almost to Longitude 15°E, South of Lake Chad. The country is
located almost in the centre of the great curve made in the west by the continent of
Africa. This means that it is roughly equidistant from the extreme corners of Africa.
Nigeria has a total land area of 923,768 square kilometres. This is four times the area
of Ghana and about thirteen times the area of Sierra Leone. It is four times the area of
the United Kingdom Nigeria covers about one-seventh of the productive area of West
Africa.

Nigeria’s neighbours are and what her boundaries with them are like. These are the
peoples; the Republic of Benin to the west, the Republic of Niger to the north, the
Republic of Chad to the northeast and the Republic of Cameroon to the east. Nigeria
has a coastline of about 860 kilometres. This is quite a long boundary to protect and
defend. Moreover, inter-connected lagoons and creeks make the task of protecting and
defending it all the more difficult. Smuggling is rife, especially in the Niger Delta area
and east of it. Smugglers are difficult to catch since there are so many alternative
routes for their boats. The area of the Atlantic Ocean over which Nigeria has
jurisdiction, according to the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,
extends 320 kilometres out from the country's coastline. Within this area, Nigeria has
sovereign rights over the mineral resources of the seabed as well as the fisheries. It
also has the right to build artificial islands and structures and to control pollution.

Nigeria has a tropical climate with variable rainy and dry seasons, depending on
location. It is hot and wet most of the year in the southeast but dry in the southwest
and farther inland. A savanna climate, with marked wet and dry seasons, prevails in
the north and west, while a steppe climate with little precipitation is found in the far
north. In general, the length of the rainy season decreases from south to north. In the
south, the rainy season lasts from March to November, whereas in the far north it lasts
only from mid-May to September. A marked interruption in the rains occurs
during August in the south, resulting in a short dry season often referred to as the
“August break.” Precipitation is heavier in the south, especially in the southeast,
which receives more than 120 inches (3,000 mm) of rain a year, compared with about
70 inches (1,800 mm) in the southwest. Rainfall decreases progressively away from
the coast; the far north receives no more than 20 inches (500 mm) a year.

Temperature and humidity remain relatively constant throughout the year in the south,
while the seasons vary considerably in the north; during the northern dry season, the
daily temperature range becomes great as well. The main vegetation patterns run in
broad east-west belts, parallel to the Equator. Mangrove and freshwater swamps occur
along the coast and in the Niger delta. A short way inland, the swamps give way to
dense tropical rainforests. Economically valuable, the oil palm grows wild and is
usually preserved when the forest is cleared for cultivation. In the more densely
populated parts of the southeast, the original forest vegetation has been replaced by
open palm bush. In the southwest large areas of forest have been replaced by cocoa
and rubber plantations. Tropical grassland occupies the area north of the forest belt
and is studded with baobab, tamarind, and locust bean trees. The savanna becomes
more open in the far north and is characterized by scattered stunted trees and short
grasses. Semi desert conditions exist in the Lake Chad region, where various species
of acacia and the doum species of palm are common. Gallery forests (narrow forest
zones along rivers) are also characteristic of the open savanna in the north. In densely
populated areas of the savanna, such as those around the towns of Sokoto, Kano,
and Katsina, the vegetation has been removed by continuous cropping, overgrazing,
and bush burning.

In the far northern areas, the nearly total disappearance of plant life has facilitated a
gradual southward advance of the Sahara. Camels, antelopes, hyenas, lions, baboons,
and giraffes once inhabited the entire savanna region, and red river hogs, forest
elephants, and chimpanzees lived in the rainforest belt. Animals found in both forest
and savanna included leopards, golden cats, monkeys, gorillas, and wild pigs. Today
these animals can be found only in such protected places as the Yankari National
Park in Bauchi state, Gashaka Gumti National Park in Taraba state, Kainji Lake
National Park in Kwara state and Cross River National Park in Cross River state.
Rodents such as squirrels, porcupines, and cane rats constitute the largest family of
mammals. The northern savanna abounds in guinea fowl. Other common birds
include quail, vultures, kites, bustards, and grey parrots. The rivers contain crocodiles,
hippopotamuses, and a great variety of fishes.

Population

Nigeria has the largest population in Africa, with the present population of
211,112,388 based on projections of the latest United Nations data. The UN estimates
by July 1, 2021, would be at 211,400,708. The United Nations project that the overall
population of Nigeria will reach about 401.31 million by the end of the year 2050. By
2100, if current figures continue, the population of Nigeria will be over 728 million.
According to the Census Bureau of the United States, the population of Nigeria will
surpass that of the United States in 2047, when the population of Nigeria will reach
379.25 million. With those numbers, Nigeria will become the third most populated
country in the world. Last collected in 2012 by the Nigeria National Bureau of
Statistics, the total population of citizens in Nigeria was around 166.2 million people.
In 2016, it is estimated to have over 178.5 million people although United Nations
projections have placed the population as high as 186 million. Back in 1960, when the
country declared its independence from the United Kingdom, the country recorded an
estimated 45.2 million people. That constitutes a change of about 268% between the
year 1960 and the year 2012. The entire population of Nigeria accounts for about
2.35% of the entire earth’s population. This means that about 1 out of every 43 people
in the world call Nigeria their home

The major contributors to Nigeria’s population growth are early marriages, high birth
rates, and a lack of family planning access. The birth rate in Nigeria is about 37 births
per 1,000 people. Nigeria, since 1960, has grown to be the 7th most populated country
in the world. That is saying a lot given the smaller size of the country itself. The
government is relying on population control as a way to save their country because it
is quite difficult to survive as a small country without oil or highly valuable exports.
When it comes to the average Nigerian citizen, the country is relatively young. For
both males and females, the median age of the country is 18.4 years of age. The split
between the males and the females in Nigeria is quite even. Men take the edge in
numbers, but not by much. There are, according to estimates, about 1.04 males to
every 1 female in the country. It should be noted, though, that while women are
slightly outnumbered by men, after the age of 65, women outnumber the number of
men.

Linguistic Classification
A recent count of the languages spoken in the African continent reveals that it is 2011,
languages and that Nigeria, being a multi-lingual nation with diversified languages
has at least 515 languages. Going by 1963, Greenberg's Classification of African
Languages into four main groups -namely, Niger-Congo - Kordofanian, Afro -
Asiatic, Nilo - Saharan or Sudanic and the Khoisan or click, Nigeria has three of these
main language groups enumerated above other than the Khoisan or click language
family group. It should be highlighted that the following Nigerian Languages of Tiv,
Ogoni, Efik, Ibibio, belong to the Benue - Congo branch or sub-group of the Niger-
Congo family. Fulfulde belongs to the West Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo,
while the following Nigerian Languages of Idoma, Igala, Igbo, Edo, Yoruba, Ijaw,
Urhobo, belong to the Kwa group of the Niger-Congo - Kordofanian family.
Moreover, the Hausa and Fulani languages belong to the Chadic sub-group or branch
of the Afro - Asiatic language Tamils and while the Kanuri language belongs to the
Saharan branch of the Nilo - Saharan or Sudanic language family group.

UNIT 5: THE DYNAMICS OF THE EVOLUTION OF NIGERIA AS A

POLITICAL UNIT

In the last unit, we established the fact that Nigeria is in the West African Region and
we highlighted the geography, language classification and even population. In
addition, previous lessons have highlighted the people and culture of Northern and
Southern Nigeria. Present-day Nigeria as a political unit developed over the last 200
years to what it is today and we shall study the evolution from the times of kingdoms
and empires to the present-day political Unit Known as Nigeria.

Nigeria was the creation of the Europeans(British), Africa was partition and shared
amidst European powers at the 1884 Berlin Conference and the first presence of
Europeans (Portuguese) in Nigeria was in the 15th Century establishing trade with the
regions along the coast which includes Benin Kingdom, Lagos, Creeks of what is
known as Port Harcourt and other coastal regions. Portuguese dominance of these
trade routes was overpowered in the 16th century by the British, French and Dutch, as
the slave trade became very important. Slaves were taken from Nigeria to work on
plantations in the Americas. During this period, Nigeria lost great numbers of people
to the slave trade and also began to acquire firearms, metal bars, cloth and other
European products through trade. Communities in Nigeria were changed substantially
as a result of this kind of trade with Europeans. Some communities grew in size and
power as commercial centres, while others suffered great losses through slave raids.
Violence escalated, and warfare tactics changed with the coming of guns. Some
estimate that throughout the Atlantic Slave trade, more than 3.5 million slaves were
shipped from Nigeria to the Americas. The British dominated the slave trade off the
Nigerian coast in the 18th century. But with the rise of the Industrial Revolution in
Great Britain in the 19th century, the emphasis on trade shifted from slaves to raw
materials for factories. The Atlantic slave trade was outlawed by the British in 1808,
although it continued after that for more than 50 years. Also up until this time,
Europeans traded through middlemen on the coasts. But in the 19th century, Great
Britain began to push into the hinterlands of Nigeria, meeting plenty of resistance
along the way.

Lagos was the first part of Nigeria to become a British colony in 1861. From there,
additional portions of what would be Nigeria were annexed either through treaties or
conquest until nearly all of what is today Nigeria was under British control in 1905.
The southern portion of Nigeria was conquered from approximately 1850 to 1897,
and the northern part of the country from about 1900 to 1914. At the Berlin
Conference of 1884 to 1885, several European countries came to an agreement about
which parts of Africa each of them would control. Among Great Britain’s claims to
African land was Nigeria. As the British moved into the hinterland of Nigeria, they
met a lot of resistance from people living there. For example, Oyo and the Itsekiri
kingdom in the south put up quite a fight before submitting to Britain’s military
forces. In the north, the British High Commissioner for Northern Nigeria, Captain
Lugard (who would later be titled “Lord” Lugard) was appointed and began
conquering northern territories. His military forces met with great resistance in
Sokoto, Kano, and many other cities. In these places, many people rallied around
Islam as a way of resisting the British. Most of Northern Nigeria at this time was part
of the Sokoto Caliphate, which was formed through a series of jihads in the 19th
century. The British were often seen as infidels and their conquest as possible signs of
the end times. Ironically, many British colonizers thought that Africans were the
infidels, who needed to be converted to Christianity. In the end, the military resources
and divide and conquer tactics of the British made them out to be the conquerors.

In 1914, Lord Lugard joined the north and south of Nigeria into a single colony for
the first time. This period corresponded with the First World War, which strained the
British’s ability to channel resources into its new colony. But the war also helped
Great Britain to solidify its control of Nigeria. By the end of the war, Lord Lugard had
set in place a system of indirect rule in Nigeria, which allowed for the British to rule
through customary authorities and structures. This system tended to work best in the
north, but ran into some problems in the south. Part of the problem was that the
British invented customary “chiefs” in the south, who the general population did not
necessarily acknowledge or respect. The north and south of Nigeria were regions
with very different histories, cultures, and religions. What joined them together was a
common colonizer. Most of the north had been under Islamic rule through the Sokoto
Caliphate, while converts to Islam in the south remained minimal. Christian
missionaries decided to target their efforts on the non-Islamic south rather than the
Islamic north. One of the consequences of this strategy was that the people in the
north did not have as many opportunities for Western-style education as people in the
south, since missionaries did not establish many schools in the north. This would
eventually lead to substantial differences between northern and southern populations
in terms of their access to certain kinds of jobs and information, which required a
Western-style education.

As a colony, Nigeria experienced a good deal of growth in infrastructure and trade.

Roads and railroads were built throughout the country. Communication became more
rapid due to the telegraph and postal system. Cash crops such as rubber, peanuts, and
palm oil were promoted in rural areas and were sold and exported. Also involved in
export was the expanding mining industry. In general, a cash economy was becoming
increasingly important to Nigeria. And this economic system that was set into place
mainly benefited Europe, while exploiting the labour and resources of Nigeria. It is
understandable, therefore, that there were significant resistance movements during the
colonial period. The Nigerian people could see that the colonial system was not
working for their benefit. They were taxed heavily and unable to move up the ladder
to positions of privilege and power that the colonial administrators enjoyed. They also
resented the disrespect for local customs shown by British colonizers. On many
occasions, Nigerians resisted the colonial administration. For example, Igbo market
women protested the British and their Nigerian collaborators’ attempts to impose
taxes on their commerce in the Aba Women’s Tax Riots of 1929. A variety of unions
and political associations also formed during the colonial period, as well as a growing
group of intellectuals and professionals. These groups became major points of
resistance to the colonial administration and formed a strong base in the nationalist
independence movement. Some Nigerians also began to identify with other colonized
and/or marginalized Black people around the world through the Pan-African
movement.

Towards the end of the colonial period, oil was discovered in Nigeria. In 1958, it
began to be exported on the world market. The oil industry would have tremendous
effects on Nigeria as an independent nation and continues to be a central part of
Nigeria’s economy today. Nigeria is the fifth-biggest source of United States oil
imports along with 16 other African nations, Nigeria became an independent country
in 1960. The process of transferring power from the British to the Nigerians, however,
had been gradually occurring for about 15 years through constitutional reforms, and
growing political parties and national leadership. Although Nigeria did achieve its
independence, the negative side of the political organizing at this time was that it was
accentuating ethnic and regional differences, which would cause conflict in Nigeria
for the years to come. The most tragic of these conflicts was the Biafran civil war
from 1967-1970 in which 1 million people died. Having suffered a massacre of Ibo
people in the North, people in the Eastern Region of Nigeria (largely Ibo) tried to
secede and become the Republic of Biafra. However, this region is rich in petroleum,
making it valuable to the rest of Nigeria. Thus, the secession erupted into a 30-month
war to see who would control this region. In the end, Nigeria maintained Biafra as a
part of its territory.

Independent Nigeria has fluctuated between a series of self-appointed and elected

leaders. The first governor-general (1960-1963) and president (1963-1966) of Nigeria
was an important leader in the Nigerian nationalist movement named President
Azikiwe he ruled with Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa during the first six years of
independence, but they were removed from power by a military coup in 1966.
Between 1966 and 1979, several military rulers led Nigeria, which includes Brigadier-
General Augunyi Ironsi, General Yakubu Gowon, General Muritala Muhammed,
General Olusegun Obasanjo. By 1979 did the country move to civilian rule again
under the elected President Alhaji Shehu Shagari. In 1983, another series of military
coups began. Four more military leaders who ruled Nigeria during this period are
Muhammadu Buhari, Ibrahim Babangida, Sanni Abacha and Abdulsalam Abubakar,
the longest ones being General Abacha. Finally, in 1999, Olusegun Obasanjo was
elected and still currently serves as president.

The election of Olusegun Obasanjo opened up a phase that brought Nigeria back to a
Civilian/Democratic Government. We moved on to have Late Alhaji Umaru Musa
Yarudua(2007-2010), Dr Goodluck Jonathan(2010-2015) and the president President
Muhammadu Buhari(2015-20223). We can therefore trace the evolution of the
Nigerian State from the earliest time before the creation of Nigeria, through the
coming of the European, Colonialism, Independence, Military Regime and back to
Civilian Regime.
Introduction

Notable People and Culture of Southern Nigeria

Southern Nigeria is home to several tribes and peoples with the notables being the
Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria, the Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria and the various
ethnic groups of the Niger delta or what is presently known as South-south. Among
the South-south were the Ijaw, Itsekiri among others.

The People of the Niger delta

The Niger delta is a region that is located on the estuary of the Niger and the Benue
Rivers. The region is located in the mangrove swamp forest of the forest belt. The
region is characterised by swamp and thick forest creeks. As a result of these features,
the region is a total riverine areas and this is a major determinant of the occupation of
the people as fishermen, wood carvers and traders. The fishermen exploited the
waters, the wood carvers carved wood from the forest into canoes used for
transportation and fishing as occupation. The people of Niger delta dress uniquely as
both male and female tied wrappers while males wore beautifully embroidered shirt
on their wrappers and with contacts with the Europeans, the hat became a permanent
feature of their dressing. The waters also determine to a greater extent the nature of
their buildings which is predominantly bar chats on the surface of the water. With the
discovery of oil in commercial quantity in 1956, this changed the region, its people,
their environment and culture significantly. Consequently, the area became faced with
deforestation issues, environmental degradation, water and air pollution that has
affected the day to day fishing occupation of the people. The Niger delta today is
comprised of states like Akwa-Ibom, Rivers, Cross-River, Delta, Bayelsa, and Edo.

The People of Southwestern Nigeria

The Southwest is home to the Yoruba people. The region is located on the deciduous
forest region also known as the rain forest of Nigeria. The occupation of the people
was majorly farming. This was made possible by the availability of vast greenish and
rain forest vegetation. Some of the agricultural practices the land accommodated
include farming of palm trees, cocoa, rubber. Some areas of Southwest like Lagos and
present day Ekiti state are waterlog and swampy and fishing was one of their major
occupations prior to European incursion. The geography influenced the

people as majority of the inhabitants were also farmers and artisans due to the
availability of fertile land and woods gained from the forest trees. There also exist
records of great hunting expedition by the people of Southwestern Nigeria as a result
of the forest being blessed with different species of wild animals hunted as games.

One of the features that made Yoruba people unique is their tendency to form into
large city groups instead of small village groups. The Yorubas are today one of the
three main ethnic groups that make up Nigeria. They can also be found in
neighbouring countries. The developed a variety of different artistic forms including
pottery, weaving, beadwork, metalwork and mask making.

The abundance of different variety of trees and other plant leafs also ensured that the
area and its people happen to have some of Nigeria’s best traditional and herbal
practitioners, a practice that is still on in the region till date. As a result of the serene
and calm nature of Yorubaland, the people are good dressers as they dress
flamboyantly in their own traditional textile Aso-Oke. Today, the area consists of six
states namely Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Osun, Oyo and Ondo.

The People of Southeastern Nigeria

The Southeast was and is still predominantly occupied by the Igbo people being the
major ethnic group in the region. Other sub-ethnic groups in the Southeast are the
Ibibio, the Efik and other smaller groups. Their settlement patterns were products of
their geographical region. Their settlements were mostly in sedentary style-clan to
clan settlements. The thick forest land was also a source of spirituality and worship by
the Igbo of various settlements. The area today comprises of states like Abia,
Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo states. The vegetation and geography in the past
made the inhabitants to be mainly farmers and hunters who exploited the land and the
forest. The tropical and warm climate of the east affected their mode of dressings in
the past as the people were seen dressed with parts of their bodies exposed for air and
breeze.

The Igbo people have historical heritage dated back to the stone age and they are
industrious people with vibrant and colourful cultural display. The cultures of the
Igbo people are further divided into many groups, due to dialects and boundaries
among the eastern states in particular and a good example of this is their traditional
way of welcoming visitors, which is usually offering kola to guests, even before they
made their mission known.This portrays the Igbo people as people with

a rich sense of hospitality culture.

The Igbo people have a melodic music style into which they incorporate various
percussion instruments, the Udu which is especially designed from a clay jug, an
Ekwe, which is formed from a hollowed log, and the Ogene, a hard bell designed
from forged iron. Other instruments include Opi, a wind instrument similar to the
flute, Igba and Ichaka. They also have a style of music called Ikorodo, which involves
a vocal performance accompanied by several musical instruments.

Traditional Crafts and Cultural Festivals in Nigeria Introduction

In spite of the pervasiveness of agriculture in the economy of traditional Nigerian

societies in the pre-colonial era, the people in their ingenuity still found time to
engage in some kind of handicraft industries which production were dependent on raw
materials that were got from that particular area. Initially, many of the people took the
indigenous craft industry as part time jobs which they engaged in during their free
time or when they returned from farm. However, as the economy became complex
and there was need for specialisation due to the increased demand for processed or
manufactured goods, the need arose for the separation of the indigenous craft industry
as an autonomous economic unit separate from agriculture.

Nigeria as a country is blessed with various traditional crafts and its people are adept
at producing these traditional handicraft products. While much change has not
occurred in majority of these traditional arts, their quality may have gone down due to
the influence of modernity and technology. Some of these crafts and areas where they
can be found as well as methods of their production are as follows.

TextileCraft

Basically popular among the Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria and as typified by the
Aso Oke phenomenon, a kind of cloth which is used to depict high status among the
Yorubas. An average Yoruba celebration such as marriage or burial is not complete
without Aso Oke which is a short form for Aso Ilu Oke and also known as Aso-ofi.
The richness and texture of the material show the old practice of craftsmanship and
skills prevalent in its production. Our forefathers were also mindful of the temperate
nature of their environment, a reason every Aso oke looks thick but still adequately
aerated.

Among the notable places for production of Aso Oke is Iseyin in Oyo state. The
tradition of Aso Ofi was said to have been brought by Olu Ofi to Iseyin from Ile Ife.
These clothes though expensive are symbols of status and affluence in the society.
While the poor wore the ones called the Kijipa, , the Rich wore Sanyan, Alaari and
Etu which are also types of Aso Ofi. Itagbe is another variant of

textile material used exclusively by the Ogboni in Ijebuland.

Other places where the craft of aso-oke is practiced include Oyo, Iseyin, Ogbomoso,
Saki, Ijebu- Ode, Owo, Okene and Ado Ekiti. Most Yoruba Traditional wedding still
has Aso Oke as the Grooms and Bride attire. The Ijebu people were not only among
the earliest Yoruba cloth weavers but were also great exporters of cloth. For instance,
European merchants in the seventeenth century carried Ijebu cloth to Dahomey in
present day Republic of Benin, the Gold Coast, Gabon and Angola and by the
eighteenth century, Ijebu clothes were being exported to Brazil. These clothes
produced by the Ijebu were sought from far and wide because they were relatively
cheap and durable. This textile industry which Akinjogbin called cloth-weaving
industry in his “The Economic Foundation of the Oyo Empire” had reached a very
high degree of craftsmanship by the beginning of the eighteenth century or possibly
earlier. Ogunremi in his part regarded it as the most widespread craft industry in West
Africa in the pre-colonial times and as such many economic activities were strongly
connected with it.

LeatherWork

This is based on animal products. Hides and skins, along with the leather works made
from them were produced in both forest and savanna belts of Nigeria. However,
Northern Nigeria has long been known for leather material as early as the 18th
century. Hunters specialised in flaying the skins of animals which they dressed into
leather mats. Most hunters made their hunting dress, hunting bags and other gears
from the skins of games they had killed.

Expert craftsmen made leather sandals, scabbards, bags, saddles, bolsters and
cushions. In Yorubaland, Oyo was a major producing centre but it was in Hausaland
that leather working attained the peak of its existence. For instance, Leo Africanus
reported in the 16th century that Gobir exported a considerable number of sandals to
Timbuktu and Gao. Borno also exported leather products to North Africa in return for
horses as well as arms and ammunition.

However, it was Kano that held the pride of place in the working and export of
leather. Local leather craftsmen demonstrated marked ingenuity and adaptability.
Arab migrants introduced to Kano the art of making of lantana shoes but the
indigenous leather workers not only perfected the craft but also introduced silk
embroidery to the shoes. Barth estimated that in 1851, Kano exported

ten million pairs of sandals, leather straps and bags to distant market including North
Africa. The implication of this is that by this time thousands of people must have been
engaged in the industry considering that production was by the handicraft method.

In modern times, Some of these leather products have found their ways as the finished
product of expensive brands like Gucci, Louis Vuitton, Ralph Lauren and Fendi. Most
of these hides are turned into suede and then exported onto factories in Tuscany
Northern Italy where they are further processed and sell to luxury bags and shoe
companies.

Others are kept for local produce such as the leather seat popularly called the
‘Moroccan leather’, named after its export to Europe through Morocco. These leather
products are sourced from the Sokoto Red breed. They were manufactured in
leatherworking factories called tanneries. These tanneries are usually traditional mud-
walled compounds in Sokoto, with the leatherworking done mainly by craftsmen.
These pouffes are very common in royal places and palaces in Northern Nigeria.

Batik Tie and Dye

Tie and dye is a long craft with dominance in Abeokuta and also Kano. Tying or
stitching fabric together to prevent the absorption of dye to a particular area creates an
explosion of beautiful patterns on the fabric. The traditional methods for producing
this have been retained over the years.

In Abeokuta, one of the many traditional methods of Tie-dye is Adire. Adire comes in
various kinds such as Adire-Eleko, Adire-Alabere, Adire-Oniko. ‘Adi’, means ‘to tie’
and “re’ BAmeans to dye’; Adire patterns are made by pleating of cloth. The Kofar
Mata Dyeing Pits which was created by Mohammed Rumfa who ruled Kano from
1463 until 1499 is known to have been in existent since the 14th century.

CalabashCrafts

Among the few traditional utensils that are still common in modern Nigeria is
calabash. In Northern Nigeria, it is common to see a Fulani woman on the street
carrying a beautifully decorated Calabash. This calabash is called Kwarya in Hausa.
The calabash is usually designed with abstract patterns mingled with dark etchings of
tiny animals and people.
The style of calabash decoration among certain Fulani peoples living in parts of
northeastern Nigeria is equally distinctive. These calabashes are dyed in deep red or
orange, and then thick, black geometric patterns are engraved with hot knives. The
resulting design is bold and strikingly beautiful

Basketandmatweaving

Basket and mat weaving is another traditional crafts common to the people of Nigeria.
Weaving could either be done into loom or off-loom. Mat weaving is an aspect of off-
loom weaving that involves the finger. In Ogotun in Ekiti state, most women usually
around mid-ages are mat weaver while their male counterparts are farmers. There is
hardly a household in the village of Ogotun that does not have someone with such
skill. Ogotun used to be the largest producer of mats all over the mat-reed growing
regions of Yorubaland. The mat weaving process is divided into various stages:
weaving, plaiting, twinning, and it takes an average of about 3-4 tedious days to make
one.

The pre-weaving process involves harvesting of the stalk from the farm, smothering,
drying, dyeing and then the material is ready for weaving. Also, in the beautiful
coastal area of Badagry where most people in the community are fishermen, some of
the mid-aged women are traditional mat weavers. Mat weaving is not just peculiar to
South West Nigeria but also familiar in the north. The Hausa weaving techniques are
a bit different from the Yorubas.

Pottery

Pottery is another craft that gained acclaimed in pre-colonial Nigeria. It was regarded
as one of the most ancient crafts of humankind, predating the Neolithic revolution.
From Archaeological excavations, ancient pottery producing centres such as Iwo
Eleru, Afikpo and Nzukka have been discovered with production dating back several
millennial before Christ. Pottery is a long and ancient art. It is an essential part of
Nigerian culture. Ladi Kwali was one of the notable potters to ever practice the craft
in Nigeria.

There are several notable places in Nigeria for pottery. Among these are Ilorin,
Benue, Enugu, and Umuahi. The Nok pottery, Igbo-ukwu pottery, Ibibio pots and
others are a historical part of the various cultures in Nigeria even after over two
thousand years of existence. The process, although slightly differs from region to
region has a similar pattern which involves first Clay being mixed
with sand and left overnight. It is then kneaded and moulded and moved inside the hut
where it is allowed to set partially, the final shaping and tidying up is carried out later
during the day, and the pot is left inside overnight. The following day it is brought
outside for firing.

Cultural Festivals in Nigeria

Festivals in Nigeria are cultural, traditional and social events celebrated by various
cultural, social, religious and traditional settings. Most of these cultural festivals are
celebrated in honour of gods and deities of the respective tribes that celebrate them.
Others are celebrated to fulfill certain cultural and religious rites.

Societies and cultures with the same beliefs and traditions share several festivals
together. The timeline for festivals is usually constant, with most festivals celebrated
annually at exactly the same time each year. Other festivals are marked by natural
happenings like moon appearances, first or last rain of the year among others.

Nigeria as a country is blessed with various tribes and ethnic groups with their
respective languages, cultures and traditions. Each of these tribes has their various
festivals celebrated at different times of the year and for various reasons. Some of
these tribes share some festivals among themselves while other festivals are solely for
a particular tribe. These festivals are usually very colourful and entertaining with the
rich cultural heritage of the people showcased through masquerade displays, colourful
cultural dances, observations of religious rites and the display of the various
delicacies of the tribes.

Beyond these cultural festivals are other festivals held to celebrate and promote
Nigeria art especially in the music and film industry. Some of the festivals (both
cultural and Non-cultural festivals) celebrated across the 36 states in Nigeria and the
Federal Capital territory include.

1.Eyo festival in Lagos 2.The Calabar Carnival 3.Osun-Osogbo festival

4.The New Yam festival

5.The Argungu fishing festival

6.Ofala festival
7.Ojude Oba festival in Ijebu Ode

8.Lagos Carnival

9.Carniriv

10.The Durbar festival

11.The Egungun festival

12.Lagos theatre festival

13.Eko International film festival

14.Felabration to celebrate the late Afrobeat Icon, Fela Anikulapo Kuti 15.National
festival of Arts

16.The Abuja festival

17.Mmanwa festival

18.Lagos International Jazz festival

19.Social Media week in Lagos

20. Sango festival.

Conclusion

Nigeria is a blessed country. In spite of the various challenges confronting the

country, its people are hardworking and talented as can be shown in the various crafts
they specialised in. Nigeria’s cultural diversity and heritage means there are quite a
number of colourful cultural and traditional festivals carried out within the country to
showcase the rich history of the people. These festivals coupled with some of the
special crafts of the people of Nigeria make the country an exciting destination for
tourists.
UNIT 8: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL RIGHTS OF CITIZENS IN
NIGERIA

This unit seeks to trace the political rights of citizens in Nigeria to achieve this we
would go back in time to understand where the idea of political rights and what gave
rise to political rights in Nigeria. Nigeria after the various conquest by the British
became a British Protectorate in 1909 and the amalgamation came in 1914, which is
the merging of the southern and northern protectorate and the indirect rule system was
introduced. We shall trace the origin of the political rights of citizens of Nigeria from
the colonial era. We shall also examine what are rights, political rights and their
examples in Nigeria. Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or
entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed
of people or owed to people according to some legal system, social convention, or
ethical theory. Political rights refer to an individual's ability to participate in the civil
and political life of the society and state without fear of discrimination or repression
and are tied closely to citizenship status. Political rights include participation in a
party and its activities, the right to vote and be presented for elections. It might seem
ironic but the first attempts towards the observance of political rights in Nigeria can
be traced to colonial times. Hugh Clifford, who was appointed the Governor of
Nigeria in 1919, realized that the British practise of indirect rule had become an
anathema to the local Nigerians and therefore it threatened to challenge their
authority. Clifford, therefore, reversed the policy and adopted a key democratic
element under the Constitution (the Clifford Constitution, 1922).

For the first time, the Nigerians elected their representatives as a result of this change.
This was known as the Elective Principle which was absent from the inception of the
colonial rule although Adult Suffrage was not full as conditions were put on voting
rights which includes only men and income of 100 pounds above. This was abolished
by the successive constitutions opening voting to all irrespective of gender and
income this was implemented by the Richard Constitution.

Three Constitutions that followed the Clifford Constitution, the Richard Constitution
(1946), Macpherson‟s Constitution (1951), and Lyttelton‟s Constitution (1954),
continued to provide greater representation to the people of Nigeria. The Constitutions
also brought together the diverse elements of the Nigerian society through the
establishment of a federal system of government and the formation of local political
parties. The earliest parties included the Nigerian Youth Movement ( NYM) 1933
having Prof Eyo Ita as founding father, National Council of Nigeria and the
Cameroons ( NCNC) 1944 having Herbert Macaulay as the leader. The 1960
independence constitution built on the legacies of the previous constitutions and
political rights of Nigerians were enshrined and we saw full participation of Nigerians
in the governance of Nigeria.

The subsequent take over by the military in 1966 brought about the suspension of the
constitution which guarantees the political rights of citizens was the modus operandi
although by 1978 some political rights were reversed which included the
reinstatement of Political Parties and conduction of elections. This brought in the
1979 government which was later hijacked by the military in 1983 and that was the
practice till 1993 when elections were conducted by was annulled and we went back
to the military and by 1998 we conducted another election and we moved back to
civilian rule in 1999. The 1999 constitution is significant to the political rights of
citizens because it guarantees and protects their political rights as enshrined in the
constitution. Independent National Electoral Commission is the body with powers to
conduct elections in Nigeria and its current chairman is Prof. Mahmood Yakubu

9.

Issues militating against Nigerian Environment

Introduction

Environmental concern remains one of the critical areas of contemporary scholarship

and the trend is bound to persist far into this new millennium. It has also attracted
scholars from a wide range of fields of specialization to the extent that many tend to
forget that the most critical elements of the environment are geographical. Geography
is concerned with a complex set of processes and relationships which generate
environmental problems in man’s interaction with the environment. Indeed, without a
sound grasp of the geographical underpinnings of the earth’s surface, that is, our
living environment, the desire to solve environmental challenges associated with
human activities through sound environmental management would continue to be
elusive. In Nigeria the Spatial-temporal distribution of environmental challenges is
enormous. Nevertheless, in terms of frequency, anthropogenic challenges are more
prevalent in the country. The socio-economic crisis of environmental challenges
storms from man-environmental interaction. In many cases, the socio-economic crisis
is the result of development styles that destroy both human potentials and the
environment. This topic, therefore, discusses the meaning, types of environmental
challenges in Nigeria, causes, the spatial distribution of environmental

Major Components of the Natural Environments

The environment is human beings’ immediate surroundings including fauna and flora.
The environment is made up of two major components, namely, the natural and social
environment.

The major components of the natural environment are the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. The atmosphere is the medium above
the surface of the earth extending for about 170 kilometres consisting mainly of a
mixture of gases. The hydrosphere is the water medium of the surface of the earth,
oceans, seas, lakes and rivers; the lithosphere is the hard, rigid upper crust of the earth
extending for about 80 kilometres. It is the inner core of the earth, the atmosphere,
being less rigid in form. And the biosphere is the zone of the earth’s planet that
contains living organisms. The social environment or man-made environment is the
system by which man has instituted in order to organize himself to satisfy his needs.

The social environment consists of the physical and social structures, systems or
institutions created by man to meet his needs, which includes food, education,
clothing, shelter, health, companies, etc. The idea is that the social environment
influences the natural environment. The exploitative venture of man in the social
environment over time is what has resulted in environmental problems.
Environmental problems are due to man’s exploitation of the environment. Due partly
to the increase in population and the level of advancement in technology, the
environment has been heavily abused giving rise to various types of problems in the
environment, which now constitutes a problem for man.

Environmental Problems in Nigeria

There are various forms of environmental problems that human activities have caused.
Some of these include:

Pollution: Pollution is the end result of the unfavourable exploitation of the

environment by man. The types of pollution that can result due to man’s undue
manipulation of the environment are air pollution, noise pollution, water pollution,
and land pollution.

Poor Drainage System: The improper planning of towns and cities, has led to the
emergence of poor drainage systems. These drainages often cause serious
environmental problems.

Deforestation: This is the act of cutting down or burning trees in the environment.
This may be due to overgrazing, unsustainable farming methods or cutting firewood
for local usage.

Improper Waste Disposal: Improper disposal of waste has become a serious

environmental problem. This is the result of the rising level of population of the
country.

Ecological Problems: Ecological problems arise from excessive rainfall which

culminates in flooding and erosion thereby causing havoc in the environment.

Causes of Environmental Problems

The following are some of the factors responsible for environmental problems.

Population Explosion: The geometric increase in population around the world is a

major cause of environmental problems. This increase has given rise to undue
pressure on the environment.

Advancement in Technology: This is equally one of the factors that have contributed
to environmental problems in great measure. The growth and the consequent wastes
emitted in the course of technological exploration are dangerous to the environment
and human beings.

Poverty Breeds Environmental Problems: It prevents the provision of quality and

adequate social amenities which are required for the improvement of life. Poverty
promotes underdevelopment and this easily attracts environmental problems.

Unplanned Urbanization: This has to do with improper planning of the environment.

Unplanned urbanization leads to environmental abuses, which is a large scale deface
the environment causing environmental problems.

Government Negligence: When government fails to live up to expectations in the

discharge of its responsibilities, it reflects in the environment. For example, when
environmental agencies refuse to execute their responsibilities, the consequences are
environmental problems.

Solutions to Environmental Problems

These environmental problems can be solved in the following ways:

Promotion of environmental education and awareness: The Nigerian Government is

making concerted efforts to create awareness on environmental abuse, challenges and
management. When awareness is created on how to utilize the environment, the
orientation of people will change concerning conservation and proper utilization of
the environment.

Siting of Waste bins/dumps: Waste dumps are usually in the form of incineration or
simple dump sites. The provision of these facilities at the right places will help to
check the abuse of the environment. However, dumpsites or bins should be regularly
cleared to make the site functional, effective and clean.

Provision and Implementation of Legal Policy Framework: Government should

promulgate laws or policies that will help to curb abuses of the environment and make
sure those violators of such policies are severely punished to encourage proper use of
the environment.

Recycling: The recycling of materials, improving mining methods, devising more

efficient engines that consume less fuel, and recovering minor minerals during
processing or mining will go a long way in protecting the environment.